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Holthaus KB, Eckhart L. Development-Associated Genes of the Epidermal Differentiation Complex (EDC). J Dev Biol 2024; 12:4. [PMID: 38248869 PMCID: PMC10801484 DOI: 10.3390/jdb12010004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2023] [Revised: 12/28/2023] [Accepted: 01/10/2024] [Indexed: 01/23/2024] Open
Abstract
The epidermal differentiation complex (EDC) is a cluster of genes that encode protein components of the outermost layers of the epidermis in mammals, reptiles and birds. The development of the stratified epidermis from a single-layered ectoderm involves an embryo-specific superficial cell layer, the periderm. An additional layer, the subperiderm, develops in crocodilians and over scutate scales of birds. Here, we review the expression of EDC genes during embryonic development. Several EDC genes are expressed predominantly or exclusively in embryo-specific cell layers, whereas others are confined to the epidermal layers that are maintained in postnatal skin. The S100 fused-type proteins scaffoldin and trichohyalin are expressed in the avian and mammalian periderm, respectively. Scaffoldin forms the so-called periderm granules, which are histological markers of the periderm in birds. Epidermal differentiation cysteine-rich protein (EDCRP) and epidermal differentiation protein containing DPCC motifs (EDDM) are expressed in the avian subperiderm where they are supposed to undergo cross-linking via disulfide bonds. Furthermore, a histidine-rich epidermal differentiation protein and feather-type corneous beta-proteins, also known as beta-keratins, are expressed in the subperiderm. The accumulating evidence for roles of EDC genes in the development of the epidermis has implications on the evolutionary diversification of the skin in amniotes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Leopold Eckhart
- Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria
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2
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Lee J, Koehler KR. Skin organoids: A new human model for developmental and translational research. Exp Dermatol 2021; 30:613-620. [PMID: 33507537 DOI: 10.1111/exd.14292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2020] [Revised: 12/31/2020] [Accepted: 01/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Culturing skin cells outside of the body has been a cornerstone of dermatological investigation for many years; however, human skin equivalent systems typically lack the full complexity of native skin. Notably, skin appendages, such as hair follicles and sweat glands, remain a challenge to generate or maintain in cell cultures and reconstruct in damaged skin. Recent work from our lab has demonstrated methods for generating appendage-bearing skin tissue-known as skin organoids-from pluripotent stem cells. Here, we will summarize this work and other related works, and then discuss the potential future applications of skin organoids in dermatological research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiyoon Lee
- Department of Otolaryngology, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.,F.M. Kirby Neurobiology Center, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.,Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Karl R Koehler
- Department of Otolaryngology, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.,Department of Plastic and Oral Surgery, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.,F.M. Kirby Neurobiology Center, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.,Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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3
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Reynolds G, Vegh P, Fletcher J, Poyner EFM, Stephenson E, Goh I, Botting RA, Huang N, Olabi B, Dubois A, Dixon D, Green K, Maunder D, Engelbert J, Efremova M, Polański K, Jardine L, Jones C, Ness T, Horsfall D, McGrath J, Carey C, Popescu DM, Webb S, Wang XN, Sayer B, Park JE, Negri VA, Belokhvostova D, Lynch MD, McDonald D, Filby A, Hagai T, Meyer KB, Husain A, Coxhead J, Vento-Tormo R, Behjati S, Lisgo S, Villani AC, Bacardit J, Jones PH, O'Toole EA, Ogg GS, Rajan N, Reynolds NJ, Teichmann SA, Watt FM, Haniffa M. Developmental cell programs are co-opted in inflammatory skin disease. Science 2021; 371:eaba6500. [PMID: 33479125 PMCID: PMC7611557 DOI: 10.1126/science.aba6500] [Citation(s) in RCA: 236] [Impact Index Per Article: 78.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2019] [Revised: 09/03/2020] [Accepted: 12/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The skin confers biophysical and immunological protection through a complex cellular network established early in embryonic development. We profiled the transcriptomes of more than 500,000 single cells from developing human fetal skin, healthy adult skin, and adult skin with atopic dermatitis and psoriasis. We leveraged these datasets to compare cell states across development, homeostasis, and disease. Our analysis revealed an enrichment of innate immune cells in skin during the first trimester and clonal expansion of disease-associated lymphocytes in atopic dermatitis and psoriasis. We uncovered and validated in situ a reemergence of prenatal vascular endothelial cell and macrophage cellular programs in atopic dermatitis and psoriasis lesional skin. These data illustrate the dynamism of cutaneous immunity and provide opportunities for targeting pathological developmental programs in inflammatory skin diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gary Reynolds
- Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4HH, UK
| | - Peter Vegh
- Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4HH, UK
| | - James Fletcher
- Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4HH, UK
| | - Elizabeth F M Poyner
- Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4HH, UK
- Department of Dermatology and NIHR Newcastle Biomedical Research Centre, Newcastle Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4LP, UK
| | - Emily Stephenson
- Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4HH, UK
| | - Issac Goh
- Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4HH, UK
| | - Rachel A Botting
- Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4HH, UK
| | - Ni Huang
- Wellcome Sanger Institute, Wellcome Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge CB10 1SA, UK
| | - Bayanne Olabi
- Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4HH, UK
- Department of Dermatology, NHS Lothian, Lauriston Building, Edinburgh EH3 9EN, UK
| | - Anna Dubois
- Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4HH, UK
- Department of Dermatology and NIHR Newcastle Biomedical Research Centre, Newcastle Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4LP, UK
| | - David Dixon
- Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4HH, UK
| | - Kile Green
- Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4HH, UK
| | - Daniel Maunder
- Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4HH, UK
| | - Justin Engelbert
- Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4HH, UK
| | - Mirjana Efremova
- Wellcome Sanger Institute, Wellcome Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge CB10 1SA, UK
| | - Krzysztof Polański
- Wellcome Sanger Institute, Wellcome Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge CB10 1SA, UK
| | - Laura Jardine
- Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4HH, UK
| | - Claire Jones
- Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4HH, UK
| | - Thomas Ness
- Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4HH, UK
| | - Dave Horsfall
- Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4HH, UK
| | - Jim McGrath
- Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4HH, UK
| | - Christopher Carey
- Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4HH, UK
| | - Dorin-Mirel Popescu
- Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4HH, UK
| | - Simone Webb
- Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4HH, UK
| | - Xiao-Nong Wang
- Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4HH, UK
| | - Ben Sayer
- Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4HH, UK
| | - Jong-Eun Park
- Wellcome Sanger Institute, Wellcome Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge CB10 1SA, UK
| | - Victor A Negri
- Centre for Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine, King's College London, Guy's Hospital Campus, London SE1 9RT, UK
| | - Daria Belokhvostova
- Centre for Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine, King's College London, Guy's Hospital Campus, London SE1 9RT, UK
| | - Magnus D Lynch
- Centre for Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine, King's College London, Guy's Hospital Campus, London SE1 9RT, UK
| | - David McDonald
- Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4HH, UK
| | - Andrew Filby
- Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4HH, UK
| | - Tzachi Hagai
- Shmunis School of Biomedicine and Cancer Research, George S. Wise Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
| | - Kerstin B Meyer
- Wellcome Sanger Institute, Wellcome Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge CB10 1SA, UK
| | - Akhtar Husain
- Department of Pathology, Royal Victoria Infirmary, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 4LP, UK
| | - Jonathan Coxhead
- Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4HH, UK
| | - Roser Vento-Tormo
- Wellcome Sanger Institute, Wellcome Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge CB10 1SA, UK
| | - Sam Behjati
- Wellcome Sanger Institute, Wellcome Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge CB10 1SA, UK
- Department of Paediatrics, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0SP, UK
| | - Steven Lisgo
- Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4HH, UK
| | - Alexandra-Chloé Villani
- Broad Institute of Harvard and MIT, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
- Center for Immunology and Inflammatory Diseases, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02129, USA
| | - Jaume Bacardit
- School of Computing, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE4 5TG, UK
| | - Philip H Jones
- Wellcome Sanger Institute, Wellcome Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge CB10 1SA, UK
- MRC Cancer Unit, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0XZ, UK
| | - Edel A O'Toole
- Centre for Cell Biology and Cutaneous Research, Blizard Institute, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK
| | - Graham S Ogg
- MRC Human Immunology Unit, Oxford Biomedical Research Centre, MRC Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Neil Rajan
- Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4HH, UK
- Department of Dermatology and NIHR Newcastle Biomedical Research Centre, Newcastle Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4LP, UK
| | - Nick J Reynolds
- Department of Dermatology and NIHR Newcastle Biomedical Research Centre, Newcastle Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4LP, UK
- Translational and Clinical Research Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4HH, UK
| | - Sarah A Teichmann
- Wellcome Sanger Institute, Wellcome Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge CB10 1SA, UK.
- Theory of Condensed Matter Group, Cavendish Laboratory/Department of Physics, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB3 0HE, UK
| | - Fiona M Watt
- Centre for Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine, King's College London, Guy's Hospital Campus, London SE1 9RT, UK.
| | - Muzlifah Haniffa
- Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4HH, UK.
- Department of Dermatology and NIHR Newcastle Biomedical Research Centre, Newcastle Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4LP, UK
- Wellcome Sanger Institute, Wellcome Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge CB10 1SA, UK
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4
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Qiu T, Teshima THN, Hovorakova M, Tucker AS. Development of the Vestibular Lamina in Human Embryos: Morphogenesis and Vestibule Formation. Front Physiol 2020; 11:753. [PMID: 32765288 PMCID: PMC7378788 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2020.00753] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2020] [Accepted: 06/11/2020] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The vestibular lamina (VL) is a transient developmental structure that forms the lip furrow, creating a gap between the lips/cheeks and teeth (oral vestibule). Surprisingly, little is known about the development of the VL and its relationship to the adjacent dental lamina (DL), which forms the teeth. In some congenital disorders, such as Ellis-van Creveld (EVC) syndrome, development of the VL is disrupted and multiple supernumerary frenula form, physically linking the lips and teeth. Here, we assess the normal development of the VL in human embryos from 6.5 (CS19) to 13 weeks of development, showing the close relationship between the VL and DL, from initiation to differentiation. In the anterior lower region, the two structures arise from the same epithelial thickening. The VL then undergoes complex morphogenetic changes during development, forming a branched structure that separates to create the vestibule. Changing expression of keratins highlight the differentiation patterns in the VL, with fissure formation linked to the onset of filaggrin. Apoptosis is involved in removal of the central portion of the VL to create a broad furrow between the future cheek and gum. This research forms an essential base to further explore developmental defects in this part of the oral cavity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tengyang Qiu
- Centre for Craniofacial and Regenerative Biology, Faculty of Dentistry, Oral and Craniofacial Sciences, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Tathyane H. N. Teshima
- Centre for Craniofacial and Regenerative Biology, Faculty of Dentistry, Oral and Craniofacial Sciences, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Maria Hovorakova
- Institute of Histology and Embryology, First Faculty of Medicine, Charles University in Prague, Prague, Czechia
- Institute of Experimental Medicine, Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czechia
| | - Abigail S. Tucker
- Centre for Craniofacial and Regenerative Biology, Faculty of Dentistry, Oral and Craniofacial Sciences, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
- Institute of Experimental Medicine, Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czechia
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5
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Acheva A, Schettino G, Prise KM. Pro-inflammatory Signaling in a 3D Organotypic Skin Model after Low LET Irradiation-NF-κB, COX-2 Activation, and Impact on Cell Differentiation. Front Immunol 2017; 8:82. [PMID: 28239377 PMCID: PMC5300980 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2017.00082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2016] [Accepted: 01/18/2017] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Nearly 85% of radiotherapy patients develop acute radiation dermatitis, which is an inflammatory reaction of the skin at the treatment field and in the surrounding area. The aims of this study were to unravel the mechanisms of radiation-induced inflammatory responses after localized irradiation in a human 3D organotypic skin culture model. This could provide possible inflammatory targets for reduction of skin side effects. 3D organotypic skin cultures were set up and locally irradiated with 225 kVp X-rays, using a combination of full exposure and partial shielding (50%) of the cultures. The secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines, the phenotype, and the differentiation markers expression of the cultures were assessed up to 10 days postirradiation. The pro-inflammatory transcription factor nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) pathways have been studied. The results showed fast activation of NF-κB, most likely triggered by DNA damage in the irradiated cells, followed by upregulation of p38 MAPK and COX-2 in the irradiated and surrounding, non-irradiated, areas of the 3D cultures. The application of the COX-2 inhibitor sc-236 was effective at reducing the COX-2 mRNA levels 4 h postirradiation. The same inhibitor also suppressed the PGE2 secretion significantly 72 h after the treatment. The expression of a pro-inflammatory phenotype and abnormal differentiation markers of the cultures were also reduced. However, the use of an NF-κB inhibitor (Bay 11-7085) did not have the predicted positive effect on the cultures phenotype postirradiation. Radiation-induced pro-inflammatory responses have been observed in the 3D skin model. The activated signaling pathways involved NF-κB transcription factor and its downstream target COX-2. Further experiments aiming to suppress the inflammatory response via specific inhibitors showed that COX-2 is a suitable target for reduction of the normal skin inflammatory responses at radiotherapy, while NF-κB inhibition had detrimental effects on the 3D skin model development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Acheva
- Queen's University Belfast, Centre for Cancer Research and Cell Biology, Belfast, UK; Section of Pathology, Department of Veterinary Biosciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Giuseppe Schettino
- Queen's University Belfast, Centre for Cancer Research and Cell Biology, Belfast, UK; National Physical Laboratory, Teddington, UK
| | - Kevin M Prise
- Queen's University Belfast, Centre for Cancer Research and Cell Biology , Belfast , UK
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6
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Petrova A, Capalbo A, Jacquet L, Hazelwood-Smith S, Dafou D, Hobbs C, Arno M, Farcomeni A, Devito L, Badraiq H, Simpson M, McGrath JA, Di WL, Cheng JB, Mauro TM, Ilic D. Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell Differentiation and Three-Dimensional Tissue Formation Attenuate Clonal Epigenetic Differences in Trichohyalin. Stem Cells Dev 2016; 25:1366-75. [PMID: 27460132 DOI: 10.1089/scd.2016.0156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The epigenetic background of pluripotent stem cells can influence transcriptional and functional behavior. Most of these data have been obtained in standard monolayer cell culture systems. In this study, we used exome sequencing, array comparative genomic hybridization (CGH), miRNA array, DNA methylation array, three-dimensional (3D) tissue engineering, and immunostaining to conduct a comparative analysis of two induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) lines used in engineering of 3D human epidermal equivalent (HEE), which more closely approximates epidermis. Exome sequencing and array CGH suggested that their genome was stable following 3 months of feeder-free culture. While the miRNAome was also not affected, ≈7% of CpG sites were differently methylated between the two lines. Analysis of the epidermal differentiation complex, a region on chromosome 1 that contains multiple genes involved in skin barrier maturation (including trichohyalin, TCHH), found that in one of the iPSC clones (iKCL004), TCHH retained a DNA methylation signature characteristic of the original somatic cells, whereas in other iPSC line (iKCL011), the TCHH methylation signature matched that of the human embryonic stem cell line KCL034. The difference between the two iPSC clones in TCHH methylation did not have an obvious effect on its expression in 3D HEE, suggesting that differentiation and tissue formation may mitigate variations in the iPSC methylome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anastasia Petrova
- 1 Assisted Conception Unit, Stem Cell Laboratory, Division of Women's Health, Women's Health Academic Centre, King's College London , London, United Kingdom .,2 St John's Institute of Dermatology , King's College London, London, United Kingdom .,3 Immunobiology Unit, Institute of Child Health, University College London , London, United Kingdom
| | | | - Laureen Jacquet
- 1 Assisted Conception Unit, Stem Cell Laboratory, Division of Women's Health, Women's Health Academic Centre, King's College London , London, United Kingdom
| | - Simon Hazelwood-Smith
- 5 Division of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, King's College London , London, United Kingdom
| | - Dimitra Dafou
- 5 Division of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, King's College London , London, United Kingdom
| | - Carl Hobbs
- 6 Histology Laboratory, Wolfson Centre for Age-Related Diseases, King's College London , London, United Kingdom
| | - Matthew Arno
- 7 Genomics Centre, King's College London , London, United Kingdom
| | - Alessio Farcomeni
- 8 Statistics Section, Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, Sapienza-University of Rome , Rome, Italy
| | - Liani Devito
- 1 Assisted Conception Unit, Stem Cell Laboratory, Division of Women's Health, Women's Health Academic Centre, King's College London , London, United Kingdom
| | - Heba Badraiq
- 1 Assisted Conception Unit, Stem Cell Laboratory, Division of Women's Health, Women's Health Academic Centre, King's College London , London, United Kingdom
| | - Michael Simpson
- 5 Division of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, King's College London , London, United Kingdom
| | - John A McGrath
- 2 St John's Institute of Dermatology , King's College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Wei-Li Di
- 3 Immunobiology Unit, Institute of Child Health, University College London , London, United Kingdom
| | - Jeffrey B Cheng
- 9 Department of Dermatology, Veteran Affairs Medical Center, University of California San Francisco , San Francisco, California
| | - Theodora M Mauro
- 9 Department of Dermatology, Veteran Affairs Medical Center, University of California San Francisco , San Francisco, California
| | - Dusko Ilic
- 1 Assisted Conception Unit, Stem Cell Laboratory, Division of Women's Health, Women's Health Academic Centre, King's College London , London, United Kingdom
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7
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Epigenetic Regulation of Epidermal Stem Cell Biomarkers and Their Role in Wound Healing. Int J Mol Sci 2015; 17:ijms17010016. [PMID: 26712738 PMCID: PMC4730263 DOI: 10.3390/ijms17010016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2015] [Revised: 12/11/2015] [Accepted: 12/16/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
As an actively renewable tissue, changes in skin architecture are subjected to the regulation of stem cells that maintain the population of cells responsible for the formation of epidermal layers. Stems cells retain their self-renewal property and express biomarkers that are unique to this population. However, differential regulation of the biomarkers can initiate the pathway of terminal cell differentiation. Although, pockets of non-clarity in stem cell maintenance and differentiation in skin still exist, the influence of epigenetics in epidermal stem cell functions and differentiation in skin homeostasis and wound healing is clearly evident. The focus of this review is to discuss the epigenetic regulation of confirmed and probable epidermal stem cell biomarkers in epidermal stratification of normal skin and in diseased states. The role of epigenetics in wound healing, especially in diseased states of diabetes and cancer, will also be conveyed.
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8
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Mlitz V, Strasser B, Jaeger K, Hermann M, Ghannadan M, Buchberger M, Alibardi L, Tschachler E, Eckhart L. Trichohyalin-like proteins have evolutionarily conserved roles in the morphogenesis of skin appendages. J Invest Dermatol 2014; 134:2685-2692. [PMID: 24780931 PMCID: PMC4260798 DOI: 10.1038/jid.2014.204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2014] [Revised: 03/28/2014] [Accepted: 04/11/2014] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
S100 fused-type proteins (SFTPs) such as filaggrin, trichohyalin, and cornulin are differentially expressed in cornifying keratinocytes of the epidermis and various skin appendages. To determine evolutionarily conserved, and thus presumably important, features of SFTPs, we characterized nonmammalian SFTPs and compared their amino acid sequences and expression patterns with those of mammalian SFTPs. We identified an ortholog of cornulin and a previously unknown SFTP, termed scaffoldin, in reptiles and birds, whereas filaggrin was confined to mammals. In contrast to mammalian SFTPs, both cornulin and scaffoldin of the chicken are expressed in the embryonic periderm. However, scaffoldin resembles mammalian trichohyalin with regard to its expression in the filiform papillae of the tongue and in the epithelium underneath the forming tips of the claws. Furthermore, scaffoldin is expressed in the epithelial sheath around growing feathers, reminiscent of trichohyalin expression in the inner root sheath of hair. The results of this study show that SFTP-positive epithelia function as scaffolds for the growth of diverse skin appendages such as claws, nails, hair, and feathers, indicating a common evolutionary origin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veronika Mlitz
- Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Bettina Strasser
- Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Karin Jaeger
- Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Marcela Hermann
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Max F. Perutz Laboratories, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Minoo Ghannadan
- Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Maria Buchberger
- Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Lorenzo Alibardi
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biologiche, Geologiche ed Ambientali (BiGeA), Università di Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Erwin Tschachler
- Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Leopold Eckhart
- Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.
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9
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Schuster C, Gläser R, Fiala C, Eppel W, Harder J, Schröder JM, Elbe-Bürger A. Prenatal human skin expresses the antimicrobial peptide RNase 7. Arch Dermatol Res 2013; 305:545-9. [PMID: 23545750 PMCID: PMC3717166 DOI: 10.1007/s00403-013-1340-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2012] [Revised: 02/28/2013] [Accepted: 03/18/2013] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Antimicrobial peptides and proteins (AMPs) play important roles in skin immune defense due to their capacity to inhibit growth of microbes. During intrauterine life, the skin immune system has to acquire the prerequisites to protect the newborn from infection in the hostile environment after birth, which includes the production of skin AMPs. The aim of this study was to analyze the expression of RNase 7, HBD-2/3 and psoriasin during human skin development, thus, providing a deeper insight about the maturity of a fundamental component of the innate immune system. We found low RNase 7 expression levels in the periderm but no expression of HBD-2/3 and psoriasin in first trimester human skin using immunohistochemistry. At the end of the second trimester, RNase 7 is expressed weakly in all epidermal layers with a marked signal in the stratum corneum. HBD-3 and psoriasin are focally expressed while HBD-2 is not detectable. Analysis of supernatants from cultured prenatal skin cells showed that in contrast to adult control, RNase 7 and psoriasin are not found in prenatal skin, suggesting that AMPs are detectable but are not secreted. This study shows the differential expression of AMPs in developing, non-perturbed human prenatal skin. It is conceivable that the combined expression of RNase 7, HBD-3 and psoriasin in fetal skin constitutes a developmental program to exert a broad spectrum of antimicrobial activity to maintain sterility in the amniotic cavity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Schuster
- Division of Immunology, Allergy and Infectious Diseases (DIAID), Department of Dermatology, Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunobiology of the Skin, Medical University of Vienna, Währinger Gürtel 18-20, 1090, Vienna, Austria
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10
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Wei T, Orfanidis K, Xu N, Janson P, Ståhle M, Pivarcsi A, Sonkoly E. The expression of microRNA-203 during human skin morphogenesis. Exp Dermatol 2010; 19:854-6. [PMID: 20698882 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0625.2010.01118.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
MicroRNAs are small, non-coding RNAs that regulate gene expression post-transcriptionally and play important roles in various biological processes. We previously identified miR-203 as a skin- and keratinocyte-specific microRNA. Moreover, miR-203 has been implicated in repressing 'stemness' in epidermal progenitors. Here, we investigate the expression of miR-203 and two of its targets, p63 and suppressor of cytokine signalling-3, during human skin morphogenesis. MiR-203 in situ hybridization was performed on sections of human foetal skin ranging from 14 to 22 weeks' gestation and adult skin. MiR-203 was barely detectable at 14 weeks. Its expression became prominent from week 17 and was most pronounced in the suprabasal layers of the epidermis, while p63 and SOCS-3 were preferentially expressed in the basal layer. Differentiation markers such as involucrin and filaggrin were expressed mainly in the suprabasal layers of epidermis, similar to miR-203. Our results support the involvement of miR-203 in skin morphogenesis.
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Coolen NA, Schouten KCWM, Middelkoop E, Ulrich MMW. Comparison between human fetal and adult skin. Arch Dermatol Res 2009; 302:47-55. [PMID: 19701759 PMCID: PMC2799629 DOI: 10.1007/s00403-009-0989-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2009] [Revised: 07/15/2009] [Accepted: 07/17/2009] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Healing of early-gestation fetal wounds results in scarless healing. Since the capacity for regeneration is probably inherent to the fetal skin itself, knowledge of the fetal skin composition may contribute to the understanding of fetal wound healing. The aim of this study was to analyze the expression profiles of different epidermal and dermal components in the human fetal and adult skin. In the human fetal skin (ranging from 13 to 22 weeks' gestation) and adult skin biopsies, the expression patterns of several epidermal proteins (K10, K14, K16, K17, SKALP, involucrin), basement membrane proteins, Ki-67, blood vessels and extracellular matrix proteins (fibronectin, chondroitin sulfate, elastin) were determined using immunohistochemistry. The expression profiles of K17, involucrin, dermal Ki-67, fibronectin and chondroitin sulfate were higher in the fetal skin than in adult skin. In the fetal skin, elastin was not present in the dermis, but it was found in the adult skin. The expression patterns of basement membrane proteins, blood vessels, K10, K14, K16 and epidermal Ki-67 were similar in human fetal skin and adult skin. In this systematic overview, most of the differences between fetal and adult skin were found at the level of dermal extracellular matrix molecules expression. This study suggests that, especially, dermal components are important in fetal scarless healing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neeltje A Coolen
- Association of Dutch Burn Centres, P.O. Box 1015, 1940 EA, Beverwijk, The Netherlands
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12
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Guerra L, Dellambra E, Panacchia L, Paionni E. Tissue Engineering for Damaged Surface and Lining Epithelia: Stem Cells, Current Clinical Applications, and Available Engineered Tissues. TISSUE ENGINEERING PART B-REVIEWS 2009; 15:91-112. [DOI: 10.1089/ten.teb.2008.0418] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Liliana Guerra
- Tissue Engineering and Cutaneous Physiopathology Laboratory, Istituto Dermopatico dell'Immacolata-IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Elena Dellambra
- Tissue Engineering and Cutaneous Physiopathology Laboratory, Istituto Dermopatico dell'Immacolata-IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Laura Panacchia
- Tissue Engineering and Cutaneous Physiopathology Laboratory, Istituto Dermopatico dell'Immacolata-IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Emanuel Paionni
- Tissue Engineering and Cutaneous Physiopathology Laboratory, Istituto Dermopatico dell'Immacolata-IRCCS, Rome, Italy
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Lourenço SV, Kamibeppu L, Fernandes JD, Sotto MN, Nico MMS. Relationship of adhesion molecules expression with epithelial differentiation markers during fetal skin development. J Cutan Pathol 2008; 35:731-7. [PMID: 18430044 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0560.2007.00893.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cadherins and integrins are important for maintenance of tissue integrity and in signal transduction during skin development. Distribution of these molecules in human skin development was investigated and associated with markers of differentiation, cytokeratins (CK) and involucrin (INV). METHODS Using immunohistochemistry expression of E- and P-cadherins, integrins beta-1 and -4, CK10, CK14 and INV was assessed in skin fragments of 10 human fetuses (gestational weeks ranged from 4 to 24, all weighing up to 500 g). RESULTS At initial phases of development, integrins beta-1 and -4 and E- and P-cadherins were present on epithelial cell membranes in all layers. CK14 and CK10 were expressed in all epithelial layers and INV weakly detected in the superficial layer. In more advanced stages, integrins were detected in all layers, but a marked polarized expression was seen in basal layer. E-cadherin was detected in all layers, but the cornified stratum and P-cadherin were observed in the lower layers. CK14 was expressed in basal layer, CK10 in suprabasal stratum and INV was observed in cornified layer. CONCLUSIONS Cadherins and integrins are essential for skin development, being spatially and temporally regulated. Their expression is related with the expression of maturation markers of the epidermis.
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Yu Z, Gordon SW, Nixon AJ, Bawden CS, Rogers MA, Wildermoth JE, Maqbool NJ, Pearson AJ. Expression patterns of keratin intermediate filament and keratin associated protein genes in wool follicles. Differentiation 2008; 77:307-16. [PMID: 19272529 DOI: 10.1016/j.diff.2008.10.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2008] [Revised: 09/17/2008] [Accepted: 10/03/2008] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
The catalogue of hair keratin intermediate filaments (KIFs) and keratin-associated proteins (KAPs) present in wool follicles is incomplete. The full coding sequences for three novel sheep KIFs (KRT27, KRT35 and KRT38) and one KAP (KRTAP4-3) were established in this study. Spatial expression patterns of these and other genes (KRT31, KRT85, KRTAP6-1 and trichohyalin) were determined by in situ hybridisation in wool follicles at synchronised stages of growth. Transcription proceeded in the order: trichohyalin, KRT27, KRT85, KRT35, KRT31, KRT38, KRTAP6-1 and KRTAP4-3, as determined by increasing distance of their expression zones from the germinal matrix in anagen follicles. Expression became gradually more restricted to the lower follicle during follicle regression (catagen), and ceased during dormancy (telogen). Some genes (KRT27, KRT31, KRT85 and KRTAP6-1), but not others, were expressed in cortical cells forming the brush-end, indicating specific requirements for the formation of this anchoring structure. The resumption of keratin expression was observed only in later stages of follicle reactivation (proanagen). KIF expression patterns in primary wool follicles showed general resemblance to their human homologues but with some unique features. Consistent differences in localisation between primary and secondary wool follicles were observed. Asymmetrical expression of KRT27, KRT31, KRT35, KRT85 and trichohyalin genes in secondary follicles were associated with bulb deflection and follicle curvature, suggesting a role in the determination of follicle and fibre morphology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhidong Yu
- Growth and Development Section, AgResearch Ruakura, Private Bag 3123, Hamilton 3214, New Zealand.
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15
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Deimling J, Thompson K, Tseu I, Wang J, Keijzer R, Tanswell AK, Post M. Mesenchymal maintenance of distal epithelial cell phenotype during late fetal lung development. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 2006; 292:L725-41. [PMID: 17114281 DOI: 10.1152/ajplung.00221.2006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Classical tissue recombination experiments have reported that at early gestation both tracheal and distal lung epithelium have the plasticity to respond to mesenchymal signals. Herein we examined the role of epithelial-mesenchymal interactions in maintaining epithelial differentiation at late (E19-E21, term = 22 days) fetal gestation in the rat. Isolated distal lung epithelial cells were recombined with mesenchymal cells from lung, skin, and intestine, and the homotypic or heterotypic recombinant cell aggregates were cultured for up to 5 days. Recombining lung epithelial cells with mesenchyme from various sources induced a morphological pattern that was specific to the type of inducing mesenchyme. In situ analysis of surfactant protein (SP)-C, SP-B, and Clara cell secretory protein (CCSP) expression, as well as SP-C and CCSP promoter transactivation experiments, revealed that distal lung epithelium requires lung mesenchyme to maintain the alveolar, but not bronchiolar, phenotype. Incubation of lung recombinants with an anti-FGF7 antibody resulted in a partial inhibition of mesenchyme-induced SP-C promoter transactivation. Immunoreactivity for Delta and Lunatic fringe, components of the Notch pathway that regulates cell differentiation, was downregulated in the heterotypic recombinants. In contrast, Hes1 mRNA expression was increased in these recombinants. Cumulatively, these results suggest that at late fetal gestation, distal lung epithelial cells are not fully committed to a specific phenotype and still have the plasticity to respond to various signals. Their alveolar phenotype is likely maintained by Notch/Notch ligand interactions and mesenchymal factors, including FGF7.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie Deimling
- Lung Biology Program, Hospital for Sick Children, 555 University Ave., Toronto, Ontario, M5G 1X8, Canada
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16
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Fluhr JW, Crumrine D, Mao-Qiang M, Moskowitz DG, Elias PM, Feingold KR. Topical Liver X Receptor Activators Accelerate Postnatal Acidification of Stratum Corneum and Improve Function in the Neonate. J Invest Dermatol 2005; 125:1206-14. [PMID: 16354191 DOI: 10.1111/j.0022-202x.2005.23964.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
In neonatal rat stratum corneum (SC), pH declines from pH 6.8 at birth to adult levels (pH 5.0-5.5) over 5-6 d. Liver X receptor (LXR) activators stimulate keratinocyte differentiation, improve permeability barrier homeostasis, and accelerate the in utero development of the SC. In this manuscript we determined the effect of LXR activators on SC acidification in the neonatal period and whether these activators correct the functional abnormalities in permeability barrier homeostasis and SC integrity/cohesion. Formation of the acid SC-buffer system was accelerated by topically applying the LXR activator, 22(R)-hydroxycholesterol, and non-oxysterol activators of LXR, TO-901317, and GW-3965. A sterol which does not activate LXR had no effect. LXR activation increased secretory phospholipase A(2) (sPLA(2)) activity and conversely, inhibition of sPLA(2) activity prevented the LXR induced increase in SC acidification, suggesting that increasing sPLA(2) accounts in part, for the LXR stimulation of acidification. LXR activation resulted in an improvement in permeability barrier homeostasis, associated with an increased maturation of lamellar membranes attributable to an increased beta-glucocerebrosidase activity. SC integrity cohesion also normalized in LXR-activator-treated animals and was associated with an increase in corneodesmosomes and in desmoglein 1 expression. These results demonstrate that LXR activators stimulate the formation of an acidic SC and improve both permeability barrier homeostasis and SC integrity/cohesion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joachim W Fluhr
- Dermatology and Medical Service, Veterans Affairs Medical Center, San Francisco, California, USA.
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Lee WH, Jang S, Lee JS, Lee Y, Seo EY, You KH, Lee SC, Nam KI, Kim JM, Kee SH, Yang JM, Seo YJ, Park JK, Kim CD, Lee JH. Molecular Cloning and Expression of Human Keratinocyte Proline-Rich Protein (hKPRP), an Epidermal Marker Isolated from Calcium-Induced Differentiating Keratinocytes. J Invest Dermatol 2005; 125:995-1000. [PMID: 16297201 DOI: 10.1111/j.0022-202x.2005.23887.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
We isolated a human gene encoding keratinocyte proline-rich protein (hKPRP). hKPRP gene is located in the region of epidermal differentiation complex on chromosome 1q21, and its approximately 2.5 kb mRNA encodes 579 amino acid protein with high proline content (18%). The mRNA level of hKPRP was markedly increased at both 7 and 14 d after treatment with 1.2 mM calcium in cultured normal human epidermal keratinocytes. In situ hybridization demonstrated that hKPRP was expressed in upper granular layer of normal epidermis with characteristic intermittent pattern. In psoriatic lesion, hKPRP expression was increased as compared with normal skin and showed continuous pattern. Immunohistochemical analysis also confirmed the expression of hKPRP at the protein level. Western blot analysis showed that hKPRP protein of approximately 70 kDa size was significantly increased by calcium in a time-dependent manner. In mouse tissue blot assays, the expression of KPRP was detected in stomach and skin tissues, and began at 17.5 embryonic days. Additionally, hKPRP expression was detected in the periderm of human fetal skin from 16 wk estimated gestational age. Together, these results suggest that hKPRP is an epidermal marker expressed in stratified squamous epithelia and has a potential role in keratinocytes differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Woong-Hee Lee
- Department of Dermatology, School of Medicine, Chungnam National University, Daejeon, Korea
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Netzlaff F, Lehr CM, Wertz PW, Schaefer UF. The human epidermis models EpiSkin, SkinEthic and EpiDerm: an evaluation of morphology and their suitability for testing phototoxicity, irritancy, corrosivity, and substance transport. Eur J Pharm Biopharm 2005; 60:167-78. [PMID: 15913972 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejpb.2005.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 239] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2004] [Revised: 03/07/2005] [Accepted: 03/16/2005] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The commercially available reconstructed human epidermis models EpiSkin, SkinEthic and EpiDerm demonstrate reasonable similarities to the native human tissue in terms of morphology, lipid composition and biochemical markers. These models have been identified as useful tools for the testing of phototoxicity, corrosivity and irritancy, and test protocols have been developed for such applications. For acceptance of these tests by the authorities, prevalidation or validation studies are currently in progress. Furthermore, first results also indicate their suitability for transport experiments of drugs and other xenobiotics across skin. Still, however, the barrier function of these reconstructed human epidermis models appears to be much less developed compared to native skin. Further adaptation of the models to the human epidermis, especially concerning the barrier function, therefore remains an important challenge in this area of research.
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19
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Sanmano B, Mizoguchi M, Suga Y, Ikeda S, Ogawa H. Engraftment of umbilical cord epithelial cells in athymic mice: in an attempt to improve reconstructed skin equivalents used as epithelial composite. J Dermatol Sci 2004; 37:29-39. [PMID: 15619432 DOI: 10.1016/j.jdermsci.2004.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2004] [Revised: 10/22/2004] [Accepted: 10/27/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The umbilical cord (UC) is composed of connective tissue called Wharton Jelly, covered by a simple epithelium believed to derive from amniotic membrane epithelium. In previous studies, we observed that the umbilical cord epithelium (UCE) in situ displayed stratified epithelial structures, in some areas that expressed cytokeratins and differentiation markers as characteristic of keratinocytes under airlifted condition in vitro, UCE cells grown on collagen gel displayed more keratinocytes characteristics. OBJECTIVE To study the ability of UCE cells to undergo terminal differentiation when grown in the most proper environment. METHODS UCE cells were seeded onto the surface of a fibroblast-populated collagen gel then grafted onto the back of nude mice and examined using immunohistochemical techniques and by transmission electron microscope (TEM). RESULTS Post-grafted UCE cells formed a stratified epithelial structure similar to that formed by keratinocytes. Although immunohistochemical staining of UCE cells in skin grafts showed a similar pattern to that seen with the keratinocyte controls, UCE cells maintained many of their own intrinsic characteristics, such as stronger expression of mucous membrane cytokeratins and expression of simple epithelial cytokeratin. Notably, with longer transplant periods, expression of keratinocyte characteristics in UCE cells increased while expression of simple epithelial properties decreased. We observed formation of a complete basement membrane, which had not been achieved using an in vitro model. CONCLUSIONS Grafted UCE cells in an animal model maintain their own intrinsic characteristics, but display the stratified morphogenesis, terminal differentiation and ultrastructures similar to those seen in keratinocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Borisut Sanmano
- Department of Dermatology, Juntendo University School of Medicine, Hongo 2-1-1, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8421, Japan
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20
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Fluhr JW, Behne MJ, Brown BE, Moskowitz DG, Selden C, Mao-Qiang M, Mauro TM, Elias PM, Feingold KR. Stratum corneum acidification in neonatal skin: secretory phospholipase A2 and the sodium/hydrogen antiporter-1 acidify neonatal rat stratum corneum. J Invest Dermatol 2004; 122:320-9. [PMID: 15009712 DOI: 10.1046/j.0022-202x.2003.00204.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
At birth, human stratum corneum (SC) displays a near-neutral surface pH, which declines over several days to weeks to months to an acidic pH, comparable to that of adults. Recent studies suggest that an acidic pH is required for normal permeability barrier homeostasis and SC integrity/cohesion. We assessed here the basis for postnatal acidification in the neonatal rat, where SC pH, as measured with a flat surface electrode, declines progressively from near-neutral levels (pH 6.63) on postnatal days 0 to 1 to adult levels (pH 5.9) or even below over the subsequent 7 to 8 d. The postnatal decline in SC pH was paralleled by a progressive activation of a pH-dependent hydrolytic enzyme, beta-glucocerebrosidase. Because SC acidification could not be linked to commonly implicated exogenous factors, such as bacterial colonization, or the deposition of sebaceous gland products. We next assessed whether changes in one or more of three endogenous mechanisms demonstrate postnatal activity changes that contribute to the progressive development of an acidic SC pH. Although the histidine-to-urocanic acid pathway has been implicated in acidification of the adult SC, surface pH is completely normal in histidase-deficient (his/his, Peruvian) mice, ruling out a requirement for this mechanism. In contrast, when sodium/hydrogen antiporter-1 (NHE1), which predominantly acidifies membrane domains at the stratum granulosum-SC interface, is inhibited, postnatal acidification of the SC is partially blocked. Likewise, SC secretory phospholipase A2 (sPLA2) activity, measured with a fluorometric assay, is low at birth, but increases progressively (by 66%) over the first 5 d after birth, and inhibition of sPLA2 between days 0 to 1 and days 5 to 6 delays postnatal SC acidification. Together, these results describe a neonatal model, in which the development of an acidic surface pH can be ascribed, in part, to progressive SC acidification by two endogenous mechanisms, namely, sPLA2 and NHE1, which are known to be important for acidification of adult rodent SC. Conversely, the impaired acidification of neonatal SC, which has important functional and clinical consequences, can be explained by the relatively low activities of one or both of these mechanisms at birth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joachim W Fluhr
- Dermatology and Medical Service, Veterans Affairs Medical Center, and Department of Dermatology, University of California, San Francisco, 94121, USA.
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Takebe K, Oka Y, Radisky D, Tsuda H, Tochigui K, Koshida S, Kogo K, Hirai Y. Epimorphin acts to induce hair follicle anagen in C57BL/6 mice. FASEB J 2003; 17:2037-47. [PMID: 14597673 DOI: 10.1096/fj.03-0386com] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Epimorphin is a mesenchymal morphogen that has been shown to mediate epithelial-mesenchymal signaling interactions in various organs. We now show that epimorphin functions in hair follicle morphogenesis; using a novel ex vivo organ culture assay, we define a mechanism for epimorphin signaling that may provide insight into general developmental processes. We found that epimorphin was produced by follicular mesenchymal cells and bound selectively to follicular epithelial cells, and that treatment with recombinant epimorphin could stimulate procession of hair follicles from telogen (resting stage) to anagen (growing stage). Based on analyses of epimorphin proteolytic digests that suggested a smaller peptide might be able to substitute for the full-length epimorphin molecule, we determined that pep7, a 10-amino acid peptide, was capable of inducing telogen-to-anagen transition both in the culture assay and in the mouse. That pep7 showed maximal activity only when modified with specific sulfhydryl-reactive reagents suggested that a particular structural conformation of the peptide was essential for activity; molecular dynamics studies were pursued to investigate the active peptide structure. These findings define a previously unknown morphogenic process in the hair follicle that may have applications to many other organs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyoko Takebe
- EPM project groups, Osaka R and D Laboratories, Sumitomo Electric Industries LTD. 1, Taya-cho Sakae-ku, Yokohama 244-8588, Japan
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22
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Janeke G, Siefken W, Carstensen S, Springmann G, Bleck O, Steinhart H, Höger P, Wittern KP, Wenck H, Stäb F, Sauermann G, Schreiner V, Doering T. Role of taurine accumulation in keratinocyte hydration. J Invest Dermatol 2003; 121:354-61. [PMID: 12880428 DOI: 10.1046/j.1523-1747.2003.12366.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Epidermal keratinocytes are exposed to a low water concentration at the stratum corneum-stratum granulosum interface. When epithelial tissues are osmotically perturbed, cellular protection and cell volume regulation is mediated by accumulation of organic osmolytes such as taurine. Previous studies reported the presence of taurine in the epidermis of several animal species. Therefore, we analyzed human skin for the presence of the taurine transporter (TAUT) and studied the accumulation of taurine as one potential mechanism protecting epidermal keratinocytes from dehydration. According to our results, TAUT is expressed as a 69 kDa protein in human epidermis but not in the dermis. For the epidermis a gradient was evident with maximal levels of TAUT in the outermost granular keratinocyte layer and lower levels in the stratum spinosum. No TAUT was found in the basal layer or in the stratum corneum. Keratinocyte accumulation of taurine was induced by experimental induction of skin dryness via application of silica gel to human skin. Cultured human keratinocytes accumulated taurine in a concentration- and osmolarity-dependent manner. TAUT mRNA levels were increased after exposure of human keratinocytes to hyperosmotic culture medium, indicating osmosensitive TAUT mRNA expression as part of the adaptation of keratinocytes to hyperosmotic stress. Keratinocyte uptake of taurine was inhibited by beta-alanine but not by other osmolytes such as betaine, inositol, or sorbitol. Accumulation of taurine protected cultured human keratinocytes from both osmotically induced and ultraviolet-induced apoptosis. Our data indicate that taurine is an important epidermal osmolyte required to maintain keratinocyte hydration in a dry environment.
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Kong W, Longaker MT, Lorenz HP. Molecular cloning and expression of keratinocyte proline-rich protein, a novel squamous epithelial marker isolated during skin development. J Biol Chem 2003; 278:22781-6. [PMID: 12668678 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m210488200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
We describe a novel rat cDNA named keratinocyte proline-rich protein (KPRP) isolated by RNA differential display during skin development. We determine that KPRP is expressed in stratified squamous epithelium, and its approximately 2.8-kb cDNA encodes a 699-amino acid protein with high proline content (19%). KPRP is an insoluble protein, similar to most epidermal terminal differentiation-associated proteins. Immunoblot of the protein lysate from keratinocytes, using strong reducing conditions, demonstrates two KPRP bands of approximately 76 and 55 kDa size. KPRP is expressed in stratified squamous epithelia of skin, tongue, and esophagus. The initiation of KPRP expression in fetal rat skin at E17, E18, E19, E20, and E21 was analyzed by reverse transcription-PCR. Fetal skin at E19 and later expresses KPRP. In situ hybridization of skin from E18, E19, and 4-day-old neonatal rats demonstrates that interfollicular and follicular keratinocytes express KPRP. Anti-KPRP antibody demonstrates KPRP protein localizes to all layers of stratified epithelia in skin, tongue, and esophagus. In cultured dermal keratinocytes, KPRP is diffusely distributed throughout the cytoplasm with denser staining adjacent to the nuclear and plasma membranes. Additionally, immunoreactive intracellular granules are observed during keratinocyte detachment from their plastic substrate. Rat KPRP has 89% homology to a mouse genomic DNA sequence and 56% homology to a human hypothetical protein. We conclude that KPRP may be a new epidermal terminal differentiation-related protein expressed in stratified squamous epithelia. KPRP is expressed by fetal dermal keratinocytes during late gestation and is a new marker of maturing epidermis during fetal skin development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wuyi Kong
- Pediatric Surgical Research Laboratory, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California 94305-5148, USA
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Tsuji Y, Akiyama M, Arita K, Senshu T, Shimizu H. Changing pattern of deiminated proteins in developing human epidermis. J Invest Dermatol 2003; 120:817-22. [PMID: 12713587 DOI: 10.1046/j.1523-1747.2003.12138.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Peptidylarginine deiminases are widely distributed, calcium-ion-dependent enzymes that convert arginine residues of proteins into citrulline residues. This reaction, deimination, is thought to be an important event during the final stage of epidermal differentiation, possibly associated with integration and disintegration of keratin filaments. To elucidate the possible roles of protein deimination during human epidermal development we investigated localization of deiminated proteins using anti-citrulline peptide antibody, which preferentially recognizes citrulline residues in the V subdomains of keratin 1, and anti-chemically modified citrulline antibody, which enables detection of citrulline residues independent of amino acid sequences. Anti-chemically modified citrulline antibody, but not anti-citrulline peptide antibody stained the periderm in two-layered epidermis of 49 d and 57 d estimated gestational age. In the stratified epidermis of 88 d, 96 d, and 108 d estimated gestational age fetal skin, anti-citrulline peptide antibody and anti-chemically modified citrulline antibody staining was seen in the periderm and intermediate cell layers. After periderm cells regressed and keratinization began in the interfollicular epidermis, anti-citrulline peptide antibody and anti-chemically modified citrulline antibody were restricted to the cornified cell layers of the interfollicular epidermis, similar to the distribution patterns of that in adult epidermis. Postembedding immunoelectron microscopy showed anti-citrulline peptide antibody immunogold labeling over the cytoplasmic intermediate filament network in the periderm and the intermediate cell layers. These results demonstrate an orderly formation of deiminated proteins in different layers of embryonic epidermis and suggest important roles for peptidylarginine deiminases in human epidermal morphogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yukiko Tsuji
- Department of Dermatology, Hokkaido University Graduate School of Medicine, Sapporo, Japan
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25
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Lee S, McAuliffe DJ, Kollias N, Flotte TJ, Doukas AG. Permeabilization and recovery of the stratum corneum in vivo: the synergy of photomechanical waves and sodium lauryl sulfate. Lasers Surg Med 2001; 29:145-50. [PMID: 11553902 DOI: 10.1002/lsm.1101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE Photomechanical waves render the stratum corneum permeable and allow macromolecules to diffuse into the epidermis and dermis. The aim of this study was to investigate the combined action of photomechanical waves and sodium lauryl sulfate, an anionic surfactant, for transdermal delivery. STUDY DESIGN/MATERIALS AND METHODS A single photomechanical wave was applied to the skin of rats in the presence of sodium lauryl sulfate. The sodium lauryl sulfate solution was removed and aqueous solutions of rhodamine-B dextran (40 kDa molecular weight) were applied to the skin at time points 2, 30, and 60 minutes post-exposure. The presence of rhodamine-B dextran in the skin was measured by fluorescence emission spectroscopy in vivo and fluorescence microscopy of frozen biopsies. RESULTS The use of sodium lauryl sulfate delayed the recovery of the stratum corneum barrier and extended the time available for the diffusion of dextran through it. CONCLUSION The combination of photomechanical waves and surfactants can enhance transdermal drug delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Lee
- Department of Dermatology, Wellman Laboratories of Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, 55 Fruit Street, Boston, MA 02114, USA
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Steinert PM, Marekov LN. Initiation of assembly of the cell envelope barrier structure of stratified squamous epithelia. Mol Biol Cell 1999; 10:4247-61. [PMID: 10588656 PMCID: PMC25756 DOI: 10.1091/mbc.10.12.4247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/1999] [Accepted: 09/23/1999] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The cell envelope (CE) is a specialized structure that is important for barrier function in terminally differentiated stratified squamous epithelia. The CE is formed inside the plasma membrane and becomes insoluble as a result of cross-linking of constituent proteins by isopeptide bonds formed by transglutaminases. To investigate the earliest stages of assembly of the CE, we have studied human epidermal keratinocytes induced to terminally differentiate in submerged liquid culture as a model system for epithelia in general. CEs were harvested from 2-, 3-, 5-, or 7-d cultured cells and examined by 1) immunogold electron microscopy using antibodies to known CE or other junctional proteins and 2) amino acid sequencing of cross-linked peptides derived by proteolysis of CEs. Our data document that CE assembly is initiated along the plasma membrane between desmosomes by head-to-tail and head-to-head cross-linking of involucrin to itself and to envoplakin and perhaps periplakin. Essentially only one lysine and two glutamine residues of involucrin and two glutamines of envoplakin were used initially. In CEs of 3-d cultured cells, involucrin, envoplakin, and small proline-rich proteins were physically located at desmosomes and had become cross-linked to desmoplakin, and in 5-d CEs, these three proteins had formed a continuous layer extending uniformly along the cell periphery. By this time >15 residues of involucrin were used for cross-linking. The CEs of 7-d cells contain significant amounts of the protein loricrin, typically expressed at a later stage of CE assembly. Together, these data stress the importance of juxtaposition of membranes, transglutaminases, and involucrin and envoplakin in the initiation of CE assembly of stratified squamous epithelia.
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Affiliation(s)
- P M Steinert
- Laboratory of Skin Biology, National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892-2752, USA.
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Abstract
We recently demonstrated patterned stratum corneum maturation and skin barrier formation during fetal development in rodents and rabbit. The presence of skin patterning in these mammals led us to predict patterned barrier formation during human infant development. Here we extend our mammalian study and demonstrate patterned stratum corneum development and skin barrier formation in the pre-term human infant. Surprisingly, we show initiation of human barrier regionally as early as 20-24 wk gestational age (22-26 wk menstrual age), bringing barrier formation close to the time of periderm disaggregation. We use the mouse model to show that patterns of periderm disaggregation mirrors barrier formation. Periderm disaggregation follows and recapitulates barrier pattern, suggesting a relationship between the processes. This work reveals regional patterning in skin maturation and barrier formation in the human infant and demonstrates that initiation of human skin barrier formation in utero coincides with the current lower limit of viability of the pre-term infant.
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Affiliation(s)
- M J Hardman
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Manchester, UK
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