Absence of sex bias in the referral of patients for cardiac catheterization

Physician judgement in predicting obstructive coronary artery disease and adverse events in chest pain patients

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate informal physician judgement versus pretest probability scores in estimating risk in patients with suspected coronary artery disease (CAD).

METHODS

We included 4533 patients from the PROMISE (Prospective Multicenter Imaging Study for Evaluation of Chest Pain) trial. Physicians categorised a priori the pretest probability of obstructive CAD (≥70% or ≥50% left main); Diamond-Forrester (D-F) and European Society of Cardiology (ESC) pretest probability estimates were calculated. Agreement was calculated using the κ statistic; logistic regression evaluated estimates of pretest CAD probability and actual CAD (as determined by CT coronary angiography), and clinical outcomes were modelled using Cox proportional hazard models.

RESULTS

Physician estimates agreed poorly with D-F (κ 0.16; 95% CI 0.14 to 0.18) and ESC (κ 0.04; 95% CI 0.02 to 0.05). Actual obstructive CAD was significantly more prevalent in both the high-likelihood (OR 3.30; 95% CI 2.30 to 4.74) and the intermediate-likelihood (OR 1.43; 95% CI 1.16 to 1.76) physician-estimated groups versus the low-likelihood group; ESC similarly differentiated between the three groups (OR 9.07; 95% CI 2.87 to 28.70; and OR 3.87; 95% CI 1.22 to 12.28). However, using D-F, only the high-probability group differed (OR 2.49; 95% CI 1.74 to 3.54). Only physician estimates were associated with a higher incidence of adjusted death/myocardial infarction/unstable angina hospitalisation in the high-probability versus low-probability group (HR 2.68; 95% CI 1.52 to 4.74); neither pretest probability score provided prognostic information.

CONCLUSIONS

Compared with D-F and ESC estimates, physician judgement more accurately identified obstructive CAD and worse patient outcomes. Integrating physician judgement may improve risk prediction for patients with stable chest pain.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

NCT01174550.

Race and sex-based disparities associated with carotid endarterectomy in the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) study

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

The indications for carotid endarterectomy (CEA) are well established. The aim of the current study was to investigate sex and race-based disparities in the incidence of CEA after adjusting for carotid artery stenosis risk factors.

METHODS

We conducted a prospective cohort analysis of 14,492 black and white participants in the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) study without prevalent stroke at baseline (1987-1989). We used Kaplan-Meier curves and Cox proportional hazards models adjusting for sociodemographic, cardiovascular, and disease severity risk factors to quantify the associations of sex and race with incident CEA.

RESULTS

CEA was performed in 330 of 14,492 ARIC participants during a median of 27 years of follow-up [incidence rate 1.00 (95% CI 0.90-1.12) per 1000 persons-years]. The crude incidence of CEA varied significantly by sex [female vs. male: HR 0.60 (95% CI 0.48-0.74)] and race [black vs. white: HR 0.65 (95% CI 0.49-0.86)]. Adjustment for sociodemographic and cardiovascular risk factors, carotid intima-media thickness, and symptomatic status attenuated the association of sex with CEA [females vs. males HR 0.96 (0.76-1.22)], but black participants had a lower risk of incident CEA after adjustment [HR 0.68 (95% CI 0.49-0.95)].

CONCLUSIONS

We found significant variation in the incidence of CEA procedures based on race that was independent of traditional risk factors and carotid IMT. Whether this disparity is a reflection of differences in disease presentation or access to care deserves investigation.

Sex differences in management and outcomes of patients with stable symptoms suggestive of coronary artery disease: Insights from the PROMISE trial

BACKGROUND

Although sex differences exist in the management of acute coronary syndromes, less is known about the management and outcomes of women and men with suspected coronary artery disease being evaluated with noninvasive testing (NIT).

METHODS

We investigated sex-based differences in NIT results and subsequent clinical management in 4,720 women and 4,246 men randomized to CT angiography versus stress testing in the PROMISE trial. Logistic regression models assessed relationships between sex and referral for catheterization, revascularization, and aspirin or statin use. Cox regression models assessed the relationship between sex and the composite of all-cause death, myocardial infarction, or unstable angina.

RESULTS

Women more often had normal NITs than men (61.0% vs 49.6%, P < .001) and less often had mild (29.3% vs 35.4%, P < .001), moderate (4.0% vs 6.8%, P < .001), or severe abnormalities (5.7% vs 8.3%, P < .001) found on NIT. Women were less likely to be referred for catheterization than men (7.6% vs 12.6%, adjusted OR 0.75 [0.62-0.90]; P = .002). Of those who underwent catheterization within 90 days of randomization (358 women, 534 men), fewer women than men had obstructive coronary artery disease (40.8% vs 60.9%, P < .001). At a 60-day visit, women were significantly less likely than men to report statin use when indicated (adjusted OR 0.81 [0.73-0.91]; P < .001) but were similarly likely to report aspirin use when indicated (adjusted OR 0.78 [0.56-1.08]; P = .13). Over a median follow-up of 25 months, women had better outcomes than men (adjusted OR 0.73 [0.57-0.94]; P = .017).

CONCLUSIONS

Although women more frequently had normal NITs compared with men, those with abnormalities on NIT were less likely to be referred for catheterization or to receive statin therapy. The high rates of negative NIT in women, coupled with the better outcomes compared with men, strongly support the need for a sex-specific algorithm to guide NIT and chest pain management.

Quantifying Sex Differences in Cardiovascular Care Among Patients Evaluated for Suspected Ischemic Heart Disease

Background: Cardiovascular care sex differences are controversial. We examined sex differences in management and clinical outcomes among patients undergoing noninvasive testing for ischemic heart disease (IHD). Methods: In a rural integrated healthcare system, we identified adults age 40-79 without diagnosed IHD who underwent initial evaluation with a cardiac stress test with imaging or coronary computed tomographic angiography (CTA), 2013-2014. We assessed sex differences in statin/aspirin therapy, revascularization, and adverse cardiovascular events. The 2013 American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association statin guidelines and U.S. Preventive Services Task Force aspirin guidelines were applied. Results: Among 2213 patients evaluated for IHD, median age was 57 years, 48.8% were women, and 9% had a positive stress test/CTA. Women were more likely to be missing lipid values than men (p < 0.001). Mean ASCVD risk score at baseline was 7.2% in women versus 12.4% in men (p < 0.001). There was no significant sex difference in statin therapy at baseline or 60-day follow-up. Women were less likely than men to be taking aspirin at baseline (adj. diff. = -8.5%; 95% CI, -4.2 to -12.9) and follow-up (adj. diff. = -7.7%; 95% CI, -3.3 to -12.1). There were no sex differences in revascularization after accounting for obstructive CAD or adverse cardiovascular outcomes during median follow-up of 33 months. Conclusion: In this contemporary cohort of patients with suspected IHD, women were less likely to receive lipid testing and aspirin therapy, but not statin therapy. Women did not experience worse outcomes. Sex differences in statin therapy reported by others may be due to inadequate accounting for baseline risk.

Downstream resource utilization following SPECT: Impact of age and gender

BACKGROUND

Previous studies have identified a downstream referral age and gender bias for invasive coronary anatomy evaluation after single-photon emission computed tomography myocardial perfusion imaging (SPECT MPI). The present study evaluates if such bias still persists despite advancements in SPECT MPI and angiography. We hypothesized that women and patients ≥80 years old are less likely to undergo invasive coronary angiography after adjusting for clinical and scan variables.

METHODS

Patients (n = 3824) who referred to a nuclear cardiology laboratory at a tertiary medical center were retrospectively identified. Regression analysis tested age (<55; 55-69; 70-79; ≥80 years) and gender as predictors of diagnostic angiogram at 90 days post-SPECT after adjustment for known CAD, CAD risk equivalent, SSS, SDS, and LVEF.

RESULTS

Younger patients were more likely to undergo an angiogram as compared to octogenarians (77% more likely if <55 years old, 69% if 55-69 years old, and 52% if 70-79 years old). No effect was found for gender.

CONCLUSIONS

Older patients were less likely to be referred for angiogram as compared to their younger counterparts. Further study is needed to determine which factors guide this decision-making process in older adults and the influence of these factors on the referral bias.

Institutional and Attitudinal Factors Involved in Higher Mortality of Israeli Women after Coronary Bypass Surgery: Another Case of Gender Bias

Despite their lower cardiovascular risks, women have higher case-fatality ratios after myocardial infarction (MI) and cardiac surgery. Along with women’s older age and co-morbidity, this reflects gender bias in the timely diagnosis and treatment of heart disease in many western countries. Drawing on the theoretical framework offered by McKinlay (1996), current study examined attitudes and practices contributing to late diagnosis and substandard treatment of cardiac symptoms in women. Personal interviews were conducted with 30 women and 25 men sampled via the data set of the national survey of coronary bypass operations in Israel in 1994. In this survey, women’s post-operative mortality has been found to be double that of men, also after adjustment for age and socio-economic factors. Interviews with the survivors helped elucidate some non-biological causes for female mortality disadvantage. Women’s accounts confirmed that primary practitioners often denied cardiac nature of symptoms presented by women and delayed their referral for in-depth testing and intensive treatment, while no such delays occurred with men presenting with similar complaints. Gender bias was stronger during the initial diagnostic process and gradually abated after women were labeled as ‘cardiac cases’ and referred for intensive treatment. At all stages of their ‘cardiac career,’ women received less support from their family members than did men. However, women’s own beliefs about their low cardiac risks and the primacy of family roles over health concerns may have also contributed to later diagnosis and poorer prognosis in women.

Gender Inequalities in the Management of Angina Pectoris: Cross-Sectional Survey in Primary Care

Background and Aims: To determine the extent of gender differences in the routine clinical care of patients with angina pectoris in primary care. Methods: A cross-sectional survey of general practitioner (GP) medical records undertaken by trained data managers in 6 GP practices. 925 adults (489 men) with a clinical diagnosis of angina (prevalence= 2.4%, 95%CI 2.3–2.6). Data extracted included: level of care; risk factor recording; prescribed medication; exercise ECG and coronary revascularisation. Adjusted male-to-female odds ratios (AOR) adjusted for age, angina duration, and previous myocardial infarction, (MI). Results: Women with angina were older than men (71 v 65 years) with a lower prevalence of MI (30% v 43%), but a longer duration of angina (5 v 4 years). Men were more likely to receive once daily aspirin (AOR = 2.07, 95% CI 1.56–2.74) and be prescribed triple anti-anginal therapy (1.58, 95% CI 1.03–2.42). Men were also significantly more likely to undergo exercise ECG (1.56, 95% CI 1.14–2.15) and surgical revascularisation (1.71, 95% CI 1.03–2.85). Women tended to receive GP care alone (AOR = 0.64, 95% CI 0.46–0.89), whilst men received specialist cardiac care (1.47, 95% CI 1.09–2.00). Beta-blocker use following MI was similar (0.99, 95% CI 0.59–1.69). Conclusion: Differences in the management of men and women are unaccounted for by differences in age, previous MI or duration of angina. Gender differences in management of CHD reported from secondary care may also exist in primary care.

Optimal medical therapy with or without percutaneous coronary intervention in women with stable coronary disease: A pre-specified subset analysis of the Clinical Outcomes Utilizing Revascularization and Aggressive druG Evaluation (COURAGE) trial

OBJECTIVES

To determine whether sex-based differences exist in clinical effectiveness of percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) when added to optimal medical therapy (OMT) in patients with stable coronary artery disease.

BACKGROUND

A prior pre-specified unadjusted analysis from COURAGE showed that women randomized to PCI had a lower rate of death or myocardial infarction during a median 4.6-year follow-up with a trend for interaction with respect to sex.

METHODS

We analyzed outcomes in 338 women (15%) and 1949 men (85%) randomized to PCI plus OMT versus OMT alone after adjustment for relevant baseline characteristics.

RESULTS

There was no difference in treatment effect by sex for the primary end point (death or myocardial infarction; HR, 0.89; 95% CI, 0.77-1.03 for women and HR, 1.02, 95% CI 0.96-1.10 for men; P for interaction = .07). Although the event rate was low, a trend for interaction by sex was nonetheless noted for hospitalization for heart failure, with only women, but not men, assigned to PCI experiencing significantly fewer events as compared to their counterparts receiving OMT alone (HR, 0.59; 95% CI, 0.40-0.84, P < .001 for women and HR, 0.86; 95% CI, 0.74-1.01, P = .47 for men; P for interaction = .02). Both sexes randomized to PCI experienced significantly reduced need for subsequent revascularization (HR, 0.72; 95% CI, 0.62-0.83, P < .001 for women; HR, 0.84; 95% CI, 0.79-0.89, P < .001 for men; P for interaction = .02) with evidence of a sex-based differential treatment effect.

CONCLUSION

In this adjusted analysis of the COURAGE trial, there were no significant differences in treatment effect on major outcomes between men and women. However, women assigned to PCI demonstrated a greater benefit as compared to men, with a reduction in heart failure hospitalization and need for future revascularization. These exploratory observations require further prospective study.

Characteristics and Outcomes of Women Veterans Undergoing Cardiac Catheterization in the Veterans Affairs Healthcare System

Background—

The number of women veterans is increasing, yet little is known about their cardiovascular risk factors, coronary anatomy, cardiac treatments, and outcomes after cardiac catheterization. Prior studies have shown that nonveteran women have more risk factors, receive less aggressive treatment, and have worse outcomes, despite having less obstructive coronary artery disease than men. Whether these differences exist among women veterans in the veterans affairs healthcare system is unknown.

Methods and Results—

Data on 85 936 veterans (3181 women) undergoing initial cardiac catheterization between October 1, 2007, and September 30, 2012, were examined using the national veterans affairs Clinical Assessment Reporting and Tracking (CART) Program. Sex differences in demographics, indications, coronary anatomy, cardiac treatments, and outcomes were analyzed. Women veterans were younger (56.9 versus 63.0 years, P <0.0001) with fewer traditional cardiovascular risk factors, but with more obesity, depression, and posttraumatic stress disorder than men. Women had lower rates of obstructive coronary artery disease than men (22.6% versus 53.3%). Rates of procedural complications were similar in both genders. Adjusted outcomes at 1 year showed women had lower mortality (hazard ratio, 0.74; confidence interval, 0.60–0.92) and less all-cause rehospitalization (hazard ratio, 0.87; confidence interval, 0.82–0.93), but no difference in rates of unplanned percutaneous coronary intervention.

Conclusions—

Women veterans undergoing catheterization are younger, have more obesity, depression, and posttraumatic stress disorder, less obstructive coronary artery disease, and similar long-term outcomes, compared with men. These findings suggest a significant portion of women veterans may have chest pain not attributable to obstructive coronary artery disease. Further research into possible causes, such as endothelial dysfunction or concurrent psychological comorbidities, is needed.

Use of exercise tests in primary care: importance for referral decisions and possible bias in the decision process; a prospective observational study

Background

The utility of clinical exercise tests depends on their support of treatment decisions. We sought to assess the utility of exercise tests for the selection of primary-care patients for referral to cardiologic care, and to determine whether referral decisions were biased by gender or socioeconomic status. We also evaluated referral rates and cardiovascular events in patients with positive exercise tests.

Methods

We designed a prospective observational study of 438 men and 427 women from 28 Swedish primary-care clinics who were examined with exercise testing for suspected coronary disease. All participants were followed-up with respect to cardiologist referrals and cardiovascular events (hospitalisation for unstable angina, myocardial infarction, and cardiovascular death) within six months and revascularisation within 250 days. Variables associated with referral were identified by multivariable logistic regression. Socioeconomic status was determined by educational level and employment.

Results

Positive/inconclusive exercise tests and exertional chest pain predicted referral in men and women. Of 865 participants, patients with positive, inconclusive, or negative exercise tests were referred to cardiologists in 67.3%, 26.1%, and 3.5% of cases, respectively. Overall, there was no significant difference in referral rates related to gender or socioeconomic level. Self-employed women were referred more frequently compared to other women (odds ratio (OR) 3.62, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.19-10.99). Among non-manual employees, women were referred to cardiologic examination less frequently than men (OR 0.40, 95% CI 0.16-1.00; p = 0.049; ORs adjusted for age, exertional chest pain, and exercise test result). In patients with positive exercise tests, the referral rate decreased continuously with age (OR 0.48, 95% CI 0.23-0.97; adjusted for cardiovascular co-morbidity). Cardiovascular events occurred in 22.2% (4/18) of non-referred patients with positive exercise tests; 56% (10/18) of these patients were not considered for cardiologic care, with continuity problems in primary care as one possible contributing cause.

Conclusions

Exercise tests are important for selecting patients for referral to cardiologic care. Interactions related to gender and socioeconomic status affected referral rates. In patients with positive exercise tests, referral rates decreased with age. An increased awareness of possible bias regarding age, gender, and socioeconomic status, which may influence medical decisions, is therefore necessary.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12875-014-0182-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Traditional cardiovascular risk factors and the presence of obstructive coronary artery disease in men and women

BACKGROUND

Extensive research has demonstrated the importance of traditional cardiovascular risk factors in predicting acute coronary events. Our main objective was to evaluate the relationship between traditional risk factors and the presence of obstructive coronary artery disease (CAD), and to explore potential differences in men vs women.

METHODS

An observational study was conducted in a population-based cohort of stable patients who underwent cardiac catheterization in Ontario, Canada. We examined the relationship of diabetes, hypertension, hyperlipidemia, and smoking with the presence of obstructive CAD in men and women using multivariable logistic regression models.

RESULTS

Of the 46,490 patients who were included in our study, 61.2% were men and 38.8% were women. We found that 97% of patients with obstructive CAD had at least 1 conventional cardiovascular risk factor. The adjusted odds ratios (ORs) for obstructive CAD in women with diabetes (OR, 1.51), hypertension (OR, 1.38), and smoking (OR, 1.39) were statistically significantly greater than in men (OR, 1.20 for diabetes; OR, 1.08 for hypertension; OR, 1.14 for smoking; P < 0.001). The sex difference was even greater for patients with multiple risk factors. For example, the association with obstructive CAD in women with 4 cardiac risk factors (OR, 4.30; 95% confidence interval, 3.49-5.28) was almost doubled compared with men (OR, 2.26; 95%confidence interval, 1.99-2.57; P < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Almost all patients with stable CAD undergoing cardiac catheterization had at least 1 traditional cardiac risk factor. Importantly, the association between multiple cardiac risk factors and the presence of obstructive CAD is substantially stronger in women than men.

Gender inequality in the clinical outcomes of equally treated acute coronary syndrome patients in Saudi Arabia

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Gender associations with acute coronary syndrome (ACS), remain inconsistent. Gender-specific data in the Saudi Project for Assessment of Coronary Events registry, launched in December 2005 and currently with 17 participating hospitals, were explored.

DESIGN AND SETTINGS

A prospective multicenter study of patient with ACS in secondary and tertiary care centers in Saudi Arabia were included in this analysis.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Patients enrolled from December 2005 until December 2007 included those presented to participating hospitals or transferred from non-registry hospitals. Summarized data were analyzed.

RESULTS

Of 5061 patients, 1142 (23%) were women. Women were more frequently diagnosed with non ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (NSTEMI [43%]) than unstable angina (UA [29%]) or ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI [29%]). More men had STEMI (42%) than NSTEMI (37%) or UA (22%). Men were younger than women (57 vs 63 years) who had more diabetes, hypertension, and hyperlipidemia. More men had a history of coronary artery disease. More women received angiotensin receptor blockers (ARB) and fewer had percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI). Gender differences in the subset of STEMI patients were similar to those in the entire cohort. However, gender differences in the subset of STEMI showed fewer women given b-blockers, and an insignificant PCI difference between genders. Thrombolysis rates between genders were similar. Overall, in-hospital mortality was significantly worse for women and, by ACS type, was significantly greater in women for STEMI and NSTEMI. However, after age adjustment there was no difference in mortality between men and women in patients with NSTEMI. The multivariate-adjusted (age, risk factors, treatments, door-to-needle time) STEMI gender mortality difference was not significant (OR=2.0, CI: 0.7-5.5; P=.14).

CONCLUSION

These data are similar to other reported data. However, differences exist, and their explanation should be pursued to provide a valuable insight into understanding ACS and improving its management.

Gender bias revisited: new insights on the differential management of chest pain

Background

Chest pain is a common complaint and reason for consultation in primary care. Few data exist from a primary care setting whether male patients are treated differently than female patients. We examined whether there are gender differences in general physicians' (GPs) initial assessment and subsequent management of patients with chest pain, and how these differences can be explained

Methods

We conducted a prospective study with 1212 consecutive chest pain patients. The study was conducted in 74 primary care offices in Germany from October 2005 to July 2006. After a follow up period of 6 months, an independent interdisciplinary reference panel reviewed clinical data of every patient and decided about the etiology of chest pain at the time of patient recruitment (delayed type-reference standard). We adjusted gender differences of six process indicators for different models.

Results

GPs tended to assume that CHD is the cause of chest pain more often in male patients and referred more men for an exercise test (women 4.1%, men 7.3%, p = 0.02) and to the hospital (women 2.9%, men 6.6%, p < 0.01). These differences remained when adjusting for age and cardiac risk factors but ceased to exist after adjusting for the typicality of chest pain.

Conclusions

While observed gender differences can not be explained by differences in age, CHD prevalence, and underlying risk factors, the less typical symptom presentation in women might be an underlying factor. However this does not seem to result in suboptimal management in women but rather in overuse of services for men. We consider our conclusions rather hypothesis generating and larger studies will be necessary to prove our proposed model.

Gender and microvascular angina

There are gender differences in the presentation, diagnosis, and treatment of chest pain. When compared to men, women may have more atypical presentations of chest pain. In addition, current diagnostic tools are often not definitive regarding cardiac etiology for chest pain in women. The current diagnostic model of chest pain focuses on significant obstructions within the large coronary arteries as the cause for angina. Microvascular angina (MVA) represents an under-recognized pathophysiologic mechanism that may explain the apparent disparities and elucidate an etiology for the common finding in women of chest pain, ischemia on stress testing, and no obstructive coronary artery disease (CAD) on angiography in the presence of abnormal coronary reactivity testing. Endothelial dysfunction, estrogen deficiency, and abnormal nociception play a role in the pathophysiology of MVA. Treatments are targeted toward these underlying mechanisms. Recognizing the role gender and other pathophysiologic models of chest pain can play in the work-up and treatment of angina may identify a treatable cardiac condition, that would otherwise be discounted as non-cardiac in origin.

Significant association of female gender with lower degree of pathological 99mTc-sestamibi scintigraphy results as well as higher cardiac-related deaths free survival in elderly patients

BACKGROUND

The aim of the present study was to assess the impact of female gender on the extent of myocardial perfusion defects as revealed by (99m)Tc-sestamibi myocardial perfusion scintigraphy (MPS) and on emerging cardiac events (CE) in patients aged ≥ 70 years.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

86 patients aged ≥ 70 years with known or suspected CAD undergoing MPS (74.4 ± 3.2 years; women: n = 46; 53.5%) were included in this study. Semiquantitative analysis of MPS was performed and summed stress (SSS), summed difference (SDS), and summed rest scores (SRS) were calculated. Emerging CE comprised myocardial revascularization and -infarction and cardiac-related death. Multivariate regression analysis was performed to assess the independent prognostic impact of several patient related variables on MPS results. Kaplan-Meier- and log rank analyses were calculated for assessment of CE free survival as related to gender.

RESULTS

Normal SSS (87.0% vs. 27.5%; p < 0.0001), SDS (80.4% vs. 27.5%; p < 0.0001), and SRS (97.8% vs. 82.5%; p = 0.023) were significantly more often found in women, whereas incidence of mildly and severely impaired SSS (6.5% vs. 35%; p = 0.001 and 2.2% vs. 25%; p = 0.002, respectively) and SDS (15.2% vs. 52.5%; p < 0.0001 and 2.2% vs. 17.5%; p = 0.023, respectively) were significantly higher in men. Multivariate logistic regression analysis revealed female gender as an independent predictor of normal SSS (odds ratio/OR: 17.6) and SDS (OR: 53.3). Female gender was associated with a significant higher cardiac-death free survival compared to male patients (p = 0.031).

CONCLUSION

Female gender is independently associated with a significantly lower degree of pathological MPS results and a higher cardiac-death free survival in elderly patients.

Percutaneous revascularization in women with coronary artery disease: we've come so far, yet have so far to go

Coronary artery disease (CAD) has traditionally been thought of as a disease that predominantly affects men. Women, however, are more likely than men to die from a myocardial infarction (MI). In this article, the data on access to cardiovascular care, treatment of stable and unstable coronary disease, and outcomes in women undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) will be reviewed. Despite increased awareness of heart disease in women, and improved outcomes after PCI, women with MI have more mortality and delays to treatment than men. Women with CAD have symptoms that differ from men with CAD. Improved understanding of the symptoms of CAD in women by patients and health care providers may improve treatment and outcomes in women with CAD.

Gender differences in the surgical management and early clinical outcome of coronary artery disease: Single centre experience

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the gender disparity in the distribution of patient-related risk factors and their effect on the surgical management and clinical outcome of coronary artery disease in Saudi population.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We carried out a retrospective analysis of prospectively collected data of 971 patients undergoing isolated coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) at our institution between January 2005 and December 2008. Seven hundred and eighty seven patients (81%) were males and 184 patients (19%) were females. We analyzed gender-based difference in clinical presentation and patient-related pre-operative risk factors and studied their impact on surgical management and clinical outcome.

RESULTS

The mean age was 59.5 years in males and 63.4 years in females (p = <0.0001). Associated co-morbidities were higher in females. Prevalence of diabetes mellitus was 61.2% in males and 78.8% in females (p-value = <0.0001); hypertension 61.9% in males and 79.9% in females (p-value <0.0001); hyperlipidemia 66.7% in males and 77.7% in females (p-value 0.0035); morbid obesity 24.7% in males and 45.1% in females (p-value <0.0001); and Hypothyroidism 2.5% in males and 13.6% in females (p-value <0.0001). Smoking was the only risk factor with higher prevalence in males compared to females (44.2% v/s 2.2%; p-value <0.0001). The mean logistic euroSCORE was 3.94 in males and 5.51 in females (p < 0.0003). On-pump and off-pump CABG was carried out in equal numbers in two groups. Females required urgent surgery and less than 3 grafts more frequently while males underwent elective surgery and more than 3 grafts in greater numbers. No significant difference was present between the two gender groups in aortic occlusion times and bypass times. Univariant analysis revealed females gender as an independent risk factor for higher in-hospital mortality (1.1% versus 4.9% p = 0.0026) and higher incidence of post-operative complications like surgical wound infection, need for prolonged ventilation, low cardiac output state and multi-organ failure (p-values 0.01 or less).

CONCLUSION

Female gender is an independent predictor of adverse outcome after isolated CABG due to significantly higher co-morbidities and acute presentation and independent of their peri-operative management. Therefore, major socioeconomic education and preventive measures are needed to reduce the burden of major co-morbidities in females and to seek early cardiac advice and care.

Impact of contrast echocardiography on diagnostic algorithms: pharmacoeconomic implications

The major goal of medicine in the era of managed care is to control escalating costs and to attain a high level of quality health care. Capitation has limited access to expensive and unnecessary testing, placing an emphasis on the prudent use of available technology. A vast armamentarium of available diagnostic screening tests are available within cardiology. Routine two-dimensional (2-D) echocardiography is a high-quality, low-cost test that provides enhanced portability and real-time test interpretation over other noninvasive test modalities. The echocardiogram may cost up to 50% less than competitive nuclear single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) imaging. However, on average 10% of routine and 33% of stress echocardiograms are suboptimal (disproportionately affecting obese patients and those with lung disease). Myocardial contrast echocardiography has been shown to provide enhanced endocardial border delineation and left ventricular opacification, to enhance Doppler signal, and to provide information on myocardial perfusion. In several recent phase II and III studies, the use of a contrast agent has been shown to improve the diagnostic accuracy of echocardiography substantially. Improvements in the diagnostic capabilities of echocardiography have been shown to (1) impact upon downstream repetitive testing in patients with an initially nondiagnostic echocardiogram, (2) potentially increase laboratory throughput, and (3) reduce the rate of false-positive and negative tests as a result of improved image quality. As clinical and cost-effectiveness parallel one another, the use of myocardial contrast echocardiography in selected patient cohorts will result in improved diagnostic accuracy and a cost-effective pattern of care.

Sex differences in use of interventional cardiology persist after risk adjustment

Background:

Studies from several countries have documented gender disparities in the management of coronary artery disease. Whether such gender disparities are seen in Italy and, if so, whether they can be explained by factors such as age and severity of illness were investigated.

Methods:

77 974 Piedmontese patients, admitted between 1999 and 2002, with a primary diagnosis of myocardial infarction (ICD 410), angina (ICD 413), chronic ischaemia (ICD 414) and chest pain (ICD 786.5) were studied. The number of men and women undergoing surgical treatment was extracted and the male–female odds ratios calculated. Several risk factors and a risk adjustment technique (APR-DRG) were used to control for possible confounders. Backward stepwise multiple logistic regression was used to adjust for significant covariates.

Results:

Crude analysis demonstrated that gender is a discriminating factor in the probability of surgery (OR 2.11, 95% CI 2.04 to 2.19), with similar findings among those with each main diagnosis. The odds ratios decreased after adjustment for age, co-morbidity and disease severity but remained significant.

Conclusions:

Men and women admitted to hospitals in a region of northern Italy with a diagnosis of cardiovascular disease are treated differently and this cannot be explained by age or severity of disease.

Gender and Outcome in Adult Congenital Heart Disease

Background— Gender differences in prognosis have frequently been reported in cardiovascular disease but less so in congenital heart disease. We investigated whether gender is associated with outcome in adult patients with congenital heart disease.

Methods and Results— From the CONgenital CORvitia (CONCOR) national registry for adults with congenital heart disease, 7414 patients were identified. All outcomes before entry into the registry and during subsequent follow-up were recorded, and differences between men and women were analyzed with the underlying congenital heart defect taken into account. Median age at the end of follow-up was 35 years (range, 17 to 91 years); 49.8% were female. No gender difference in mortality was found. Women had a 33% higher risk of pulmonary hypertension (odds ratio [OR]=1.33; 95% CI, 1.07 to 1.65; P =0.01), a 33% lower risk of aortic outcomes (OR=0.67; 95% CI, 0.50 to 0.90; P =0.007), a 47% lower risk of endocarditis (OR=0.53; 95% CI, 0.40 to 0.70; P <0.001), and a 55% lower risk of an implantable cardioverter-defibrillator (OR=0.45; 95% CI, 0.26 to 0.80; P =0.006). Furthermore, the risk of arrhythmias appeared to be lower in women (OR=0.88; 95% CI, 0.77 to 1.02; P =0.08).

Conclusions— The risk of several major cardiac outcomes in adult patients with congenital heart disease appears to vary by gender.

Gender differences in the clinical management of patients with angina pectoris: a cross-sectional survey in primary care

Background

Previous research suggests that women admitted to hospital with acute myocardial infarction (MI) are managed less intensively than men. Chronic stable angina is the commonest clinical manifestation of coronary heart disease in the community, but little information is available concerning its contemporary clinical management. The aim of this study is to assess the extent of gender differences in the clinical management of angina pectoris in primary care.

Methods

A cross-sectional survey undertaken in 8 sentinel centres serving 63,724 individuals in the city of Liverpool (15% of the city population). Aspects of clinical care assessed included: risk factor recording (smoking, cholesterol, blood pressure, body mass index); secondary prevention (aspirin, beta-blocker, statin); cardiac investigation (exercise ECG, perfusion scanning, angiography); and revascularisation (percutaneous coronary intervention, coronary artery bypass grafting). Male-to-female adjusted odds ratios (AOR) were calculated (adjusted for age, angina duration, age at diagnosis and previous MI) using logistic regression.

Results

1,162 patients (610 men; 552 women) with angina were identified. Women were older than men (71 vs 67 years), with a shorter duration of angina (6 vs 7 years), and a lower prevalence of previous MI (25% vs 43%). Men were significantly more likely than women to undergo detailed risk factor assessment (AOR = 1.35, 95%CI 1.06 to 1.73); receive 'triple' secondary prevention with aspirin, beta-blockers and statins (AOR = 1.47, 95%CI 1.07 to 2.02); access exercise ECG testing (AOR = 1.31, 95%CI 1.02 to 1.68); angiography (AOR = 1.61, 95%CI 1.23 to 2.12); and undergo coronary revascularisation (AOR = 1.93, 95%CI 1.39 to 2.68).

Conclusion

Systematic gender differences exist in the comprehensive clinical management of patients with angina in primary care.

Mobile cardiac catheterization laboratories increase use of cardiac care in women and African Americans

BACKGROUND

Women and minorities traditionally have shown less use of diagnostic cardiac catheterization. We sought to determine whether mobile cardiac catheterization laboratories may increase the use of catheterization among women and minorities by bringing the technology to remote communities.

METHODS

We collected data on consecutive patients undergoing cardiac catheterization at mobile laboratories located at 15 community hospitals in North Carolina and Virginia from 1994 to 2005. These data were compared with those from similar consecutive outpatients at the Duke University Medical Center (Durham, NC) cardiac catheterization laboratory over the same period. Logistic regression modeling techniques were used to determine which patient factors were associated with the decision to use a particular facility.

RESULTS

Women comprised 48% of the patients undergoing cardiac catheterization via mobile laboratory versus 42% of those patients receiving outpatient catheterization at the medical center laboratory (P < .001). All racial minorities combined (African American, Hispanic, Native American, Asian, and other) made up 27% of the mobile laboratory population undergoing catheterization versus 21% of the medical center outpatients who underwent the procedure (P < .001). Most minorities were African American. The most important predictor of patients receiving catheterization via a mobile laboratory rather than at the medical center catheterization laboratory was distance to the nearest mobile facility. Within a home-to-mobile laboratory range of approximately 35 miles, the odds of being treated at a mobile laboratory increased greatly the closer the patient lived to the facility.

CONCLUSIONS

The strongest predictor of mobile laboratory use was the patient's proximity to the mobile facility. When compared with a traditional tertiary referral outpatient hospital setting, a greater percentage of women and African Americans received cardiac catheterization at mobile laboratories. The availability of mobile laboratories may increase the use of cardiac procedures among women and African Americans.

A comprehensive view of sex-specific issues related to cardiovascular disease

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the leading cause of mortality in women. In fact, CVD is responsible for a third of all deaths of women worldwide and half of all deaths of women over 50 years of age in developing countries. The prevalence of CVD risk factor precursors is increasing in children. Retrospective analyses suggest that there are some clinically relevant differences between women and men in terms of prevalence, presentation, management and outcomes of the disease, but little is known about why CVD affects women and men differently. For instance, women with diabetes have a significantly higher CVD mortality rate than men with diabetes. Similarly, women with atrial fibrillation are at greater risk of stroke than men with atrial fibrillation. Historically, women have been underrepresented in clinical trials. The lack of good trial evidence concerning sex-specific outcomes has led to assumptions about CVD treatment in women, which in turn may have resulted in inadequate diagnoses and suboptimal management, greatly affecting outcomes. This knowledge gap may also explain why cardiovascular health in women is not improving as fast as that of men. Over the last decades, mortality rates in men have steadily declined, while those in women remained stable. It is also becoming increasingly evident that gender differences in cultural, behavioural, psychosocial and socioeconomic status are responsible, to various degrees, for the observed differences between women and men. However, the interaction between sex-and gender-related factors and CVD outcomes in women remains largely unknown.

Multislice cardiac computed tomography in symptomatic middle-aged women

OBJECTIVE

To assess the accuracy of multislice cardiac computed tomography (MSCT) for detection of significant coronary artery disease (CAD) in middle-aged symptomatic women.

METHODS

We included 70 women (51+/-8 years) with complaints of chest pain or dyspnea, and an abnormal maximum exercise electrocardiogram (ECG) (8.6+/-1.4 metabolic equivalents). All had a MSCT using a 16 detector rows scanner, and coronary arteriography (CA). Blinded results of the two modalities were compared using a segment, vessel, and patient-based analysis.

RESULTS

On MSCT 36% had normal coronaries, 24% had significant CAD requiring revascularization, and the remainder had mild CAD. MSCT had reasonably high diagnostic accuracy at segment level (negative predictive value of 95%, positive predictive value 81%, specificity 99%, and sensitivity 50%), regarding single or multivessel CAD when both nonassessable and assessable segments were included in the analysis. The agreement between the segments comparing MSCT and CA for significant CAD was excellent at 98% (kappa value 0.89).

CONCLUSIONS

In this cohort of middle-aged symptomatic women with an abnormal stress test, 24% had significant CAD requiring intervention. MSCT was highly accurate in diagnosing significant CAD with an excellent negative predictive value.

Gender differences of revascularization in patients with acute myocardial infarction

Women are less likely to undergo revascularization after acute myocardial infarction (AMI). We assessed whether this was due to patterns of hospital admission or less frequent revascularization even when resources are available. Using New York City hospital discharge records from 1995 to 2002, we determined revascularization rates for patients who were hospitalized for AMI. Rates of admission to hospitals capable of revascularizing and revascularization use were assessed by gender. Odds ratios of admission and procedure use were determined after adjusting for sociodemographic and clinical characteristics and accounting for availability of revascularization in neighborhoods of residence. Of 93,978 patients with AMI (43.7% women), 27% were revascularized (32% and 20% for men and women, respectively, p <0.001). Moreover, women were less likely than men to be admitted to hospitals capable of revascularization (45% vs 52%, p <0.001) and to undergo revascularization (54% vs 60%, p <0.001) when admitted to capable hospitals. These differences were similar for residents of neighborhoods with or without revascularization services. Odds ratios for men versus women were 1.22 (95% confidence interval 1.18 to 1.26) for admission to revascularizing hospitals and 1.28 (95% confidence interval 1.22 to 1.34) for using revascularization among patients in revascularization hospitals. The in-hospital mortality advantage of men over women persisted after revascularization (9.6% vs 14.5%). In conclusion, less revascularization after AMI among women was associated with less frequent admission to hospitals capable of revascularization and less frequent revascularization even when admitted to performing hospitals. However, improving revascularization among women does not eliminate the gender disparity of in-hospital death after AMI.

Gender differences in the management and clinical outcome of stable angina

BACKGROUND

We sought to examine the impact of gender on the investigation and subsequent management of stable angina and to assess gender differences in clinical outcome at 1 year.

METHODS AND RESULTS

The Euro Heart Survey of Stable Angina enrolled patients with a clinical diagnosis of stable angina on initial assessment by a cardiologist. Baseline clinical details and cardiac investigations planned or performed within a 4-week period of the assessment were recorded, and follow-up data were collected at 1 year. A total of 3779 patients were included in the survey; 42% were female. Women were less likely to undergo an exercise ECG (odds ratio, 0.81; 95% CI, 0.69 to 0.95) and less likely to be referred for coronary angiography (odds ratio, 0.59; 95% CI, 0.48 to 0.72). Antiplatelet and statin therapies were used significantly less in women than in men, both at initial assessment and at 1 year, even in those in whom coronary disease had been confirmed. Women with confirmed coronary disease were less likely to be revascularized than their male counterparts and were twice as likely to suffer death or nonfatal myocardial infarction during the 1-year follow-up period (hazard ratio, 2.09; 95% CI, 1.13 to 3.85), even after multivariable adjustment for age, abnormal ventricular function, severity of coronary disease, and diabetes.

CONCLUSIONS

Significant gender bias has been identified in the use of investigations and evidence-based medical therapy in stable angina. Women were also less likely to be revascularized. The observed bias is of particular concern in light of the adverse prognosis observed among women with stable angina and confirmed coronary disease.

Insights from the NHLBI-Sponsored Women's Ischemia Syndrome Evaluation (WISE) Study: Part I: gender differences in traditional and novel risk factors, symptom evaluation, and gender-optimized diagnostic strategies

Despite a dramatic decline in mortality over the past three decades, coronary heart disease is the leading cause of death and disability in the U.S. Importantly, recent advances in the field of cardiovascular medicine have not led to significant declines in case fatality rates for women when compared to the dramatic declines realized for men. The current review highlights gender-specific issues in ischemic heart disease presentation, evaluation, and outcomes with a special focus on the results published from the National Institutes of Health-National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute-sponsored Women's Ischemia Syndrome Evaluation (WISE) study. We will present recent evidence on traditional and novel risk markers (e.g., high sensitivity C-reactive protein) as well as gender-specific differences in symptoms and diagnostic approaches. An overview of currently available diagnostic test evidence (including exercise electrocardiography and stress echocardiography and single-photon emission computed tomographic imaging) in symptomatic women will be presented as well as data using innovative imaging techniques such as magnetic resonance subendocardial perfusion, and spectroscopic imaging will also be discussed.

Insights from the NHLBI-Sponsored Women's Ischemia Syndrome Evaluation (WISE) Study: Part II: gender differences in presentation, diagnosis, and outcome with regard to gender-based pathophysiology of atherosclerosis and macrovascular and microvascular coronary disease

Coronary heart disease is the leading cause of death and disability in the U.S., but recent advances have not led to declines in case fatality rates for women. The current review highlights gender-specific issues in ischemic heart disease (IHD) presentation, evaluation, and outcomes with a special focus on the results derived from the National Institutes of Health-National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute-sponsored Women's Ischemia Syndrome Evaluation (WISE) study. In the second part of this review, we will assess new evidence on gender-based differences in vascular wall or metabolic alterations, atherosclerotic plaque deposition, and functional expression on worsening outcomes of women. Additionally, innovative cardiovascular imaging techniques will be discussed. Finally, we identify critical areas of further inquiry needed to advance this new gender-specific IHD understanding into improved outcomes for women.

Gender differences in coronary artery disease

Coronary artery disease in women is associated with higher morbidity and mortality than in men. The purpose of this article is to summarize recent literature concerning gender-based differences. Specific differences in pathophysiology, traditional and psychosocial risk factors, symptom presentation, treatments, and outcomes between women and men will be reviewed.

The role of myocardial perfusion imaging in special populations: women, diabetics, and heart failure

Cardiovascular disease and its manifestations remain a major worldwide public health problem. Despite significant advances in diagnosis and treatment, coronary artery disease remains the leading cause of death of men and women in the developed world. Early and accurate diagnosis of coronary artery disease is crucial if men and women are to have improved outcomes. The continuous and dramatic growth in the field of nuclear cardiology during the past 2 decades has accounted for its central role in the clinical evaluation of patients with known or suspected coronary heart disease. The development of electrocardiogram-gated single photon emission tomography has facilitated the expansion of nuclear cardiology studies from the evaluation of myocardial perfusion alone to the evaluation of both perfusion and ventricular function data in a single study. Myocardial perfusion imaging with electrocardiogram-gated single photon emission tomography, with its ability to provide information about the physiologic significance of coronary stenosis, left ventricular function, and risk assessment of patients with coronary artery disease, is ideally suited for the diagnostic and prognostic evaluation of the patient who is at high to intermediate risk for ischemic heart disease.

Role of noninvasive testing in the clinical evaluation of women with suspected coronary artery disease: Consensus statement from the Cardiac Imaging Committee, Council on Clinical Cardiology, and the Cardiovascular Imaging and Intervention Committee, Council on Cardiovascular Radiology and Intervention, American Heart Association

Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of mortality for women in the United States. Coronary heart disease, which includes coronary atherosclerotic disease, myocardial infarction, acute coronary syndromes, and angina, is the largest subset of this mortality, with >240,000 women dying annually from the disease. Atherosclerotic coronary artery disease (CAD) is the focus of this consensus statement. Research continues to report underrecognition and underdiagnosis of CAD as contributory to high mortality rates in women. Timely and accurate diagnosis can significantly reduce CAD mortality for women; indeed, once the diagnosis is made, it does appear that current treatments are equally effective at reducing risk in both women and men. As such, noninvasive diagnostic and prognostic testing offers the potential to identify women at increased CAD risk as the basis for instituting preventive and therapeutic interventions. Nevertheless, the recent evidence-based practice program report from the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality noted the paucity of women enrolled in diagnostic research studies. Consequently, much of the evidence supporting contemporary recommendations for noninvasive diagnostic studies in women is extrapolated from studies conducted predominantly in cohorts of middle-aged men. The majority of diagnostic and prognostic evidence in cardiac imaging in women and men has been derived from observational registries and referral populations that are affected by selection and other biases. Thus, a better understanding of the potential impact of sex differences on noninvasive cardiac testing in women may greatly improve clinical decision making. This consensus statement provides a synopsis of available evidence on the role of the exercise ECG and cardiac imaging modalities, both those in common use as well as developing technologies that may add clinical value to the diagnosis and risk assessment of the symptomatic and asymptomatic woman with suspected CAD.

Influence of Gender on Arrhythmia Characteristics and Outcome in the Multicenter UnSustained Tachycardia Trial

INTRODUCTION

Previous studies have demonstrated gender differences in risk of sudden death in patients with ischemic heart disease. The Multicenter UnSustained Tachycardia Trial (MUSTT) evaluated the ability of therapy guided by electrophysiologic (EP) testing to reduce mortality in patients with coronary disease, ejection fraction < or =40%, and spontaneous nonsustained ventricular tachycardia.

METHODS AND RESULTS

We analyzed the influence of gender on results of EP testing and outcome of patients enrolled in MUSTT. Women made up 14% of the overall MUSTT population and were less likely than men to have inducible sustained randomizable ventricular arrhythmias (24% vs 36%, P < 0.001). Baseline characteristics differed between men and women. In randomized patients, women were older, more likely to have had an infarction within 6 months, more likely to have a history of heart failure, and more likely to have recent angina prior to enrollment than men (P < 0.05). In the EP-guided therapy group, there was no difference in implantable cardioverter defibrillator implantation rate in men and women (45% vs 53%, P = 0.38). There also were no significant gender influences on risk of arrhythmic death or cardiac arrest (2-year event rate 9% in women and 12% in men, adjusted hazard ratio 0.88) or overall mortality (2-year event rate 32% in women vs 21% in men, adjusted hazard ratio 1.51).

CONCLUSION

The outcome and benefit of EP-guided therapy in this trial did not appear to be influenced by gender. However, due to the small numbers of women in the trial, small differences in outcome may not be apparent. Plans for future primary prevention trials should include careful risk stratification of women who less often have inducible sustained ventricular arrhythmias and better left ventricular function despite more frequent heart failure.

Willingness to participate in cardiac trials

The elderly, women, and minorities are all less likely to be enrolled in randomized clinical trials (RCTs). Whether differential patient interest in RCTs contributes to these disparities is unclear. The authors surveyed 660 patients willingness to consider two potential cardiac RCTs of medical therapy vs. percutaneous coronary angioplasty or coronary artery bypass surgery, respectively. The cohorts mean age was 67 years (43% aged >or=70 years; 35% women; and 28% nonwhite). Compared with younger patients, those aged >or=70 years were equal or more likely to consider both the percutaneous coronary angioplasty (46% vs. 41%) and coronary artery bypass surgery RCTs (35% vs. 31%). Race also had no significant impact on trial enrollment, yet women were significantly less likely than men to participate in either RCT. In conclusion, patient willingness to consider RCT participation does not explain underenrollment of elderly and minority patients. Women, however, were more reluctant to consider RCTs, an area requiring further study.

Clinical characteristics and referral pattern of patients with left ventricular dysfunction and significant coronary artery disease undergoing radionuclide imaging

BACKGROUND

Many observational studies that predict patient outcomes have examined the use of myocardial perfusion imaging results. However, a referral pattern for radionuclide testing could bias these analyses and should be determined. These patients may also differ with regard to the extent of coronary artery disease (CAD). All of these differences must be incorporated into proper outcomes examinations. We sought to identify the nuclear perfusion imaging referral pattern for patients with left ventricular (LV) dysfunction and significant CAD.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Patients with LV dysfunction and CAD (n = 2951) meeting our inclusion criteria were compared by receipt or absence of radionuclide perfusion testing within 6 months before or after angiography. Pearson chi2 and Kruskal-Wallis analyses were used to examine differences in baseline characteristics and catheterization results, whereas logistic regression modeling was applied to predict nuclear imaging referral before and after catheterization. Precatheterization nuclear cohort patients were more likely to be minority patients (odds ratio [OR], 1.34; P =.0083) with previous cardiac revascularization (OR, 2.27; P =.0001), Charlson comorbidity index greater than 1 (OR, 1.146; P =.0091), and heart failure symptoms (OR, 1.62; P =.0001) than those without imaging. They were less likely to have a myocardial infarction (OR, 0.464; P =.0001). After catheterization, the nuclear patients were more likely to have had congestive heart failure (OR, 1.452; P =.0019), a myocardial infarction (OR, 1.353; P =.0371), an ejection fraction lower than 30% (OR, 1.058; P =.0002), and prior revascularization (OR, 1.880; P =.0001). In addition, they had fewer diseased vessels (OR, 0.731; P =.0001).

CONCLUSIONS

Bias exists in nuclear referral for patients with LV dysfunction and significant CAD and must be considered when interpreting observational studies on this topic.

Coronary heart disease: the female heart is vulnerable

During the past decade, an overall theme has emerged, validating the exploration of gender-based differences in coronary heart disease (CHD) as a basis for clinical strategies to improve outcomes for women. Underrepresentation of women in most of CHD and lack of gender-specific reporting in many clinical trials continue to limit the available knowledge and evidence-based medicine needed to devise optimal managements for women with CHD. Control of conventional coronary risk factors provides comparable cardioprotection for men and women. Current evidence fails to show cardiac protection from menopausal hormone therapy. Clinical presentations of coronary heart disease (CHD) and management strategies differ between the sexes. Underutilization of proven beneficial therapies is a contributor to less-favorable outcomes in women. The contemporary increased application of appropriate diagnostic, therapeutic, and interventional managements has favorably altered the prognosis for women, particularly when the data are adjusted for baseline characteristics. Better education of women during office visits, earlier and more aggressive control of coronary risk factors, and a greater index of suspicion regarding chest pain and its appropriate evaluation may help to reverse the trend of late referral and late intervention. Research indicates that behavioral changes on the part of women and reshaping of practice patterns by their health care providers may dramatically reduce the number of women disabled and killed by CHD each year.

The clinical role of stress myocardial perfusion imaging in women with suspected coronary artery disease

Cardiovascular disease remains the number one cause of mortality for women in the United States, with coronary artery disease (CAD) accounting for 54% of all cardiovascular deaths. CAD claims the lives of more than 250,000 women each year and is therefore the single largest killer of American women. For several decades, the under-representation of women in clinical trials led to both a lack of available sex-specific evidence and a generalized misconception that CAD was a "man's disease." In actuality, not only are women vulnerable to CAD, they typically develop it 10 to 15 years later than men. Furthermore, sex differences exist in the mortality rates of women and men with CAD, such that once CAD is present in women, they have worse outcomes than their male counterparts. Consequently, early and accurate diagnosis of CAD is crucial for reducing mortality rates in women. Stress myocardial perfusion imaging (MPI) using contemporary techniques has been shown to have significant value in the diagnosis and prognosis of CAD in women. In the risk assessment of women with an intermediate clinical pretest likelihood of CAD, using MPI with exercise or pharmacologic stress has been shown to add incremental value to clinical variables or exercise electrocardiogram stress testing alone. This review discusses the clinical role of stress MPI in the management of women with suspected CAD.

Stress Myocardial Perfusion Imaging in the Diagnosis and Prognosis of Women with Suspected Coronary Artery Disease

Coronary artery disease is the single largest killer of women in the United States and claims the lives of more than 250,000 women each year. For several decades, there was the misperception that coronary artery disease was a "man's disease." The fact is that women are indeed vulnerable to coronary artery disease; however, they typically develop the disease 10 to 15 years later than men. Once coronary artery disease is evident, women have worse outcomes as compared with men.Therefore, early and accurate diagnosis of coronary artery disease is crucial for reducing heart disease mortality in women. Stress myocardial perfusion imaging using contemporary techniques has been shown to have significant value in the diagnosis and prognosis of coronary artery disease in women. Myocardial perfusion imaging with exercise or pharmacologic stress has been shown to add incremental value to the use of clinical variables or exercise electrocardiogram stress testing alone in the risk stratification of women with an intermediate clinical pretest likelihood of coronary artery disease. This review provides an overview of the role of stress myocardial perfusion imaging in the clinical evaluation of women with suspected coronary artery disease.

Narrowing gender differences in procedure use for acute myocardial infarction: insights from the Worcester heart attack study

OBJECTIVE

To examine age-specific gender differences and trends over time in the management of patients with acute myocardial infarction (AMI).

DESIGN

Cross-sectional study of patients admitted with AMI from a community-wide perspective over a 10-year period (1990-1999).

SETTING

All hospitals in the Worcester (Mass) metropolitan area (1990 census = 437000).

PATIENTS/PARTICIPANTS

We identified 2037 women and 2645 men who were hospitalized in the Worcester metropolitan area with confirmed AMI during six 1-year periods between 1990 and 1999. Four age groups (<55, 55 to 64, 65 to 74 and >or=75 years) of men and women were studied.

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

Use of echocardiography, exercise treadmill testing (ETT), cardiac catheterization, percutaneous coronary interventions (PCI), and coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) during the index hospitalization was examined in relation to age and gender. Overall, women were less likely to undergo ETT, cardiac catheterization, and CABG than were men, and these trends remained after controlling for potentially confounding factors. Between 1990 and 1999, there was a dramatic decrease in ETT, whereas the use of echocardiography remained unchanged. There were marked increases over time in the use of cardiac catheterization and PCI in women and men. Use of cardiac catheterization and PCI increased to a greater extent in women as compared to men. In patients who underwent cardiac catheterization, rates of coronary revascularization were similar between men and women.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data suggest that women and men with AMI are treated differently with respect to use of diagnostic and revascularization procedures. However, gender differences in the use of these diagnostic and interventional approaches have narrowed over time.

The construction of a modern epidemic: the implications for women of the gendering of coronary heart disease

AIM

This aim of this paper is to examine critically the implications for women of a gendered construction of coronary heart disease.

DESIGN

The paper takes the form of a literature review between 1969 and 2002 of nursing, medical and social science literature written in the English language that explores the experience of women with coronary heart disease.

FINDINGS

Coronary heart disease has been constructed during the 20th century as a disease of affluence that affects high achieving men. However coronary heart disease is a major cause of morbidity and mortality among women. The literature suggests that this gendered construction has influenced not only health professionals' perceptions of coronary heart disease but also lay theories of candidature, so that the collective consciousness sees women as being at low risk. Moreover, that this construction of coronary heart disease as a male disease has led to a service provision engineered to meet male needs that arguably can be seen to militate against women. This has resulted in women being diagnosed when they are further along the disease trajectory. It also means that once diagnosis has made then they are less likely to be referred for investigations, treatment and rehabilitation.

CONCLUSION

The implications of this construction for the care of women with coronary heart disease may result in 'gender-neutral' care. This may mean that decisions about care are made in the light of nurses' own knowledge and experience of nursing male patients, with the consequence that women patients' individual needs are not met.

Management of ventricular arrhythmias in diverse populations in California

BACKGROUND

The use of coronary angiography and revascularization is lower than expected among black patients. It is uncertain whether use of other cardiac procedures also varies according to race and ethnicity and whether outcomes are affected.

METHODS

We analyzed discharge abstracts from all nonfederal hospitals in California of patients hospitalized for a primary diagnosis of ventricular tachycardia or ventricular fibrillation between 1992 and 1994. We compared mortality rates and use of electrophysiologic study (EPS) and implantable cardioverter-defibrillator (ICD) procedures according to the race and ethnicity of the patient.

RESULTS

Among 8713 patients admitted with ventricular tachycardia or ventricular fibrillation, 29% (n = 2508) had a subsequent EPS procedure, and 9% (n = 818) had an ICD implanted. After controlling for potential confounding factors, we found that black patients were significantly less likely than white patients to undergo EPS (odds ratio 0.72, CI 0.56-0.92) or ICD implantation (odds ratio 0.39, CI 0.25-0.60). Blacks discharged alive from the initial hospital admission had higher mortality rates over the next year than white patients, even after controlling for multiple confounding risk factors (risk ratio 1.18, CI 1.03-1.36). The use of EPS and ICD procedures was also significantly affected by several other factors, most notably by on-site procedure availability but also by age, sex, and insurance status.

CONCLUSIONS

In a large population of patients hospitalized for ventricular arrhythmia, blacks had significantly lower rates of utilization for EPS and ICD procedures and higher subsequent mortality rates.