Nanotechnology for Targeted Detection and Removal of Bacteria: Opportunities and Challenges

Ca2+ Overload Decreased Cellular Viability in Magnetic Hyperthermia without a Macroscopic Temperature Rise

Magnetic hyperthermia is a crucial medical engineering technique for treating diseases, which usually uses alternating magnetic fields (AMF) to interplay with magnetic substances to generate heat. Recently, it has been found that in some cases, there is no detectable temperature increment after applying an AMF, which caused corresponding effects surprisingly. The mechanisms involved in this phenomenon are not yet fully understood. In this study, we aimed to explore the role of Ca2+ overload in the magnetic hyperthermia effect without a perceptible temperature rise. A cellular system expressing the fusion proteins TRPV1 and ferritin was prepared. The application of an AMF (518 kHz, 16 kA/m) could induce the fusion protein to release a large amount of iron ions, which then participates in the production of massive reactive oxygen radicals (ROS). Both ROS and its induced lipid oxidation enticed the opening of ion channels, causing intracellular Ca2+ overload, which further led to decreased cellular viability. Taken together, Ca2+ overload triggered by elevated ROS and the induced oxidation of lipids contributes to the magnetic hyperthermia effect without a perceptible temperature rise. These findings would be beneficial for expanding the application of temperature-free magnetic hyperthermia, such as in cellular and neural regulation, design of new cancer treatment methods.

Study on 3D printed MXene-berberine-integrated scaffold for photo-activated antibacterial activity and bone regeneration

The repair of mandibular defects is a challenging clinical problem, and associated infections often hinder the treatment, leading to failure in bone regeneration. Herein, a multifunctional platform is designed against the shortages of existing therapies for infected bone deficiency. 2D Ti3C2 MXene and berberine (BBR) are effectively loaded into 3D printing biphasic calcium phosphate (BCP) scaffolds. The prepared composite scaffolds take the feature of the excellent photothermal capacity of Ti3C2 as an antibacterial, mediating NIR-responsive BBR release under laser stimuli. Meanwhile, the sustained release of BBR enhances its antibacterial effect and further accelerates the bone healing process. Importantly, the integration of Ti3C2 improves the mechanical properties of the 3D scaffolds, which are beneficial for new bone formation. Their remarkable biomedical performances in vitro and in vivo present the outstanding antibacterial and osteogenic properties of the Ti3C2-BBR functionalized BCP scaffolds. The synergistic therapy makes it highly promising for repairing infected bone defects and provides insights into a wide range of applications of 2D nanosheets in biomedicine.

Nanotechnology's frontier in combatting infectious and inflammatory diseases: prevention and treatment

Inflammation-associated diseases encompass a range of infectious diseases and non-infectious inflammatory diseases, which continuously pose one of the most serious threats to human health, attributed to factors such as the emergence of new pathogens, increasing drug resistance, changes in living environments and lifestyles, and the aging population. Despite rapid advancements in mechanistic research and drug development for these diseases, current treatments often have limited efficacy and notable side effects, necessitating the development of more effective and targeted anti-inflammatory therapies. In recent years, the rapid development of nanotechnology has provided crucial technological support for the prevention, treatment, and detection of inflammation-associated diseases. Various types of nanoparticles (NPs) play significant roles, serving as vaccine vehicles to enhance immunogenicity and as drug carriers to improve targeting and bioavailability. NPs can also directly combat pathogens and inflammation. In addition, nanotechnology has facilitated the development of biosensors for pathogen detection and imaging techniques for inflammatory diseases. This review categorizes and characterizes different types of NPs, summarizes their applications in the prevention, treatment, and detection of infectious and inflammatory diseases. It also discusses the challenges associated with clinical translation in this field and explores the latest developments and prospects. In conclusion, nanotechnology opens up new possibilities for the comprehensive management of infectious and inflammatory diseases.

Seamless Integration of Rapid Separation and Ultrasensitive Detection for Complex Biological Samples Using Multistage Annular Functionalized Carbon Nanotube Arrays

Efficient separation, enrichment, and detection of bacteria in diverse media are pivotal for identifying bacterial diseases and their transmission pathways. However, conventional bacterial detection methods that split the separation and detection steps are plagued by prolonged processing times. Herein, a multistage annular functionalized carbon nanotube array device designed for the seamless integration of complex biological sample separation and multimarker detection is introduced. This device resorts to the supersmooth fluidity of the liquid sample in the carbon nanotubes interstice through rotation assistance, achieving the ability to quickly separate impurities and capture biomarkers (1 mL sample cost time of 2.5 s). Fluid dynamics simulations show that the reduction of near-surface hydrodynamic resistance drives the capture of bacteria and related biomarkers on the functionalized surface of carbon nanotube in sufficient time. When further assembled as an even detection device, it exhibited fast detection (<30 min), robust linear correlation (101 -107 colony-forming units [CFU] mL-1 , R2 = 0.997), ultrasensitivity (limit of detection = 1.7 CFU mL-1 ), and multitarget detection (Staphylococcus aureus, extracellular vesicles, and enterotoxin proteins). Collectively, the material and system offer an expanded platform for real-time diagnostics, enabling integrated rapid separation and detection of various disease biomarkers.

Antibacterial effects of quercetagetin are significantly enhanced upon conjugation with chitosan engineered copper oxide nanoparticles

The development of antibiotic alternatives that entail distinctive chemistry and modes of action is necessary due to the threat posed by drug resistance. Nanotechnology has gained increasing attention in recent years, as a vehicle to enhance the efficacy of existing antimicrobials. In this study, Chitosan copper oxide nanoparticles (CHI-CuO) were synthesized and were further loaded with Quercetagetin (QTG) to achieve the desired (CHI-CuO-QTG). Size distribution, zeta potential and morphological analysis were accomplished. Next, the developed CHI-CuO-QTG was assessed for synergistic antibacterial properties, as well as cytotoxic attributes. Bactericidal assays revealed that CHI-CuO conjugation showed remarkable effects and enhanced QTG effects against a range of Gram + ve and Gram - ve bacteria. The MIC50 of QTG against S. pyogenes was 107 µg/mL while CHI-CuO-QTG reduced it to 9 µg/mL. Similar results were observed when tested against S. pneumoniae. Likewise, the MIC50 of QTG against S. enterica was 38 µg/mL while CHI-CuO-QTG reduced it to 7 µg/mL. For E. coli K1, the MIC50 of QTG was 42 µg/mL while with CHI-CuO-QTG it was 23 µg/mL. Finally, the MIC50 of QTG against S. marcescens was 98 µg/mL while CHI-CuO-QTG reduced it to 10 µg/mL. Notably, the CHI-CuO-QTG nano-formulation showed limited damage when tested against human cells using lactate dehydrogenase release assays. Importantly, bacterial-mediated human cell damage was reduced by prior treatment of bacteria using drug nano-formulations. These findings are remarkable and clearly demonstrate that drug-nanoparticle formulations using nanotechnology is an important avenue in developing potential therapeutic interventions against microbial infections.

Drug-loaded lipid nanoparticles improve the removal rates of the Staphylococcus aureus biofilm

Biofilms of the foodborne pathogen Staphylococcus aureus show improved resistance to antibiotics and are difficult to eliminate. To enhance antibacteria and biofilm dispersion via extracellular matrix diffusion, a new lipid nanoparticle was prepared, which employed a mixture of phospholipids and a 0.8% surfactin shell. In the lipid nanoparticle, 31.56 μg mL-1 of erythromycin was encapsulated. The lipid nanoparticle size was approximately 52 nm and the zeta-potential was -67 mV, which was measured using a Marvin laser particle size analyzer. In addition, lipid nanoparticles significantly dispersed the biofilms of S. aureus W1, CICC22942, and CICC 10788 on the surface of stainless steel, reducing the total viable count of bacteria in the biofilms by 103 CFU mL-1 . In addition, the lipid nanoparticle can remove polysaccharides and protein components from the biofilm matrix. The results of laser confocal microscopy showed that the lipid nanoparticles effectively killed residual bacteria in the biofilms. Thus, to thoroughly eliminate biofilms on material surfaces in food factories to avoid repeated contamination, drug-lipid nanoparticles present a suitable method to achieve this.

Antimicrobial activity of metal-based nanoparticles: a mini-review

The resistance of pathogenic microorganisms to antibiotics is one of the main problems of world health. Of particular concern are multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacteria. Infections caused by these microorganisms affect the appearance of acute or chronic diseases. In this regard, modern technologies, such as nanomaterials (NMs), especially promising nanoparticles (NPs), can possess antimicrobial properties or improve the effectiveness and delivery of known antibiotics. Their diversity and characteristics, combined with surface functionalization, enable multivalent interactions with microbial biomolecules. This article presents an overview of the most current research on replacing antibiotics with NPs, including the prospects and risks involved.

Nanomedicine against biofilm infections: A roadmap of challenges and limitations

Microbial biofilms are complex three-dimensional structures where sessile microbes are embedded in a polymeric extracellular matrix. Their resistance toward the host immune system as well as to a diverse range of antimicrobial treatments poses a serious health and development threat, being in the top 10 global public health threats declared by the World Health Organization. In an effort to combat biofilm-related microbial infections, several strategies have been developed to independently eliminate biofilms or to complement conventional antibiotic therapies. However, their limitations leave room for other treatment alternatives, where the application of nanotechnology to biofilm eradication has gained significant relevance in recent years. Their small size, penetration efficiency, and the design flexibility that they present makes them a promising alternative for biofilm infection treatment, although they also present set-backs. This review aims to describe the main possibilities and limitations of nanomedicine against biofilms, while covering the main aspects of biofilm formation and study, and the current therapies for biofilm treatment. This article is categorized under: Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Nanomedicine for Infectious Disease Toxicology and Regulatory Issues in Nanomedicine > Toxicology of Nanomaterials Toxicology and Regulatory Issues in Nanomedicine > Regulatory and Policy Issues in Nanomedicine.

Competition of opsonins and dysopsonins on the nanoparticle surface

The biological behavior and fate of nanoparticles are dependent on their retention time in the blood circulation system. The protein corona components, especially opsonins, and dysopsonins, adsorbed on the nanoparticle surface determine their blood circulation time. The protein corona formation is a dynamic process that involves the competition between different proteins to be adsorbed on the nanoparticles. Therefore, studying how proteins compete and are oriented on the nanoparticle surface is essential. We hypothesized that the presence of opsonins (immunoglobulin (IgG)) might affect the adsorption of dysopsonins (human serum albumin (HSA)) and vice versa. Using the molecular dynamics simulations, we showed that the adsorption of HSA on the GO surface after the IgG adsorption is more probable than the opposite order of adsorption. It was also observed that the higher lateral diffusion of the HSA compared to the IgG helped the system reach a more stable configuration while the initial adsorption of the HSA limits the lateral diffusion of IgG. Therefore, replacing IgG adsorbed on the GO surface with HSA is plausible while the reverse process is less likely to occur. This study revealed that albumin might extend the blood circulation time of GO by replacing opsonins (IgG).

Accurate Prediction of Antimicrobial Susceptibility for Point-of-Care Testing of Urine in Less than 90 Minutes via iPRISM Cassettes

The extensive and improper use of antibiotics has led to a dramatic increase in the frequency of antibiotic resistance among human pathogens, complicating infectious disease treatments. In this work, a method for rapid antimicrobial susceptibility testing (AST) is presented using microstructured silicon diffraction gratings integrated into prototype devices, which enhance bacteria-surface interactions and promote bacterial colonization. The silicon microstructures act also as optical sensors for monitoring bacterial growth upon exposure to antibiotics in a real-time and label-free manner via intensity-based phase-shift reflectometric interference spectroscopic measurements (iPRISM). Rapid AST using clinical isolates of Escherichia coli (E. coli) from urine is established and the assay is applied directly on unprocessed urine samples from urinary tract infection patients. When coupled with a machine learning algorithm trained on clinical samples, the iPRISM AST is able to predict the resistance or susceptibility of a new clinical sample with an Area Under the Receiver Operating Characteristic curve (AUC) of ∼ 0.85 in 1 h, and AUC > 0.9 in 90 min, when compared to state-of-the-art automated AST methods used in the clinic while being an order of magnitude faster.

Melatonin Engineering M2 Macrophage-Derived Exosomes Mediate Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress and Immune Reprogramming for Periodontitis Therapy

Periodontitis is a chronic infectious disease caused by bacterial irritation. As an essential component of the host immunity, macrophages are highly plastic and play a crucial role in inflammatory response. An appropriate and timely transition from proinflammatory (M1) to anti-inflammatory (M2) macrophages is indispensable for treating periodontitis. As M2 macrophage-derived exosomes (M2-exos) can actively target inflammatory sites and modulate immune microenvironments, M2-exos can effectively treat periodontitis. Excessive endoplasmic reticulum stress (ER stress) and unfolded protein response (UPR) are highly destructive pathological characteristics during inflammatory periodontal bone loss. Although melatonin has antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects, studies focusing on melatonin ER stress modulation remain limited. This study fabricates engineered M2-exos loading with melatonin (Mel@M2-exos) for treating periodontitis. As a result, M2-exos drive an appropriate and timely macrophage reprogramming from M1 to M2 type, which resolves chronic inflammation and accelerated periodontal healing. Melatonin released from Mel@M2-exos rescues the osteogenic and cementogenic differentiation capacity in inflammatory human periodontal ligament cells (hPDLCs) by reducing excessive ER stress and UPR. Injectable gelatin methacryloyl (GelMA) hydrogels with sustained-release Mel@M2-exos accelerate periodontal bone regeneration in rats with ligation-induced periodontitis. Taken together, melatonin engineering M2 macrophage-derived exosomes are promising candidates for inflammatory periodontal tissue regeneration.

Determining the Contribution of Micro/Nanoplastics to Antimicrobial Resistance: Challenges and Perspectives

Microorganisms colonizing the surfaces of microplastics form a plastisphere in the environment, which captures miscellaneous substances. The plastisphere, owning to its inherently complex nature, may serve as a "Petri dish" for the development and dissemination of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs), adding a layer of complexity in tackling the global challenge of both microplastics and ARGs. Increasing studies have drawn insights into the extent to which the proliferation of ARGs occurred in the presence of micro/nanoplastics, thereby increasing antimicrobial resistance (AMR). However, a comprehensive review is still lacking in consideration of the current increasingly scattered research focus and results. This review focuses on the spread of ARGs mediated by microplastics, especially on the challenges and perspectives on determining the contribution of microplastics to AMR. The plastisphere accumulates biotic and abiotic materials on the persistent surfaces, which, in turn, offers a preferred environment for gene exchange within and across the boundary of the plastisphere. Microplastics breaking down to smaller sizes, such as nanoscale, can possibly promote the horizontal gene transfer of ARGs as environmental stressors by inducing the overgeneration of reactive oxygen species. Additionally, we also discussed methods, especially quantitatively comparing ARG profiles among different environmental samples in this emerging field and the challenges that multidimensional parameters are in great necessity to systematically determine the antimicrobial dissemination risk in the plastisphere. Finally, based on the biological sequencing data, we offered a framework to assess the AMR risks of micro/nanoplastics and biocolonizable microparticles that leverage multidimensional AMR-associated messages, including the ARGs' abundance, mobility, and potential acquisition by pathogens.

Nanotechnology-Based Diagnostics for Diseases Prevalent in Developing Countries: Current Advances in Point-of-Care Tests

The introduction of point-of-care testing (POCT) has revolutionized medical testing by allowing for simple tests to be conducted near the patient's care point, rather than being confined to a medical laboratory. This has been especially beneficial for developing countries with limited infrastructure, where testing often involves sending specimens off-site and waiting for hours or days for results. However, the development of POCT devices has been challenging, with simplicity, accuracy, and cost-effectiveness being key factors in making these tests feasible. Nanotechnology has played a crucial role in achieving this goal, by not only making the tests possible but also masking their complexity. In this article, recent developments in POCT devices that benefit from nanotechnology are discussed. Microfluidics and lab-on-a-chip technologies are highlighted as major drivers of point-of-care testing, particularly in infectious disease diagnosis. These technologies enable various bioassays to be used at the point of care. The article also addresses the challenges faced by these technological advances and interesting future trends. The benefits of point-of-care testing are significant, especially in developing countries where medical care is shifting towards prevention, early detection, and managing chronic conditions. Infectious disease tests at the point of care in low-income countries can lead to prompt treatment, preventing infections from spreading.

Current perspectives and trend of nanomedicine in cancer: A review and bibliometric analysis

The limitations of traditional cancer treatments are driving the creation and development of new nanomedicines. At present, with the rapid increase of research on nanomedicine in the field of cancer, there is a lack of intuitive analysis of the development trend, main authors and research hotspots of nanomedicine in the field of cancer, as well as detailed elaboration of possible research hotspots. In this review, data collected from the Web of Science Core Collection database between January 1st, 2000, and December 31st, 2021, were subjected to a bibliometric analysis. The co-authorship, co-citation, and co-occurrence of countries, institutions, authors, literature, and keywords in this subject were examined using VOSviewer, Citespace, and a well-known online bibliometrics platform. We collected 19,654 published papers, China produced the most publications (36.654%, 7204), followed by the United States (29.594%, 5777), and India (7.780%, 1529). An interesting fact is that, despite China having more publications than the United States, the United States still dominates this field, having the highest H-index and the most citations. Acs Nano, Nano Letters, and Biomaterials are the top three academic publications that publish articles on nanomedicine for cancer out of a total of 7580 academic journals. The most significant increases were shown for the keywords "cancer nanomedicine", "tumor microenvironment", "nanoparticles", "prodrug", "targeted nanomedicine", "combination", and "cancer immunotherapy" indicating the promising area of research. Meanwhile, the development prospects and challenges of nanomedicine in cancer are also discussed and provided some solutions to the major obstacles.

3D bioprinting of nanoparticle-laden hydrogel scaffolds with enhanced antibacterial and imaging properties

Biomaterial-associated microbial contaminations in biologically conducive three-dimensional (3D) tissue-engineered constructs have significantly limited the clinical applications of scaffold systems. To prevent such infections, antimicrobial biomaterials are rapidly evolving. Yet, the use of such materials in bioprinting-based approaches of scaffold fabrication has not been examined. This study introduces a new generation of bacteriostatic gelatin methacryloyl (GelMA)-based bioinks, incorporated with varying doses of antibacterial superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs). The SPION-laden GelMA scaffolds showed significant resistance against the Staphylococcus aureus growth, while providing a contrast in magnetic resonance imaging. We simulated the bacterial contamination of cellular 3D GelMA scaffolds in vitro and demonstrated the significant effect of functionalized scaffolds in inhibiting bacterial growth, while maintaining cell viability and growth. Together, these results present a new promising class of functionalized bioinks to 3D bioprint tissue-engineered scaffold with markedly enhanced properties for the use in a variety of in vitro and clinical applications.

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Functionalized bioinks with bacteriostatic properties are developed and thoroughly characterized

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The 200 μg/mL group yielded an optimal balance of printed scaffold properties

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Incorporating nanoparticle also enabled noninvasive imaging of the bioprinted scaffold

Polydopamine-Based Nanoparticles for an Antibiofilm Platform: Influence of Size and Surface Charge on Their Penetration and Accumulation in S. aureus Biofilms

Various functional polydopamine (PDA) nanoparticles have been developed to treat biofilms in recent years; however, in-depth knowledge of how the physicochemical properties of the nanoparticles impact their penetration and accumulation in biofilms is lacking. In this work, PDA nanoparticles of 15, 60, 90, and 200 nm sizes were synthesized and carboxyl, methoxy, and amine groups were introduced to the particle surface to control their surface charges, and then the penetration and accumulation of these PDA nanoparticles in S. aureus biofilms were investigated. The PDA nanoparticles of approximately 60 nm size (PDA60) showed higher penetration and accumulation abilities than nanoparticles of other sizes, and the positively charged amine groups introduced onto the surfaces of PDA60 nanoparticles were more effective than carboxyl or methoxy groups in promoting the interactions of the nanoparticles with the biofilm. The PDA60 nanoparticles with amine surface groups exhibited good photothermal properties, and confocal laser scanning microscopy revealed that they were able to accumulate in the biofilm in significant amounts, which upon irradiation with a laser of 808 nm wavelength showed a high bactericidal rate (97.1%) against the biofilm. The findings of this work provide guidance for the design and development of nanoparticles for antibiofilm application.

Metallic and Metal Oxides Nanoparticles for Sensing Food Pathogens—An Overview of Recent Findings and Future Prospects

Nowadays, special importance is given to quality control and food safety. Food quality currently creates significant problems for the industry and implicitly for consumers and society. The effects materialize in economic losses, alterations of the quality and organoleptic properties of the commercial products, and, last but not least, they constitute risk factors for the consumer’s health. In this context, the development of analytical systems for the rapid determination of the sanitary quality of food products by detecting possible pathogenic microorganisms (such as Escherichia coli or Salmonella due to the important digestive disorders that they can cause in many consumers) is of major importance. Using efficient and environmentally friendly detection systems for identification of various pathogens that modify food matrices and turn them into food waste faster will also improve agri-food quality throughout the food chain. This paper reviews the use of metal nanoparticles used to obtain bio nanosensors for the purpose mentioned above. Metallic nanoparticles (Au, Ag, etc.) and their oxides can be synthesized by several methods, such as chemical, physical, physico-chemical, and biological, each bringing advantages and disadvantages in their use for developing nanosensors. In the “green chemistry” approach, a particular importance is given to the metal nanoparticles obtained by phytosynthesis. This method can lead to the development of good quality nanoparticles, at the same time being able to use secondary metabolites from vegetal wastes, as such providing a circular economy character. Considering these aspects, the use of phytosynthesized nanoparticles in other biosensing applications is also presented as a glimpse of their potential, which should be further explored.

Felodipine enhances aminoglycosides efficacy against implant infections caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, persisters and biofilms

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), biofilms, and persisters are three major factors leading to recurrent and recalcitrant implant infections. Although antibiotics are still the primary treatment for chronic implant infections in clinical, only few drugs are effective in clearing persisters and formed biofilms. Here, felodipine, a dihydropyridine calcium channel blocker, was reported for the first time to have antibacterial effects against MRSA, biofilm, and persisters. Even after continuous exposure to sub-lethal concentrations of felodipine, bacteria are less likely to develop resistance. Besides, low doses of felodipine enhances the antibacterial activity of gentamicin by inhibiting the expression of protein associated with aminoglycoside resistance (aacA-aphD). Next, biofilm eradication test and persisters killing assay suggested felodipine has an excellent bactericidal effect against formed biofilms and persisters. Furthermore, the result of protein profiling, and quantitative metabonomics analysis indicated felodipine reduce MRSA virulence (agrABC), biofilm formation and TCA cycle. Then, molecular docking showed felodipine inhibit the growth of persisters by binding to the H pocket of ClpP protease, which could lead to substantial protein degradation. Furthermore, murine infection models suggested felodipine in combination with gentamicin alleviate bacterial burden and inflammatory response. In conclusion, low dose of felodipine might be a promising agent for biomaterial delivery to enhance aminoglycosides efficacy against implant infections caused by MRSA, biofilm, and persisters.

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Felodipine inhibits MRSA gene expression associated with aminoglycoside resistance and biofilm formation.

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Felodipine eradicates formed biofilm and persisters on the surface of implants.

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Felodipine induces proteolysis of MRSA and decreases energy metabolism.

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Felodipine in combination with gentamicin alleviates murine periprosthetic joint infection.

Coupled Multiphysics Modelling of Sensors for Chemical, Biomedical, and Environmental Applications with Focus on Smart Materials and Low-Dimensional Nanostructures

Low-dimensional nanostructures have many advantages when used in sensors compared to the traditional bulk materials, in particular in their sensitivity and specificity. In such nanostructures, the motion of carriers can be confined from one, two, or all three spatial dimensions, leading to their unique properties. New advancements in nanosensors, based on low-dimensional nanostructures, permit their functioning at scales comparable with biological processes and natural systems, allowing their efficient functionalization with chemical and biological molecules. In this article, we provide details of such sensors, focusing on their several important classes, as well as the issues of their designs based on mathematical and computational models covering a range of scales. Such multiscale models require state-of-the-art techniques for their solutions, and we provide an overview of the associated numerical methodologies and approaches in this context. We emphasize the importance of accounting for coupling between different physical fields such as thermal, electromechanical, and magnetic, as well as of additional nonlinear and nonlocal effects which can be salient features of new applications and sensor designs. Our special attention is given to nanowires and nanotubes which are well suited for nanosensor designs and applications, being able to carry a double functionality, as transducers and the media to transmit the signal. One of the key properties of these nanostructures is an enhancement in sensitivity resulting from their high surface-to-volume ratio, which leads to their geometry-dependant properties. This dependency requires careful consideration at the modelling stage, and we provide further details on this issue. Another important class of sensors analyzed here is pertinent to sensor and actuator technologies based on smart materials. The modelling of such materials in their dynamics-enabled applications represents a significant challenge as we have to deal with strongly nonlinear coupled problems, accounting for dynamic interactions between different physical fields and microstructure evolution. Among other classes, important in novel sensor applications, we have given our special attention to heterostructures and nucleic acid based nanostructures. In terms of the application areas, we have focused on chemical and biomedical fields, as well as on green energy and environmentally-friendly technologies where the efficient designs and opportune deployments of sensors are both urgent and compelling.