Movement assessment battery for children-2: translation, reliability, and validity for Brazilian children

Predictive validity of the Denver developmental screening test (Denver-II) to detect risk of developmental coordination disorder in preterm children

INTRODUCTION

The Denver-II is widely used as a screening tool, however, no studies were found about its validity to predict the risk of Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) in preterm children.

OBJECTIVE

To verify the predictive validity and accuracy of the Denver-II to identify the risk of DCD in preterm children.

METHODS

Methodological study with 121 preterm children, evaluated with the Denver-II at ages 1, 2, 3, 4 and/or 5 years and with the Movement Assessment Battery for Children (MABC-2) at 7 years. Univariate binary logistic regression analyses were performed and ROC curves were derived.

RESULTS

Children classified as suspect by Denver-II at 2, 3, and 4 years were, respectively, 3.45, 7.40 and 6.06 times more likely to have a risk of DCD on the MABC-2 (p < 0.05). The area under the ROC curve was considered fair for ages 2 (0.60, 95 % CI 0.50-0.70), 3 (0.61, 95 % CI 0.51-0.71) and 4 (0.64, 95 % CI 0.54-0.74) years. The greater the number of suspects in Denver-II over time, the greater the probability of risk of DCD in the MABC-2 (p < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Global developmental assessment with the Denver-II at ages 2 to 4 years is considered to have fair accuracy to discriminate risk of DCD at school age in children born preterm.

Preliminary Adaptation of Motor Tests to Evaluate Fine Motor Skills Associated with Mathematical Skills in Preschoolers

Mathematics is the subject in which many school-age children reveal difficulties. The literature has shown that fine motor skills, namely fine motor coordination and visuomotor integration, have been more robustly associated with mathematical performance. Studies have shown the importance that instruments have to evaluate these skills, however, the characteristics of these instruments do not fit the reality of kindergartens, they are usually time consuming and expensive and are usually administered by specialists. Thus, the main objective of this study was to identify, select, adapt and validate motor tests to evaluate fine motor skills associated with mathematical skills to allow the kindergarten teachers to apply them simultaneously to the class, with few material resources, in a short period of time and without the need for a lot of training to apply, score and classify. For this purpose, firstly, it was necessary to understand the main difficulties highlighted by kindergarten teachers regarding the use of instruments to evaluate fine motor skills and, thus, elaborate criteria to identify and select the tests that best fit the reality of kindergartens. The test identified, selected and adapted to evaluate fine motor coordination was threading beads from the Movement Evaluation Battery for Children, 2nd Edition. The main adaptation of the test was related to time, that is, instead of counting the time it takes the child to string the total number of cubes on the string, we counted the number of cubes the child strung on the string in a pre-defined time. To evaluate visual-motor integration, the test identified, selected and adapted was the Visual-Motor Integration (6th Edition) test. The main adaptation was related to material resources, that is, it will be possible to apply the test using only one sheet per child instead of the seven suggested by the original test. After the preliminary adaptation of the tests, their validation was performed by means of the degree of reliability (test-retest) and predictive validity. The results indicated that the adapted tests presented an excellent degree of reliability (>0.9) and could therefore be used to administer them simultaneously to the class group. The adapted Visual-Motor Integration test seems to be the most suitable one to be used by kindergarten teachers, in a classroom context, to simultaneously evaluate students' fine motor skills and associate their results with mathematical skills.

Do Girls Have an Advantage Compared to Boys When Their Motor Skills Are Tested Using the Movement Assessment Battery for Children, 2nd Edition?

This study aims to investigate sex-related differences in raw item scores on the Movement Assessment Battery for Children, 2nd Edition (MABC-2) in a large data set collected in different regions across the world, seeking to unravel whether there is an interaction effect between sex and the origin of the sample (European versus African). In this retrospective study, a secondary analysis was performed on anonymized data of 7654 children with a mean age of 8.6 (range 3 to 16; SD: 3.4), 50.0% of whom were boys. Since country-specific norms were not available for all samples, the raw scores per age band (AB) were used for analysis. Our results clearly show that in all age bands sex-related differences are present. In AB1 and AB2, girls score better on most manual dexterity and balance items, but not aiming and catching items, whereas in AB3 the differences seem to diminish. Especially in the European sample, girls outperform boys in manual dexterity and balance items, whereas in the African sample these differences are less marked. In conclusion, separate norms for boys and girls are needed in addition to separate norms for geographical regions.

Reliability and validity of the Körperkoordinationstest Für Kinder in Chinese children

Background

The Körperkoordinationstest Für Kinder (KTK) is a reliable and low-cost motor coordination test tool that has been used in several countries. However, whether the KTK is a reliable and valid instrument for use in Chinese children has not been assessed. Additionally, because the KTK was designed to incorporate locomotor, object control, and stability skills, and there is a lack of measurement tools that include stability skills assessment for Chinese children, the KTK's value and validity are worth discussing.

Methods

A total of 249 primary school children (131 boys; 118 girls) aged 9-10 years from Shanghai were recruited in this study. Against the Test of Gross Motor Development-3 (TGMD-3), the concurrent validity of the KTK was assessed. We also tested the retest reliability and internal consistency of the KTK.

Results

The test-retest reliability of the KTK was excellent (overall: r = 0.951; balancing backwards: r = 0.869; hopping for height: r = 0.918; jumping sideways: r = 0.877; moving sideways: r = 0.647). Except for the boys, the internal consistency of the KTK was higher than the acceptable level of Cronbach's α > 0.60 (overall: α = 0.618; boys: α = 0.583; girls: α = 0.664). Acceptable concurrent validity was found between the total scores for the KTK and TGMD-3 (overall: r = 0.420, p < 0.001; boys: r = 0.411, p < 0.001; girls: r = 0.437, p < 0.001).

Discussion

The KTK is a reliable instrument for assessing the motor coordination of children in China. As such, the KTK can be used to monitor the level of motor coordination in Chinese children.

Strengths and weaknesses of the MABC-2 as a diagnostic tool for developmental coordination disorder: An online survey of occupational therapists and physiotherapists

The Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2 (MABC-2) is the most widely used instrument for aiding the diagnosis of developmental coordination disorder (DCD). Despite being shown to have strong validity and reliability, it has received criticism for aspects of its scoring system, the lack of formal training, and its susceptibility to overlook higher functioning DCD children. To aid the development of future diagnostic tools and/or iterations of the MABC-2, the present study attempted to draw upon the experience of key stakeholders and determine the strengths and weaknesses of the MABC-2. Using a short online questionnaire, occupational therapists (n = 14) and physiotherapists (n = 3) with experience using the MABC-2 for DCD diagnosis completed a series of Likert scale and free-text questions. Braun and Clarke's six-phase process to thematic analyses was used to identify main themes obtained across quantitative and qualitative data. Results indicate that whilst the MABC-2 is easy to administer and interpret, the scores can misrepresent true motor difficulties due to (a) daily variations in mental and physical state, (b) the reliance on non-functional tasks, (c) negative interference from parents, (d) changes in motor competency due to practice, and (e) a lack of formal examiner training to ensure the test is effectively lead. Further work is needed to more reliably determine how perceptions of the MABC-2 might vary across levels of expertise, profession, and cultural differences.

Motor, Physical, and Psychosocial Parameters of Children with and without Developmental Coordination Disorder: A Comparative and Associative Study

(1) Background: Developmental coordination disorder (DCD) is a chronic impairment that affects several domains that mark the developmental trajectory from childhood to adulthood. Aim: This study examined the differences in physical and psychosocial factors for children with DCD and typical development (TD) and the associations between these factors with gross motor coordination. (2) Methods: Children with DCD (n = 166; age: M = 8.74, SD = 2.0) and TD (n = 243; Age: M = 8.94; SD = 2.0) attending private and public schools were screened using the MABC-2. Children were then assessed using the Körperkoordination test für Kinder (gross coordination), the Perceived Efficacy and Goal Setting System (self-efficacy), horizontal jump (lower limb strength), and dynamometer (handgrip strength). A semi-structured interview was carried out to examine the oriented physical activity practice in the daily routine, the time spent in the activities, and the use of public spaces to practice non-oriented physical activities. (3) Results: Children with TD showed scores significantly higher than children with DCD in almost all factors with small to very large effect sizes; the exceptions were self-care and daily physical activity. The structural equation model showed that for children with DCD, the BMI explained negatively and significantly the motor coordination (b = -0.19, p = 0.019), whereas physical activity (b = 0.25, p < 0.001), lower limb strength (b = 0.38, p < 0.001), and perceived self-efficacy (b = 0.19, p = 0.004) explained it positively. For children with TD, the BMI explained negatively and significantly the motor coordination (b = -0.23, p = 0.002), whereas physical activity (b = 0.25, p < 0.001) and lower limb strength (b = 0.32, p < 0.001) explained it positively. (4) Conclusions: The authors extended previous research by providing evidence that factors affecting motor coordination vary across childhood for children with DCD and TD. Self-efficacy was relevant only in explaining motor coordination for children with DCD.

Stability of M-ABC-2-measured motor functioning in early childhood: Evidence from a large prospective cohort

AIM

Some studies have reported that children with poor motor functioning tend to improve over time. However, much existing research does not account for regression towards the mean (RTM). Here, we examine measurement stability among 589 children aged 4-5 years.

METHOD

We administered the Movement Assessment Battery for Children 2nd Edition annually to 269 children initially scoring above and 252 at or below the 16th percentile. We measured agreement between year 1 and year 2 standard scores using Pearson correlation and derived expected regression towards the mean (RTM). We then regressed follow-up on baseline scores, controlling for relative age, sex, and exact interval between assessments. Finally, we performed a small illustrative simulation.

OUTCOMES AND RESULTS

The mean score in the poor-coordination group rose from 5.6 (SD = 1.5) to 7.2 (SD = 2.8). Year 1 and year 2 scores were correlated at r = 0.66, corresponding to predicted RTM in the MI group of 1.56, close to the observed change of 1.57. Degree of change was not associated with time between assessments.

INTERPRETATION

Observed improvements in motor functioning were consistent with measurement error. The stability of motor functioning may be greater than it appears from past research, and reported functional improvements in some studies may be illusory. WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS?

The effect of karate interventions on the motor proficiency of female adolescents with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) from high and low socio-economic status

Background

There is not a general consensus on the best type of intervention to improve the motor proficiency (MP) of adolescents with developmental coordination disorder (DCD). Considering the effect of socio-economic status (SES) in relation to the MP of adolescents with DCD, it is necessary to examine this issue further. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of Karate-Do interventions on the MP of adolescents with DCD from high/low SES.

Methods

Participants included 16 adolescent girls (12 to 13 years old) with DCD, and their classification into high/low SES groups was done by using appropriate previously validated questionnaire. A short form of the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency, Second Edition (BOT-2), was used to assess fine motor precision, fine motor integration, manual dexterity, upper limb coordination, bilateral coordination, balance, strength, speed, agility, and overall MP level of the participants. Both high/low-SES groups completed a specifically prescribed Karate-Do intervention program for 8 consecutive weeks (3 sessions per week with each session lasting for 75 min).

Results

Results from this 8-week intervention showed that the pattern of change in manual dexterity, bilateral coordination, strength and the total MP score improved over time in both groups with varied socioeconomic backgrounds. Specifically, the high-SES group performed significantly better than their low-SES counterparts during the 8-week Karate-Do intervention (p < 0.05).

Conclusions

Following participants’ completion of the Karate-Do intervention, the existence of significant changes in the MP of adolescents’ with DCD at high/low SES confirmed our hypothesis. Compared to the low-SES group, adolescents with high SES displayed superior MP following the intervention. It seems that karate (kata) training serves as a good alternative for rehabilitation MP programs, however, an important issue concerning social infrastructure is to create a suitable exercise environment for adolescents at lower SES. Until the SES achievement gap in female adolescent MP is stable, future work is warranted to discover more practical and meaningful interventions.

Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD): Relevance for clinical psychologists in Europe

Background

Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) is a common neurodevelopmental disorder primarily characterized by fine and gross motor coordination difficulties. Yet, many aspects remain unclear regarding the clinical presentation of secondary symptoms and their implications for Clinical Psychology. Therefore, the purpose of this review is to provide an update about the current understanding of DCD for clinical psychologists and psychotherapists across Europe, particularly based on new insights stemming from the last decade of research.

Method

We provide a narrative review of articles published in the last decade on the topic of DCD, and relevant aspects to clinical psychologist, including lesser known aspects of DCD (e.g., executive functions, psychological consequences, and adult DCD).

Results

DCD is a highly prevalent, disruptive, and complex disorder, which should be investigated further in many areas (e.g., co-occurrence to ADHD). Existing evidence points toward a key role of executive functioning difficulties at all ages. Most patients report secondary psychological problems, but little headway has been made in examining the effectiveness of psychotherapy for DCD.

Conclusions

Insights and remaining research gaps are discussed. It is critical for psychologists and clinical researchers to raise awareness for DCD, take note of the growing literature, and foster continued interdisciplinary approaches to research and treatment of DCD.

Awareness about Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) is low among some European Psychologists.

Growing knowledge about DCD should be disseminated among psychotherapists.

Validity and reliability of the movement assessment battery second edition test in children with and without motor impairment: A prospective cohort study

Background

Examining the reliability and validity of the second edition movement assessment battery test (MABC-2) in children with and without motor impairment.

Materials and methods

In this prospective cohort study, the MABC-2 test and developmental coordination disorder questionnaire 2007 (DCDQ′07) were completed by children and their parents. By using 95% confidence intervals, minimal detectable change (MDC95) was calculated, and concurrent validity was investigated. By applying the MABC-2 test as a reference standard (cut-off fifth centile), sensitivity and specificity were examined.

Results

273 children (mean age: 6.3 ± 2.3 years; 70% male) with and without motor impairment completed the investigation. For test-retest reliability, intra-class correlation coefficients (ICCs) was >0.89 for the MABC-2 test. The MDC95 value for the motor skill test was 5.76. There was a significant correlation between the MABC-2 test and DCDQ′07 (r = 0.60, P < 0.001) and the Go/No-Go test (r = 0.50, P < 0.001). Overall, the sensitivity was very high (90%), the specificity was low (46%), and positive and negative predictive values were high (69% and 81%, respectively).

Conclusion

The MABC-2 test can be considered a valid and reliable motor skill assessment tool for children with and without motor impairment.

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The MABC-2 test is a valid tool for children with and without motor impairment.

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The MABC-2 test is a reliable tool for children with and without motor impairment.

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The MABC-2 is a sensitive tool for detecting motor skill performance impairments.

Construct Validity Evidence in the Motor Coordination Test with Ball - MCTB

Our purpose with this study was to analyze construct validity evidence for the Motor Coordination Test with Ball (MCTB). Our participant sample included 1620 students (741 girls; 879 boys) aged between 10-12 years. Evidence for construct-validity of the four tasks using exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and adequacy indices confirmed a good fit of a final two-dimensional model (BTS = .000; KMO = .83; loading .53 to .91; communalities ranging from .31 to .86; explained variance of 63.5%; goodness-of-fit index (GFI) = .99; adjusted GFI (AGFI) = .97; RMSR = .03), and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) (X²/df = 4.9; GFI = .97; comparative fit index (CFI) = .92; TLI = .90; Root-Mean-Square Error of Aproximation (RMSEA) = .03). We concluded that, in a Brazilian sample, the MCTB has good construct validity for motor coordination tests with balls; this helps qualify this test for use in schools and in the sports context.

The Association between Physical Activity, Motor Skills and School Readiness in 4-5-Year-Old Children in the Northeast of England

The benefits of being physically active, possessing good motor skills and being school-ready are well documented in early years. Nevertheless, the association between physical activity and motor skills with school readiness remains unknown. Therefore, the aim of this cross-sectional study was to explore the relationship between these variables. We collected data on 326 four to five-year-old children from the northeast of England. Children's PA (ActiGraph GT1M accelerometers), motor skills (MABC-2 and the locomotor section of the TGMD-2) and school readiness (EYFSP) were measured, and associations between these variables were examined. This study found that, on average, children engaged in more MVPA (99.6 min/day) and less sedentary behaviour (261 min/day) than documented in previous research. Motor-skill scores were consistent with existing literature in early years. A higher percentage of children in the sample (79.6%) achieved school readiness than the average for England. Regression analyses found that motor-skill variables and sedentary behaviour were significantly predictive of school readiness, whereas physical activity was not. Motor skills and sedentary behaviour significantly predict school readiness. Therefore, promoting motor skills and developmentally appropriate sedentary behaviour activities may increase the number of children achieving school readiness.

Do executive functions and gross motor skills predict writing and mathematical performance in children with developmental coordination disorder?

Aim: To examine whether executive functions, and gross motor skills were predictors for school performance in children with DCD, with risk for DCD (r-DCD), and with typical development (TD).Methods: Participants were 63 children with DCD (M_age = 8.70, SD_age = .64), 31 children with r-DCD (M_age = 8.90, SD_age = 0.74), and 63 typical development children (M_age = 8.74, SD_age = .63). Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence, Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2, Test of Gross Motor Development-3, Oral Word Span in Sentences, Odd-One-Out, Go/No-Go, Hayling Test, Trail Making Test, Five Digits Test, and the Test of School Performance-II were utilized.Results: In DCD, processing speed (β = -.42, p = .005), and auditory-motor inhibition (β = -.36, p = .009), and auditory-verbal inhibition (β = -.38, p = .023) predicted math performance; and auditory-motor (β = -.40, p = .38) and visuospatial working memory (β = -.33 p = .011) predicted writing performance. In r-DCD, auditory-motor (β = - .67; p = .002) and visual-motor (β = -.40; p = .040) inhibition predicted math performance; visual-motor inhibition predicted writing performance (β = -.47; p = .015).Conclusion: Lower inhibitory control and visuospatial working memory scores affect children with DCD and r-DCD' school performance.

Pediatric care for children with Developmental Coordination Disorder, can we do better?

This paper adopts a method of narrative critical review based on a non-systematic search of the literature to provide insights into the trends of developmental coordination disorder (DCD) treatment and to point out some future alternative approaches to prevent secondary health implications in children with DCD. The cause of DCD is unknown, but evidence suggests that these children have atypical brain structure and function. Interventions to help children cope with their activity limitations are effective in improving motor competence and motor skill related fitness in the short term. Although activity-orientated interventions can improve motor outcomes in children with DCD, high quality intervention trials and evaluation of long-term effects are urgently needed. Importantly, motor coordination problems associated with DCD extend to exercise-related activities leading to reduced participation in play and sports, which causes secondary problems in muscular fitness and body composition. Hence, treatment goals should not be limited to the improvement of motor skills (in ADL), but should also focus on health-related quality of life. We therefore propose when noticing motor problems in a child, already before enrolling but also during intervention, to explore ways to adapt everyday physical activities to optimally match the child's skill level. Hence, such activities will not only train the skills and improve physical fitness but will lead to positive engagement, thereby preventing the child from opting out of active play and sports. This provides the child with chances for exercise-dependent learning and will also positively impact social-emotional well-being.

Straying Off Course: The Negative Impact of Mind Wandering on Fine Motor Movements

The goal of this study was to examine how various degrees of perceptual decoupling during mind wandering affect fine motor control. We hypothesized that while under normal circumstances attention ensures an optimal control strategy that leads to accurate motor performance, during mind wandering the process becomes disrupted. In this study, we conducted a computer-based experiment with a tracking task. During mind wandering, motor movements were more erratic and less variable, indicative of reduced attentiveness to the continuous demands of the external task. Importantly, the deeper the reported mind wandering, the less accurate and less variable were the mouse movements, suggesting that perceptual decoupling may take place in a graded rather than in an all or nothing manner. Greater movement intermittency was associated with higher tracking accuracy, suggesting that more corrective movements toward a moving target were functional to task performance. Moreover, greater variance in velocity was negatively correlated with tracking accuracy. These findings suggest that periods of inattention to the task have a negative impact on fine motor movement control by making behavior unpredictable, providing support for the idea that there is a decoupling of sensory-motor processes during mind wandering.

Cross-cultural validation of the Arabic version of the Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire DCDQ'07, in a Lebanese sample of children

BACKGROUND

The revised version of the Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire (DCDQ'07) is a parent questionnaire designed to identify Developmental Coordination Disorder in 5-15-year-old children.

AIM

The aim of this study was to carry out the translation and cross-cultural adaptation of the DCDQ'07, to examine psychometric properties, and to define the cut-off scores of the Arabic-Lebanese version of the questionnaire (DCDQ-AL).

METHOD

38 parents of children with and without motor difficulties participated in the translation and cross-cultural phase. As for the validation phase and the study of the psychometric properties, a total of one hundred and twenty-four typically developing children (N=124) aged between 5 and 15 years were recruited through schools in different districts across Lebanon, whereas the clinical sample (N = 56) of children with motor difficulties was recruited via psychomotor rehabilitation centers in Beirut and psychomotor therapists working in private clinics across the country. This study used the Movement Assessment Battery for Children - second edition (MABC-2) motor test developed to classify children according to their degree of motor impairment.

RESULTS

For test-retest reliability and inter-rater reliability, excellent Intraclass Correlation Coefficients (ICC) were shown with values of 0.94 and 0.9, respectively. The internal consistency value for the DCDQ-AL was high (Cronbach's alpha = 0.947). Correlations between the DCDQ-AL scores and Movement Assessment Battery for Children (MABC-2) show adequate convergent validity (ρ = 0.65, p < .001). Differences in DCDQ-AL scores between children with and without motor difficulties (p < .001) provide clear evidence of discriminative validity. The Lebanese cut-offs are very similar to the Canadian version, except for the 5-7 age band. The DCDQ-AL shows a sensitivity of 0.91 and specificity of 0.77. The adapted questionnaire showed solid psychometric properties, allowing us to conclude that the DCDQ-AL can be used to support a diagnosis of DCD.

CONCLUSION

The results provide evidence that the DCDQ-AL is a valid clinical screening tool for DCD that can assist Arabic speaking professionals in screening children aged 5-15 years old who are at risk of having DCD.

Gamma-Band Frequency Analysis and Motor Development in Music-Trained Children: A Cross-Sectional Study

Background: The aim of this study was to analyze the gamma-band frequency and motor performance of children with and without music training.Methods: This cross-sectional study included 31 right-handed children, 6-11 years old, who were allocated to two groups: 1) the music group (MG), including children who attended preschool and musical training (n = 16), and 2) the no-music group (NMG), including children who attended preschool but received no additional music training (n = 15). The outcomes were gamma-band frequency measured by electroencephalography, manual dexterity, aim-and-catch, and static and dynamic balance abilities measured by the Movement Assessment Battery for Children, and fine motor skills, overall motor skills, balance, corporal body scheme, spatial organization, temporal orientation, and general motor quotient (GMQ) by a Brazilian scale for motor development.Results: There 1was a significant difference between groups in the peak frequency (p = 0.0195) and median frequency (p = 0.0070) in the F3-F4 regions. Static and dynamic balance (p = 0.03), temporal orientation (p < 0.01), and GMQ (p < 0.03) were higher in MG than in NMG.Conclusion: The musically trained children had increased gamma-peak frequency in the frontal region and greater temporal orientation, balance, and the overall motor quotient.

Assessments Related to the Physical, Affective and Cognitive Domains of Physical Literacy Amongst Children Aged 7-11.9 Years: A Systematic Review

Background

Over the past decade, there has been increased interest amongst researchers, practitioners and policymakers in physical literacy for children and young people and the assessment of the concept within physical education (PE). This systematic review aimed to identify tools to assess physical literacy and its physical, cognitive and affective domains within children aged 7–11.9 years, and to examine the measurement properties, feasibility and elements of physical literacy assessed within each tool.

Methods

Six databases (EBSCO host platform, MEDLINE, PsycINFO, Scopus, Education Research Complete, SPORTDiscus) were searched up to 10th September 2020. Studies were included if they sampled children aged between 7 and 11.9 years, employed field-based assessments of physical literacy and/or related affective, physical or cognitive domains, reported measurement properties (quantitative) or theoretical development (qualitative), and were published in English in peer-reviewed journals. The methodological quality and measurement properties of studies and assessment tools were appraised using the COnsensus-based Standards for the selection of health Measurement INstruments risk of bias checklist. The feasibility of each assessment was considered using a utility matrix and elements of physical literacy element were recorded using a descriptive checklist.

Results

The search strategy resulted in a total of 11467 initial results. After full text screening, 11 studies (3 assessments) related to explicit physical literacy assessments. Forty-four studies (32 assessments) were relevant to the affective domain, 31 studies (15 assessments) were relevant to the physical domain and 2 studies (2 assessments) were included within the cognitive domain. Methodological quality and reporting of measurement properties within the included studies were mixed. The Canadian Assessment of Physical Literacy-2 and the Passport For Life had evidence of acceptable measurement properties from studies of very good methodological quality and assessed a wide range of physical literacy elements. Feasibility results indicated that many tools would be suitable for a primary PE setting, though some require a level of expertise to administer and score that would require training.

Conclusions

This review has identified a number of existing assessments that could be useful in a physical literacy assessment approach within PE and provides further information to empower researchers and practitioners to make informed decisions when selecting the most appropriate assessment for their needs, purpose and context. The review indicates that researchers and tool developers should aim to improve the methodological quality and reporting of measurement properties of assessments to better inform the field.

Trial registration

PROSPERO: CRD42017062217

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s40798-021-00324-8.

Is Quarter of Birth a Risk Factor for Developmental Coordinator Disorder in Preschool Children?

The purpose of this study was to determine the probability that preschool children have severe motor difficulties or are at risk of motor difficulties, according to quarter of birth and gender. Five hundred and eighty-eight preschool-age children were evaluated, of which 318 (54.08%) were boys and 270 (45.92%) were girls, with a mean age of 4.66 years (SD = 0.53). The Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2 (MABC-2) was used to collect the data. The results obtained were the following: Regarding students with severe motor difficulties: 6.7% born in quarter 1 (Q1); 13.3% born in the second quarter (Q2); 20.0% born in the third quarter (Q3); and 60.0% born in the fourth quarter (Q4). The probabilities found (OR) were: Q1 vs. Q2 (OR = 3.15; p < 0.05); Q1 vs. Q3 (OR = 4.68; p < 0.005); Q1 vs. Q4 (OR = 12.40; p < 0.001); Q2 vs. Q4 (OR = 4.04; p < 0.001); and Q3 vs. Q4 (OR = 2.65; p < 0.005). The adjusted ORs, with respect to the probabilities of having severe motor difficulties, were the following: Being born in Q4 is 13.03 times more likely than being born in Q1 (p < 0.001); those born in Q3 are 4.85 times more likely than those born in Q1 (p < 0.05); and those born in Q2 4.14 times more than those born in Q1 (p < 0.05). The conclusion is that children born in Q4 are more likely to be classified as children with severe difficulties compared to children born in the other quarters of the same year.

Is It Possible to Reduce the Relative Age Effect through an Intervention on Motor Competence in Preschool Children?

The purpose of the study was to find out whether a short 6-week intervention on motor competence can reduce the Relative Age Effect (RAE) of preschool children born in the first quarter, compared to those born in the fourth quarter of the same year. Seventy-six preschool children (5.20 ± 0.54 years) from Lugo (Spain) participated. A quasi-experimental pre-post-test design was used with an intervention group (n = 32) and a control group (n = 44). The Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2 (MABC-2) was used to collect data before and after the intervention. The data show that, before the intervention, there are significant differences between the control and the intervention group in favor of the former (born in the first quarter of the year) in manual dexterity (p = 0.011), balance (p = 0.002), total test score (p = 0.008), and total percentile score (p = 0.010). After the application of the specific intervention, statistically significant differences were found in aiming and catching (p < 0.001), balance (p = 0.022), total test score (p = 0.001), and total percentile score (p < 0.001) in favor of the intervention group (born in the last quarter of the year). The results obtained suggest that the application of a specific intervention on MC could positively influence the improvement of MC in preschool children (boys and girls) and reduce the differences produced by the RAE.

Changes in Motor Competence after a Brief Physical Education Intervention Program in 4 and 5-Year-Old Preschool Children

Low motor competence (MC) can cause low participation in physical activities in preschool children, and together with a high caloric intake, it can lead to obesity. Interventions on motor skills are effective in the short term to improve MC, therefore the objectives of this study were (1) to investigate the effect of a short six-week program on levels of motor competence in preschool children, and (2) to examine the effects of gender-based intervention. A total of 156 preschool children (5.20 ± 0.54 years old) from Lugo (Spain) participated. A quasi-experimental pre-post-test design was used with a control group of 76 students. The Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2nd Edition (MABC-2) was used to collect the data. Significant differences between the control and experimental groups were found after the intervention program in aiming and catching (p < 0.001), balance (p < 0.001), the total score of eight tests (p < 0.001), and total percentile score (p < 0.001). The results regarding gender in the experimental group showed a reduction in differences with respect to the initial results except in aiming and catching, where scores were higher in boys. The data suggest that the application of specific intervention programs in MC could positively influence the improvement of MC in preschool children, thus reducing differences between genders.

Effect of a 6-Week Physical Education Intervention on Motor Competence in Pre-School Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder

The objective of this research was to analyze the impact of an intervention program performed by a specialist in physical education (PE) to contribute to the development of motor competence (MC) in pre-school children with motor development problems. The sample consisted of 28 children (12 from the intervention group and 16 from the control group) aged between 4.1 and 5.9 years (mean = 4.71 ± 0.54) who were in the fifth and sixth grades of pre-school education in two schools from Lugo, Spain. The Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2 (MABC-2) was used for data collection. The data revealed that, in the pre- and post-test intervention groups, there are statistically significant differences in manual dexterity (p < 0.001; d = 2.63), aiming and catching (p < 0.002; d = 1.13), balance (p < 0.001; d = 1.68), total test score (p < 0.001; d = 3.30) and total percentile score (p < 0.001; d = 1.88). Between the control and intervention post-test groups, significant differences were found in manual dexterity (p = 0.015; η²&nbsp;= 0.22), aiming and catching (p = 0.003; η²&nbsp;= 0.32), balance (p = 0.050; η² = 0.15), total test score (p < 0.001; η² = 0.47) and total percentile score (p < 0.001; η² = 0.48). Based on the results obtained, a specific MC program implemented by a PE specialist contributed to the improvement of manual dexterity, aiming and catching and balance, as well as a better percentile in the general MC of pre-school children diagnosed with motor skill problems.

Study of Motor Competence in 4-5-Year-Old Preschool Children: Are There Differences among Public and Private Schools?

The objectives of this study were (1) to investigate the presence of preschool children with severe motor difficulties (SMDs) and (2) to evaluate the existence of differences in the motor competence (MC) of preschool children from public and private schools based on gender. A total of 581 preschool children (4.66 ± 0.52 years) from Galicia (Spain) were assessed. The Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2 (MABC-2) was used to collect the data. Preschool children from public schools presented a greater number of SMDs (OR = 20.65; CI = 9.99–85.53; p < 0.001). Preschool children from private schools have higher scores on the variables studied (for example, manual dexterity (p < 0.001), aiming and catching (p < 0.001), balance (p < 0.001), total test score (p < 0.001), and total percentage score (p < 0.001)). Regarding the gender factor, differences were found in manual dexterity (p < 0.001), aiming and catching (p = 0.014), balance (p < 0.001), total test score (p < 0.001), total percentage score (p < 0.001), and in the interaction of both factors in balance (p < 0.001), total global score (p = 0.004), and total percentage score (p < 0.001). Preschool children from private schools are less likely to have severe movement problems and score higher on all dimensions of the MABC-2 than preschool children from public schools analyzed in this study. Likewise, girls score higher than boys in all dimensions, except in aiming and catching.

Motor and Visual-spatial Cognitive Abilities in Children Treated for Infantile Esotropia

While many studies have investigated links between motor and visual spatial cognitive abilities in typically developing children, only a few studies have tested this link among children with innate handicaps. Therefore, we assessed motor abilities (using the M-ABC-2) and visual spatial cognitive skills (using the Block Design subtest of the WPPSI-III and a picture mental rotation task, PRT) of 5-7 year old typically developing children (n= 17) and same-aged children with severe deficits in stereopsis due to infantile esotropia (n= 17). Compared to the typically developing children, children with esotropia showed significantly poorer motor performances, especially in manual dexterity and ball skills, and significantly poorer and slower performance on the visual spatial cognitive tasks. Especially the girls treated for infantile esotropia needed more time to mentally rotate the pictures of the PRT correctly. Overall, this study showed that perceptual, motor and cognitive processes are interconnected and that children treated for infantile esotropia had an increased risk of motor and visual spatial cognitive deficits.

MOVEMENT ASSESSMENT BATTERY FOR CHILDREN-SECOND EDITION: THEORETICAL ADEQUACY OF A MOTOR ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENT

Objective:

To investigate the adequacy of the theoretical model of the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-Second Edition (MABC-2) instrument.

Methods:

582 children, of both sexes, aged between 3 and 5 years and residents in the city of Maringá (state of Paraná, Southern Brazil) participated in the study. Data were collected from May/2014 to June/2015 and analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics.

Results:

The evidence obtained from exploratory factor analysis indicated the presence of two factors, which was the option that best fitted the explanatory model. Hence, it was necessary to regroup the motor tasks of the dimensions “Aiming & catching” and “Balance” into only one dimension. It is noteworthy that the “Bicycle trail” motor task did not fit the model, as it presented a low and negative factor load in the analyzed dimensions. In the confirmatory factor analysis, adequate adjustment indices were observed for the tested model, which confirmed the non-classification of the “Bicycle trail” motor task in the original dimension.

Conclusions:

After removing the “Bicycle trail” motor task, the adjusted two-factor model seems to be the most appropriate to assess the motor performance of children participating in the study.

Peabody Developmental Motor Scales - Second Edition (PDMS-2): Reliability, content and construct validity evidence for Brazilian children

BACKGROUND

The Peabody Developmental Motor Scales - Second Edition (PDMS-2) has been used by health and educational professionals to assess the gross and fine motor skills of children with typical development, motor and/or cognitive delays, and disabilities.

AIM

Investigate the validity and reliability of PDMS-2 for use in Brazil.

METHODS

For content validity, 13 professionals participated in the study. For construct validity, a sample of 637 children from birth until 71 months (0-23 months: n = 399; 24-71 months: n = 238) was assessed with the PDMS-2.

RESULTS

The PDMS-2 administered to the Brazilian population has psychometric characteristics equivalent to the original version.

CONCLUSION

PDMS-2 is a valid and reliable tool for evaluating Brazilian children's motor development and providing appropriate support for clinical and educational intervention plans and follow-ups.

Gender Differences on Motor Competence in 5-Year-Old Preschool Children Regarding Relative Age

The aim of this study was to evaluate the differences on motor competence between 5-year-old boys and girls and to investigate the existence of Relative Age Effect (RAE) on their motor competence. A total of 232 preschool children were evaluated of whom 134 (57.8%) were boys and 98 (42.2%) were girls. The Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2 (MABC-2) was used to collect data. The data show a main effect on gender factor; there was a main effect in total score of manual dexterity (MD; p = 0.010), in total score of balance (Bal; p < 0.001), in total test score (TTS; p < 0.001), and in total percentile score (TPS, p < 0.001). In the semester of birth factor, there were differences in aiming and catching (A&C, p < 0.001), in Bal (p = 0.029) and in total percentile score (TPS, p = 0.010). Girls perform better in MD, Bal, TTS, and TPS than boys. Preschool children born in the first semester obtain, in general, a higher percentage and a higher percentile than their peers born in the second one. RAE is present in A&C, Bal, and TPS, with higher scores obtained by preschool children born in the first semester compared to those born in the second one.

Efficacy of the Cognitive Orientation to daily Occupational Performance (CO-OP) approach with and without parental coaching on activity and participation for children with developmental coordination disorder: A randomized clinical trial

BACKGROUND

Cognitive Orientation to daily Occupational Performance (CO-OP) is recommended for its effectiveness in improving activity performance in children with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD). Since parental support is a key element in CO-OP, parental coaching seems relevant to be investigated.

AIMS

Compare the efficacy of the CO-OP Approach with and without additional parental coaching to improve activity and participation in children with DCD.

METHODS AND PROCEDURES

Randomized clinical trial with 7-12-years-old children with DCD, randomly assigned to experimental (E-group) or active control (AC-group) groups, with 11 children each. Both groups received traditional CO-OP, E-group received four additional parental group-coaching sessions. Occupational performance and satisfaction on intervention goals were measured at baseline, post-intervention, and follow-up. Participation, motor performance and executive function were assessed at baseline and post-intervention.

OUTCOMES AND RESULTS

CO-OP with and without additional parental coaching resulted in improved occupational performance according to children, parents, and external evaluators. Children showed statistically significant gains in motor performance and cognitive flexibility. Participation measures did not change.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

As coaching did not add additional gains, parent's required participation in CO-OP might be enough to support children's occupational performance.

Relative Age Effect on Motor Competence in Children Aged 4-5 Years

The purpose of this study was to evaluate whether a Relative Age Effect (RAE) exists in motor competence of preschool children. The hypothesis was that motor competence, assessed by the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2 (MABC-2), would be higher in preschool children born in the first quarter of the year compared to those who were born in the last quarter of the same year. A total of 360 preschool children were evaluated of whom 208 (57.8%) were boys and 152 (42.8%) were girls, with a mean age of 4.52 years old (± 0.50). The distribution of the participants was 172 children aged 4 years old and 188 aged 5 years old. The data showed a main effect on the age factor in the total score of aiming and catching (p < 0.001) and in the total test score (p < 0.001), in the quarter of birth factor in all the dimensions studied (i.e., total score of manual dexterity (p < 0.001); total score of aiming and catching (p = 0.001); total score of balance (p < 0.001); total test score (p < 0.001)) and in the interaction between both factors (i.e., total score of manual dexterity (p = 0.005); total score of aiming and catching (p = 0.002); total score of balance (p < 0.001); total test score (p < 0.001)). Age and quarter of birth produce a RAE in 4 and 5-year-old preschool children’s motor competence.

The validity and reliability of observational assessment tools available to measure fundamental movement skills in school-age children: A systematic review

BACKGROUND

Fundamental Movement Skills (FMS) play a critical role in ontogenesis. Many children have insufficient FMS, highlighting the need for universal screening in schools. There are many observational FMS assessment tools, but their psychometric properties are not readily accessible. A systematic review was therefore undertaken to compile evidence of the validity and reliability of observational FMS assessments, to evaluate their suitability for screening.

METHODS

A pre-search of 'fundamental movement skills' OR 'fundamental motor skills' in seven online databases (PubMed, Ovid MEDLINE, Ovid Embase, EBSCO CINAHL, EBSCO SPORTDiscus, Ovid PsycINFO and Web of Science) identified 24 assessment tools for school-aged children that: (i) assess FMS; (ii) measure actual motor competence and (iii) evaluate performance on a standard battery of tasks. Studies were subsequently identified that: (a) used these tools; (b) quantified validity or reliability and (c) sampled school-aged children. Study quality was assessed using COnsensus-based Standards for the selection of health Measurement INstruments (COSMIN) checklists.

RESULTS

Ninety studies were included following the screening of 1863 articles. Twenty-one assessment tools had limited or no evidence to support their psychometric properties. The Test of Gross Motor Development (TGMD, n = 34) and the Movement Assessment Battery for Children (MABC, n = 37) were the most researched tools. Studies consistently reported good evidence for validity, reliability for the TGMD, whilst only 64% of studies reported similarly promising results for the MABC. Twelve studies found good evidence for the reliability and validity of the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency but poor study quality appeared to inflate results. Considering all assessment tools, those with promising psychometric properties often measured limited aspects of validity/reliability, and/or had limited feasibility for large scale deployment in a school-setting.

CONCLUSION

There is insufficient evidence to justify the use of any observational FMS assessment tools for universal screening in schools, in their current form.

Assessment of Motor Development in Childhood: Contemporary Issues, Considerations, and Future Directions

Assessment of the motor domain is a critical aspect of understanding motor development. Measurement of motor development is the baseline to understand potential delays and to promote the tools for change and improvement of this domain. This paper aims to reflect on the construct of motor development and the process of assessing motor performance. We review the use of assessments in motor development research and discuss issues of validity, reliability, sensitivity, and specificity. We appraise selected assessments, describe how the use of assessments changed over the periods of study in motor development, and examine the contemporary status of assessments and its applications. Finally, and most importantly, we provide suggestions and recommendations for future directions in the field, as well as pose important questions for researchers and practitioners to consider when selecting, using, and interpreting assessment results. In light of the contemporary view of motor development and the increasing focus on health applications, we recommend the use of screening tools, short forms, and technology, as well as encouraging the use of and more research on motor development assessments in childhood.

Reliability of the test of gross motor development: A systematic review

OBJECTIVE

To identify, synthesise and evaluate studies that investigated the reliability of the Test of Gross Motor Development (TGMD) variants.

METHODS

A systematic search was employed to identify studies that have investigated internal consistency, inter-rater, intra-rater and test-retest reliability of the TGMD variants through Scopus, Pubmed/MEDLINE, PsycINFO, Sport Discus and Web of Science databases.

RESULTS

Of the 265 studies identified, 23 were included. Internal consistency, evaluated in 14 studies, confirming good-to-excellent consistency for the overall score and general motor quotient (GMQ), and acceptable-to-excellent levels in both subscales (locomotor and ball skills). Inter-rater reliability, evaluated in 19 studies, showing good-to-excellent intra-class correlation coefficient (ICC) values in locomotor skills score, ball skills score, overall score, and GMQ. Intra-rater reliability, evaluated in 13 studies, displaying excellent ICC values in overall score and GMQ, and good-to-excellent ICC values in locomotor skills score and ball skills score. Test-retest reliability was evaluated in 15 studies with 100% of the statistics reported above the threshold of acceptable reliability when ICC was not used. Studies with ICC statistic showed good-to-excellent values in ball skills score, overall score, and GMQ; and moderate-to-excellent values in locomotor skills score.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, the results of this systematic review indicate that, regardless of the variant of the test, the TMGD has moderate-to-excellent internal consistency, good-to-excellent inter-rater reliability, good-to-excellent intra-rater reliability, and moderate-to-excellent test-retest reliability. Considering the few high-quality studies in terms of internal consistency, it would be recommend to carry out further studies in this field to improve their quality. Since there is no gold standard for assessing FMS, TGMD variants could be appropriate when opting for a psychometrical robust test. However, standardized training protocols for coding TGMD variants seem to be necessary both for researchers and practitioners in order to ensure acceptable reliability.

Validity and reliability evidence for motor competence assessments in children and adolescents: A systematic review

Valid and reliable tests of motor competence are necessary to allow researchers and practitioners to quantify levels of motor competence, identify skill deficiencies, and determine the effectiveness of motor skill interventions. The primary study aim was to systematically review the validity and reliability of scores derived from gross motor competence tests for typically developing child and adolescent populations. The secondary aim of this review was to identify the most prevalent motor skills assessed across all instruments. A search of seven electronic databases identified 57 different skill assessment tools from 107 studies. Construct validity was the most common measurement property examined (60 studies; 56%). Content validity (21 studies; 20%) was the least commonly explored measurement property. Scores derived from the Test of Gross Motor Development - second and third edition had the most support for validity and reliability. The most common skills included in these skill batteries were the overhand throw (n = 33), catch (n = 32), jump (n = 31) and hop (n = 26). Research efforts should focus on: (1) further investigation of measurement properties of existing tools rather than developing new assessments and (2) further investigation of existing tools and their measurement properties in adolescent populations.

Construct validity of the PERF-FIT, a test of motor skill-related fitness for children in low resource areas

BACKGROUND

Given the relationship between physical fitness and motor performance a test battery was developed that measures both components combined.

AIM

Following the development of the Performance and Fitness (PERF-FIT) battery, this study investigated the construct validity with the ultimate aim of identifying attributes that discriminate between different levels of motor abilities and anaerobic or musculoskeletal fitness.

METHODS

In this cross-sectional study, 34 children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) and 34 matched typically developing children participated (7-10 years). The PERF-FIT was used to examine known group validity. The PERF-FIT items were also compared to test items of well-known standardized tests to examine concurrent validity.

RESULTS

Concurrent validity was found to be of the expected low to moderate magnitude. Children with DCD were consistently found to have lower levels of motor skill-related fitness compared to typically developing children.

CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS

The PERF-FIT seems to be a valid test to measure movement skills, musculoskeletal fitness and agility in children between the ages of 7 and 10 years in low resourced communities. The test seems to discriminate between gross motor skills, and agility and power in children with and without DCD.

Motor and verbal inhibitory control: Development and validity of the go/No-Go app test for children with development coordination disorder

A set of inhibitory control tasks for the smartphone (Go/No-Go App) was developed for typical children and children with development coordination disorder (DCD). The content, construct, and criterion validity was examined. The inhibitory control Go/No-Go App test is comprised of four tasks: auditory and visual stimuli with motor and verbal responses. Six experts in neuropsychology and 252 Brazilian children (139 boys; 113 girls) participated in the study, including a subgroup of children with DCD (n = 53). A high level of agreement for clarity and pertinence was observed among the experts (Gwet's Agreement Coefficients > .09), highlighting its content validity. Suitable Cronbach's alpha and McDonald's omega results were observed. The confirmatory factorial analysis (CFA) accepted the results for the Auditory-Motor (γ = .83), Visual-Motor (γ = .73), Auditory-Verbal (γ = .67) and Visual-Verbal (γ = .73) tasks. The model presented adequate adjustment indexes (Chi-square = .48, p = .787), 2/DF = .24; RMSEA = .00; GFI = .99; CFI = 1.00; AIC = 326.90. The Go/No-Go app is a test with adequate validity for the assessment of inhibition in children with DCD and may be very helpful due to the variation of the stimuli and the responses.

Prevalence estimates of neurodevelopmental disorders in Japan: A community sample questionnaire study

AIM

Prevalence estimates of neurodevelopmental disorders have been calculated by questionnaire surveys scored by a single rater, which introduces inherent rater biases. The present study aimed to estimate the prevalence and comorbidity rates of four neurodevelopmental disorders based on both parent and teacher rating scales.

METHODS

We performed a community sample survey recruiting 3852 children aged 6 to 9 years. Parents and teachers evaluated clinical conditions in children using questionnaire-style scales. These scales with cut-off values were used to estimate the prevalence and comorbidity rates of attention deficit hyperactive disorder, autism spectrum disorder, specific learning disorder (or developmental dyslexia), and developmental coordination disorder.

RESULTS

The prevalence estimates were separately confirmed according to the raters. Some estimates were higher than those in previous studies conducted in other countries. We also found a large disagreement between the parent and teacher rating scores. Moreover, the degree of agreement between two raters varied depending on the severity of the child's clinical condition.

CONCLUSION

These estimates are the first findings based on evaluating children by two different raters. The prevalence and comorbidity estimates are informative for researchers and clinicians of pediatric neurology. The disagreements between two different raters raise questions about previous estimates of neurodevelopmental disorders.

Percentile curves for Brazilian children evaluated with the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency, 2nd edition

Abstract This study aimed to (1) create percentile curves and norms for the eight subtests of the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency, 2nd edition (BOT-2) for 6- to 10-year-old Brazilian children and to (2) compare them to the values of the original test manual. To that, we tested a sample of 931 Brazilian children (477 girls, 454 boys) with ages between 6 to 10 with the BOT-2 assessment. The LMS method was used to generate the percentile curves and normative values, with the LMSchartmaker Pro software version 2.54. Results demonstrate that girls had significantly higher scores for the fine motor precision, fine motor integration, manual dexterity and balance subtests, while boys had significantly higher scores on upper-limb coordination, running speed and agility, and the strength subtests. The findings also indicated higher values for the Brazilian group in the subtests of bilateral coordination, running speed and agility, balance, and upper-limb coordination when compared to the North American normative sample. The percentile curves illustrate the increase in motor proficiency levels as age increases, with different trajectories for each subtest. Future studies should continue the investigation of cultural norms and appropriate assessments for the Brazilian population. Here, the creation of percentile curves and norms that are better suited for the Brazilian population can significantly help with assessment and intervention for motor development in distinct settings and with typical and atypical school-age children.

Movement Assessment Battery for Children-Second Edition (MABC2): Cross-Cultural Validity, Content Validity, and Interrater Reliability in Thai Children

Introduction

The Movement Assessment Battery for Children-Second Edition (MABC2) is a standardized test for detecting children with movement difficulty. It was established and is used widely in Western countries. Studying cross-cultural validity and reliability was necessary before using the MABC2 with Thai children.

Purposes

To study cross-cultural validity, content validity, and interrater reliability of the MABC2.

Method

The MABC2-Age Band 2 (AB2: children aged 7-10 years) was translated into Thai from the source version of the MABC2 by using the following steps: forward translation, backward translation, panel discussion, and testing of the prefinal version of the Thai-MABC2-AB2. Five occupational therapists checked the content validity of the test. Twenty-nine children, aged 7-10 years, were examined by two testers in order to establish interrater reliability.

Results

This cross-cultural study demonstrated validity in the Thai context. Content validity was good with an item-objective congruence (IOC) range from 0.73 to 0.95. The intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) of interrater reliability ranged from 0.71 to 1.00.

Conclusion

The Thai-MABC2-AB2 is a good fit for use in a clinical and Thai cultural setting. Interrater reliability was moderate to good, which meant results between testers were consistent.

Reliability and Structural Validity of the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2 in Croatian Preschool Children

Monitoring and assessment of the development of motor skills is an important goal for practitioners in many disciplines as well as researchers interested in motor development. A well-established tool for such purpose is the Movement Assessment Battery for Children Second Edition (MABC-2) which covers three age ranges and contains eight motor items in each range related to the manual dexterity, aiming and catching, and balance. The main aim of the study was to investigate the reliability and validity of the MABC-2 age band one in a sample of Croatian preschool children. Structural validity was assessed using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). Measures of relative and absolute reliability were established by computing the intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC), standard error of the measurement (SEM), and smallest detectable change (SDC). About 17% of the children of the total sample fall into the categories of motor impairment and risk for impairment, respectively, while 83% were found to be in the category of normally developing children. Intraclass correlation coefficient for the total standard score was 0.79 while individual items, all except one, ranged from 0.70 to 0.83. Drawing trail, but also throwing beanbag and one-leg balance items presented large SEM and SDC values. CFA initially yielded a model with questionable fit to the data. After re-specification, excellent model fit was attained confirming the proposed three-factor model. Satorra–Bentler χ²(26) reached 38.56 (p = 0.054), root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) was 0.028, non-normed fit index (NNFI) was 0.98, adjusted goodness of fit (AGFI) was 0.97, and standardized root mean residual (SRMR) was 0.030. All the variables loaded significantly, and only two significant standardized residuals have been found. Correlations between the factors were weak, supporting discriminant validity of the test. We found MABC-2 to be an appropriate instrument to assess the development of motor competences of preschool children.

Self-efficacy profile in daily activities: Children at risk and with developmental coordination disorder

AIM

The objectives of this study were: 1) to compare the perceptions of self-efficacy in the daily activities (self-care, schoolwork, and leisure) of boys and girls with DCD, or in children at risk for DCD (r-DCD) and in typical children (TD); 2) to investigate if a self-efficacy assessment could be a support tool in the establishment of children with the DCD profile.

METHODS

Children between 6 to 8 years old (N=115: 35 with DCD, 40 with r-DCD, 40 with TD) were assessed using the Movement Assessment Battery for Children (MABC-2) and the Perceived Efficacy and Goal Setting System (PEGS). A two-way MANOVA showed significant effect for the perceived self-efficacy group.

RESULTS

The Bonferroni post hoc test indicated that in the self-care, schoolwork, leisure, and general self-efficacy dimensions the children with DCD presented significantly lower scores compared to children with r-DCD and TD (p < 0.001). A similar result was observed for r-DCD children in comparison with TD (p < 0.001). The discriminate analysis showed that perceived self-efficacy in leisure activities was the variable that most contributed to the discrimination of the groups.

CONCLUSION

The judgment of children with DCD and r-DCD on the effectiveness of the execution of schoolwork and leisure activities may have been influenced by the motor skill difficulties showed by the children.

Is the motor skills checklist appropriate for assessing children in Japan?

PURPOSE

Motor skill screening tools are essential for the early detection of developmental coordination disorder (DCD). The present study aimed to examine any cultural and rater effects on these tools. This then enabled us to judge the validity of the original cut-off values for identifying diagnosable children.

METHODS

A community sample survey was performed in Japan; 3852 children aged 6-9 years were recruited. Both parents and teachers evaluated the motor skills of their children using the Movement Assessment Battery for Children - Second Edition Checklist. The psychometric properties were evaluated and the scoring characteristics examined based on the type of rater and country of origin, as compared to data originally sampled in the UK.

RESULTS

High reliability and validity of the Japanese samples were confirmed. The Japanese adults evaluated their children's motor skills more rigorously than the Europeans. Additionally, there was a large disagreement between parent and teacher rating scores; the degree of agreement varied depending on the severity of motor deficits in the child.

CONCLUSION

The first findings from a Japanese sample suggest that the assessment of motor skills in children is significantly affected by culture and rater. These cultural characteristics and rater biases strongly suggest that new cut-off values, reflecting country and rater type, be introduced for identifying children at risk of DCD.

Motor skills assessments: support for a general motor factor for the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2 and the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency-2

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the construct validity and model-based reliability of general and specific contributions of the subscales of the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2 (MABC-2) and Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency-2 (BOT-2) when evaluating motor skills across a range of psychiatric disorders.

METHODS

Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and bifactor analysis were conducted on BOT-2 data from 187 elementary school students (grades 1 to 6) (mean age: 113 ± 20 months; boys: n = 117, 62.56%) and on MABC-2 data from 127 elementary school students (grade 1) (mean age: 76 ± 2 months; boys: n = 58, 45.67%).

RESULTS

The results of the CFA fit the data for multidimensionality for the BOT-2 and presented poor fit indices for the MABC-2. For both tests, the bifactor model showed that the reliability of the subscales was poor.

CONCLUSIONS

The BOT-2 exhibited factorial validity with a multidimensional structure among the current samples, but the MABC-2 showed poor fit indices, insufficient to confirm its multidimensional structure. For both tests, most of the reliable variance came from a general motor factor (M-factor), therefore the scoring and reporting of subscale scores were not justified for both tests.

An evaluation of the Movement ABC-2 Test for use in Italy: A comparison of data from Italy and the UK

BACKGROUND

The standardized test within the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2nd edition (MABC-2) is used worldwide to assess motor problems in children. Ideally, any country using a test developed in another country should produce national norms to ensure that it functions effectively in the new context.

AIM

The first objective of this study was to explore the differences in motor performance between Italian and British children. The second was to examine the structural validity of the test for the Italian sample.

METHOD

A total of 718 Italian (IT) and 765 British (UK) children, aged 3-10 years, were individually tested on the age-appropriate items of the MABC-2 Test.

RESULTS

Developmental trends emerged on every task and differences between IT and UK children were obtained on 11 of 27 task comparisons. Interactions between age and country indicated that differences were not consistently in favor of one culture. Confirmatory factor analysis generally supported the proposed structure of the MABC-2 Test.

CONCLUSION

Although the differences between the IT and the UK children were relatively few, those that did emerge emphasize the need for population specific norms and suggest that cultural diversity in motor experiences should be considered when evaluating motor abilities in children.

Psychometric properties of gross motor assessment tools for children: a systematic review

OBJECTIVE

Gross motor assessment tools have a critical role in identifying, diagnosing and evaluating motor difficulties in childhood. The objective of this review was to systematically evaluate the psychometric properties and clinical utility of gross motor assessment tools for children aged 2-12 years.

METHOD

A systematic search of MEDLINE, Embase, CINAHL and AMED was performed between May and July 2017. Methodological quality was assessed with the COnsensus-based Standards for the selection of health status Measurement INstruments checklist and an outcome measures rating form was used to evaluate reliability, validity and clinical utility of assessment tools.

RESULTS

Seven assessment tools from 37 studies/manuals met the inclusion criteria: Bayley Scale of Infant and Toddler Development-III (Bayley-III), Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency-2 (BOT-2), Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2 (MABC-2), McCarron Assessment of Neuromuscular Development (MAND), Neurological Sensory Motor Developmental Assessment (NSMDA), Peabody Developmental Motor Scales-2 (PDMS-2) and Test of Gross Motor Development-2 (TGMD-2). Methodological quality varied from poor to excellent. Validity and internal consistency varied from fair to excellent (α=0.5-0.99). The Bayley-III, NSMDA and MABC-2 have evidence of predictive validity. Test-retest reliability is excellent in the BOT-2 (intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC)=0.80-0.99), PDMS-2 (ICC=0.97), MABC-2 (ICC=0.83-0.96) and TGMD-2 (ICC=0.81-0.92). TGMD-2 has the highest inter-rater (ICC=0.88-0.93) and intrarater reliability (ICC=0.92-0.99).

CONCLUSIONS

The majority of gross motor assessments for children have good-excellent validity. Test-retest reliability is highest in the BOT-2, MABC-2, PDMS-2 and TGMD-2. The Bayley-III has the best predictive validity at 2 years of age for later motor outcome. None of the assessment tools demonstrate good evaluative validity. Further research on evaluative gross motor assessment tools are urgently needed.

Applicability of the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-Second Edition (MABC-2) for Japanese Children Aged 3-6 Years: A Preliminary Investigation Emphasizing Internal Consistency and Factorial Validity

This study investigated the applicability of the Movement Assessment Battery for Children - Second Edition (MABC-2) for 3- to 6-year-old Japanese children, particularly addressing its internal consistency and factorial validity. The MABC-2 test set for 3- to 6-year-old children was administered to 252 children. Differences between Japanese children and those of the original normative sample (i.e. United Kingdom children) were investigated along with sex differences. The Japanese children aged 3-6 years were found to have higher Manual Dexterity and Balance component scores than children of the normative sample. Girls scored higher than boys on the Balance component. Results of several analyses showed good internal consistency of the MABC-2. Confirmatory factor analysis revealed that a theoretical three-component model of the MABC-2 was not fitted to Japanese children aged 3-6 years. Instead, a new three-component model was postulated and discussed. The new three-component model of the MABC-2, with Manual Dexterity, Static Balance and Ball Skills, and Dynamic Balance, has high factorial validity in Japanese children aged 3-6 years.

Chinese handwriting performance in preterm children in grade 2

Background

First graders born prematurely perform poorly on handwriting speed and legibility. However, whether there are specific legibility factors in which preterm children demonstrate difficulty remains unknown. In addition, handwriting performance beyond the first grade and the influence of sex on handwriting performance in preterm children are still unclear. We aimed to investigate the influence of prematurity and sex on multiple dimensions of handwriting in grade two and to identify the contributors to performance.

Methods

Sixty-three preterm (34 boys and 29 girls) and 67 full-term (27 boys and 40 girls) peers in grade two were included. Class teachers were asked to complete the Chinese Handwriting Evaluation Form. A subgroup of 39 preterm children received assessments on intelligence, visual perception, tactile and kinesthetic sensation, and fine motor skills. Their inattention behavior was rated using a maternal self-report with a behavioral scale.

Results

Boys born prematurely exhibited poorer performance in the speed dimension than full-term boys (p = 0.008), whereas there was comparable performance in the two groups of girls (p = 0.221). In the dimensions related to legibility, preterm boys (32.4%) had a higher percentage of children with difficulty in the construction dimension than the other groups (preterm girls: 6.9%, full-term boys: 7.4%, full-term girls: 5.0%). However, no group difference was found in the dimensions of accuracy and directionality. Of the sensory-perceptual-motor factors, attention was the most significant predictor of accuracy in performance (p = 0.046) and speed dimensions (p = 0.001) in preterm children.

Conclusions

Boys appear to be vulnerable to the adverse impacts of preterm birth in terms of performance in the dimensions of speed and construction in grade two. Based on the significant contribution of attention to handwriting performance in preterm children, assessment and intervention in the area of attention is strongly suggested for preterm children with handwriting problems.

The validity of the 4-Skills Scan A double-validation study

Adequate gross motor skills are an essential aspect of a child's healthy development. Where physical education (PE) is part of the primary school curriculum, a strong curriculum-based emphasis on evaluation and support of motor skill development in PE is apparent. Monitoring motor development is then a task for the PE teacher. To fulfill this task, teachers need adequate tools. The 4-Skills Scan is a quick and easily manageable gross motor skill instrument; however, its validity has never been assessed. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to assess the construct and concurrent validity of both 4-Skills Scans (version 2007 and version 2015). A total of 212 primary school children (6-12 years old) was requested to participate in both versions of the 4-Skills Scan. For assessing construct validity, children covered an obstacle course with video recordings for observation by an expert panel. For concurrent validity, a comparison was made with the M-ABC-2, by calculating Pearson correlations. Multivariable linear regression analyses were performed to determine the contribution of each subscale to the construct of gross motor skills, according to the M-ABC-2 and the expert panel. Correlations between the 4-Skills Scans and expert valuations were moderate, with coefficients of .47 (version 2007) and .46 (version 2015). Correlations between the 4-Skills Scans and the M-ABC-2 (gross) were moderate (.56) for version 2007 and high (.64) for version 2015. It is concluded that both versions of the 4-Skills Scans are satisfactory valid instruments for assessing gross motor skills during PE lessons.