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Yamazaki A, Tanaka Y, Watanabe K, Sato M, Kawazu SI, Kita K, Inoue N, van Rensburg HDJ, N'Da DD, Suganuma K. Prophylactic activity of orally administered dry-heat-sterilized Acremonium egyptiacum against Trypanosoma congolense-induced animal African trypanosomosis. Acta Trop 2024; 254:107185. [PMID: 38494059 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2024.107185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2023] [Revised: 02/08/2024] [Accepted: 03/10/2024] [Indexed: 03/19/2024]
Abstract
Animal African trypanosomosis (AAT) is an important global disease of livestock that causes economic losses of up to 4.5 billion US dollars per year. Thus, eliminating AAT in endemic countries will improve agricultural productivity and economic growth. To prevent AAT, vector control and the development of prophylactic drugs are crucial. Ascofuranone (AF) is a bioactive fungal compound with proven in vitro trypanocidal potency and in vivo treatment efficacy. However, the complex stereoselective synthesis of AF has prevented its cost-effective industrial production. Recently, a genetically modified strain of Acremonium egyptiacum fungus that produces a high yield of AF was developed. Therefore, we hypothesized that the oral administration of the AF-producing fungus itself may be effective against AAT. Hence, this study aimed to evaluate the prophylactic activity of orally administered dry-heat-sterilized A. egyptiacum against Trypanosoma congolense IL3000 infection using a mouse model. The survival rate was significantly prolonged (p = 0.009), and parasitemia was suppressed in all AF-fungus-treated groups (Group 1-9) compared with that in the untreated control group (Group 10). Hence, the trypanocidal activity of AF was retained after dry-heat-sterilization of the AF-producing fungus and that its oral administration effectively prevented AAT. Since AAT is endemic to rural areas with underdeveloped veterinary infrastructure, dry-heat-sterilized A. egyptiacum would be the most cost-effective potential treatment for AAT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ai Yamazaki
- National Research Center for Protozoan Diseases, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Inada, Obihiro, Hokkaido, 080-8555, Japan
| | - Yusuke Tanaka
- Department of Functional Anatomy and Neuroscience, Asahikawa Medical University, Asahikawa, Hokkaido, 078-8510, Japan
| | - Kenichi Watanabe
- Research Center for Global Agromedicine, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Inada, Obihiro, Hokkaido 080-8555, Japan; Department of Veterinary Medicine, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Inada, Obihiro, Hokkaido 080-8555, Japan
| | - Mayu Sato
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Inada, Obihiro, Hokkaido 080-8555, Japan
| | - Shin-Ichiro Kawazu
- National Research Center for Protozoan Diseases, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Inada, Obihiro, Hokkaido, 080-8555, Japan
| | - Kiyoshi Kita
- School of Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nagasaki University, Sakamoto, Nagasaki 852-8523, Japan
| | - Noboru Inoue
- National Research Center for Protozoan Diseases, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Inada, Obihiro, Hokkaido, 080-8555, Japan
| | - Helena D Janse van Rensburg
- Centre of Excellence for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, North-West University, Potchefstroom 2520, South Africa
| | - David D N'Da
- Centre of Excellence for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, North-West University, Potchefstroom 2520, South Africa
| | - Keisuke Suganuma
- National Research Center for Protozoan Diseases, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Inada, Obihiro, Hokkaido, 080-8555, Japan; Research Center for Global Agromedicine, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Inada, Obihiro, Hokkaido 080-8555, Japan.
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2
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Edrich ESM, Duvenage L, Gourlay CW. Alternative Oxidase - Aid or obstacle to combat the rise of fungal pathogens? Biochim Biophys Acta Bioenerg 2024; 1865:149031. [PMID: 38195037 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbabio.2024.149031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2023] [Revised: 11/16/2023] [Accepted: 01/03/2024] [Indexed: 01/11/2024]
Abstract
Fungal pathogens present a growing threat to both humans and global health security alike. Increasing evidence of antifungal resistance in fungal populations that infect both humans and plant species has increased reliance on combination therapies and shown the need for new antifungal therapeutic targets to be investigated. Here, we review the roles of mitochondria and fungal respiration in pathogenesis and discuss the role of the Alternative Oxidase enzyme (Aox) in both human fungal pathogens and phytopathogens. Increasing evidence exists for Aox within mechanisms that underpin fungal virulence. Aox also plays important roles in adaptability that may prove useful within dual targeted fungal-specific therapeutic approaches. As improved fungal specific mitochondrial and Aox inhibitors are under development we may see this as an emerging target for future approaches to tackling the growing challenge of fungal infection.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Lucian Duvenage
- CMM AFRICA Medical Mycology Research Unit, Department of Pathology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Campbell W Gourlay
- Kent Fungal Group, School of Biosciences, University of Kent, Kent CT2 9HY, UK.
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3
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Li J, Yang S, Wu Y, Wang R, Liu Y, Liu J, Ye Z, Tang R, Whiteway M, Lv Q, Yan L. Alternative Oxidase: From Molecule and Function to Future Inhibitors. ACS Omega 2024; 9:12478-12499. [PMID: 38524433 PMCID: PMC10955580 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.3c09339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2023] [Revised: 01/31/2024] [Accepted: 02/07/2024] [Indexed: 03/26/2024]
Abstract
In the respiratory chain of the majority of aerobic organisms, the enzyme alternative oxidase (AOX) functions as the terminal oxidase and has important roles in maintaining metabolic and signaling homeostasis in mitochondria. AOX endows the respiratory system with flexibility in the coupling among the carbon metabolism pathway, electron transport chain (ETC) activity, and ATP turnover. AOX allows electrons to bypass the main cytochrome pathway to restrict the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). The inhibition of AOX leads to oxidative damage and contributes to the loss of adaptability and viability in some pathogenic organisms. Although AOXs have recently been identified in several organisms, crystal structures and major functions still need to be explored. Recent work on the trypanosome alternative oxidase has provided a crystal structure of an AOX protein, which contributes to the structure-activity relationship of the inhibitors of AOX. Here, we review the current knowledge on the development, structure, and properties of AOXs, as well as their roles and mechanisms in plants, animals, algae, protists, fungi, and bacteria, with a special emphasis on the development of AOX inhibitors, which will improve the understanding of respiratory regulation in many organisms and provide references for subsequent studies of AOX-targeted inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiye Li
- School
of Pharmacy, Naval Medical University, Shanghai 200433, China
- Institute
of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy
of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100050, China
| | - Shiyun Yang
- School
of Pharmacy, Naval Medical University, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Yujie Wu
- School
of Pharmacy, Naval Medical University, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Ruina Wang
- School
of Pharmacy, Naval Medical University, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Yu Liu
- School
of Pharmacy, Naval Medical University, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Jiacun Liu
- School
of Pharmacy, Naval Medical University, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Zi Ye
- School
of Pharmacy, Naval Medical University, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Renjie Tang
- Beijing
South Medical District of Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing 100072, China
| | - Malcolm Whiteway
- Department
of Biology, Concordia University, Montreal, H4B 1R6 Quebec, Canada
| | - Quanzhen Lv
- School
of Pharmacy, Naval Medical University, Shanghai 200433, China
- Basic
Medicine Innovation Center for Fungal Infectious Diseases, (Naval Medical University), Ministry of Education, Shanghai 200433, China
- Key
Laboratory of Biosafety Defense (Naval Medical University), Ministry
of Education, Shanghai 200433, China
- Shanghai
Key Laboratory of Medical Biodefense, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Lan Yan
- School
of Pharmacy, Naval Medical University, Shanghai 200433, China
- Basic
Medicine Innovation Center for Fungal Infectious Diseases, (Naval Medical University), Ministry of Education, Shanghai 200433, China
- Key
Laboratory of Biosafety Defense (Naval Medical University), Ministry
of Education, Shanghai 200433, China
- Shanghai
Key Laboratory of Medical Biodefense, Shanghai 200433, China
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4
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Suganuma K, Mochabo KM, Chemuliti JK, Kiyoshi K, Noboru I, Kawazu SI. Ascofuranone antibiotic is a promising trypanocidal drug for nagana. Onderstepoort J Vet Res 2024; 91:e1-e6. [PMID: 38426744 PMCID: PMC11005941 DOI: 10.4102/ojvr.v91i1.2115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2023] [Revised: 11/22/2023] [Accepted: 11/28/2023] [Indexed: 03/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Trypanosomosis is a disease complex which affects both humans and animals in sub-Saharan Africa, transmitted by the tsetse fly and distributed within the tsetse belt of Africa. But some trypanosome species, for example, Trypanosoma brucei evansi, T. vivax, T. theileri and T. b. equiperdum are endemic outside the tsetse belt of Africa transmitted by biting flies, for example, Tabanus and Stomoxys, or venereal transmission, respectively. Trypanocidal drugs remain the principal method of animal trypanosomosis control in most African countries. However, there is a growing concern that their effectiveness may be severely curtailed by widespread drug resistance. A minimum number of six male cattle calves were recruited for the study. They were randomly grouped into two (T. vivax and T. congolense groups) of three calves each. One calf per group served as a control while two calves were treatment group. They were inoculated with 105 cells/mL parasites in phosphate buffered solution (PBS) in 2 mL. When parasitaemia reached 1 × 107.8 cells/mL trypanosomes per mL in calves, treatment was instituted with 20 mL (25 mg/kg in 100 kg calf) ascofuranone (AF) for treatment calves, while the control ones were administered a placebo (20 mL PBS) intramuscularly. This study revealed that T. vivax was successfully cleared by AF but the T. congolense group was not cleared effectively.Contribution: There is an urgent need to develop new drugs which this study sought to address. It is suggested that the AF compound can be developed further to be a sanative drug for T. vivax in non-tsetse infested areas like South Americas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keisuke Suganuma
- National Research Center for Protozoan Diseases, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Obihiro.
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Sankar TV, Saharay M, Santhosh D, Menon S, Raran-Kurussi S, Padmasree K. Biomolecular interaction of purified recombinant Arabidopsis thaliana's alternative oxidase 1A with TCA cycle metabolites: Biophysical and molecular docking studies. Int J Biol Macromol 2024; 258:128814. [PMID: 38114006 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.128814] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2023] [Revised: 11/08/2023] [Accepted: 12/13/2023] [Indexed: 12/21/2023]
Abstract
In higher plants, the mitochondrial alternative oxidase (AOX) pathway plays an essential role in maintaining the TCA cycle/cellular carbon and energy balance under various physiological and stress conditions. Though the activation of AOX pathway upon exogenous addition of α-ketoacids/TCA cycle metabolites [pyruvate, α-ketoglutarate (α-KG), oxaloacetic acid (OAA), succinate and malic acid] to isolated mitochondria is known, the molecular mechanism of interaction of these metabolites with AOX protein is limited. The present study is designed to understand the biomolecular interaction of pure recombinant Arabidopsis thaliana AOX1A with TCA cycle metabolites under in vitro conditions using various biophysical and molecular docking studies. The binding of α-KG, fumaric acid and OAA to rAtAOX1A caused conformational change in the microenvironment of tryptophan residues as evidenced by red shift in the synchronous fluorescence spectra (∆λ = 60 nm). Besides, a decrease in conventional fluorescence emission spectra, tyrosine specific synchronous fluorescence spectra (∆λ = 15 nm) and α-helical content of CD spectra revealed the conformation changes in rAtAOX1A structure associated with binding of various TCA cycle metabolites. Further, surface plasmon resonance (SPR) and microscale thermophoresis (MST) studies revealed the binding affinity, while docking studies identified binding pocket residues, respectively, for these metabolites on rAtAOX1A.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tadiboina Veera Sankar
- Department of Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, School of Life Sciences, University of Hyderabad, Gachibowli, Hyderabad 500046, India
| | - Moumita Saharay
- Department of Systems and Computational Biology, School of Life Sciences, University of Hyderabad, Gachibowli, Hyderabad 500046, India
| | - Dharawath Santhosh
- Department of Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, School of Life Sciences, University of Hyderabad, Gachibowli, Hyderabad 500046, India
| | - Saji Menon
- Senior Field Application Scientist, Nanotemper Technologies GmbH, India
| | - Sreejith Raran-Kurussi
- TIFR Centre for Interdisciplinary Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Hyderabad, 500107, India
| | - Kollipara Padmasree
- Department of Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, School of Life Sciences, University of Hyderabad, Gachibowli, Hyderabad 500046, India.
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6
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Zhang S, Yan C, Lu T, Fan Y, Ren Y, Zhao J, Shan X, Guan Y, Song P, Li D, Hu H. New insights into molecular features of the genome-wide AOX family and their responses to various stresses in common wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). Gene 2023; 888:147756. [PMID: 37659597 DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2023.147756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2023] [Revised: 08/22/2023] [Accepted: 08/31/2023] [Indexed: 09/04/2023]
Abstract
Alternative oxidase (AOX) is an important terminal oxidase involved in the alternative oxidation pathway in plants, which is closely related to various biotic and abiotic stress responses. However, a comprehensive research on AOX gene family of wheat is still lacking. In this study, the members of wheat AOX (TaAOX) family were identified, and their molecular characteristics and gene expression patterns were systematically investigated. Seventeen TaAOX genes were identified from Chinese Spring (CS) genome, which were mapped on 7 chromosomes and mainly clustered on the long arm's distal end of the second homologous groups. Phylogenetic analysis showed that TaAOX genes were classified into four subgroups (Ia, Ib, Ic, and Id), and the Ia subgroup possessed the most members. Tandem duplication and segmental duplication events were found during the evolution of TaAOX genes and they were affected by purifying selection demonstrated by Ka/Ks analysis. The exon numbers of this family gene varied greatly from 1 to 9. Except for Ta3BSAOX14, all the proteins encoded by the other 16 TaAOX genes contained the amino acid residues of the key active sites in the AOX domain (cd01053). The expression patterns of TaAOX genes in various tissues and under abiotic and biotic stresses were analyzed using public transcriptome data, furthermore, qRT-PCR analysis was performed for some selected TaAOX genes, and the results suggested that most members of this gene family play an important role in response to different stresses in common wheat. Our results provide basic information and valuable reference for further exploring the gene function of TaAOX family by using gene editing, RNAi, VIGS, and other technologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shengli Zhang
- School of Life Sciences, Henan Institute of Science and Technology, Xinxiang, Henan, China; Henan Engineering Research Center of Crop Genome Editing, Henan Collaborative Innovation Center of Modern Biological Breeding, Xinxiang, Henan, China.
| | - Cuiping Yan
- School of Life Sciences, Henan Institute of Science and Technology, Xinxiang, Henan, China; Henan Engineering Research Center of Crop Genome Editing, Henan Collaborative Innovation Center of Modern Biological Breeding, Xinxiang, Henan, China
| | - Tairui Lu
- School of Life Sciences, Henan Institute of Science and Technology, Xinxiang, Henan, China; Henan Engineering Research Center of Crop Genome Editing, Henan Collaborative Innovation Center of Modern Biological Breeding, Xinxiang, Henan, China
| | - Yuchao Fan
- School of Life Sciences, Henan Institute of Science and Technology, Xinxiang, Henan, China; Henan Engineering Research Center of Crop Genome Editing, Henan Collaborative Innovation Center of Modern Biological Breeding, Xinxiang, Henan, China
| | - Yueming Ren
- School of Life Sciences, Henan Institute of Science and Technology, Xinxiang, Henan, China; Henan Engineering Research Center of Crop Genome Editing, Henan Collaborative Innovation Center of Modern Biological Breeding, Xinxiang, Henan, China
| | - Jishun Zhao
- School of Life Sciences, Henan Institute of Science and Technology, Xinxiang, Henan, China; Henan Engineering Research Center of Crop Genome Editing, Henan Collaborative Innovation Center of Modern Biological Breeding, Xinxiang, Henan, China
| | - Xiaojing Shan
- School of Life Sciences, Henan Institute of Science and Technology, Xinxiang, Henan, China; Henan Engineering Research Center of Crop Genome Editing, Henan Collaborative Innovation Center of Modern Biological Breeding, Xinxiang, Henan, China
| | - Yuanyuan Guan
- School of Life Sciences, Henan Institute of Science and Technology, Xinxiang, Henan, China; Henan Engineering Research Center of Crop Genome Editing, Henan Collaborative Innovation Center of Modern Biological Breeding, Xinxiang, Henan, China
| | - Puwen Song
- School of Life Sciences, Henan Institute of Science and Technology, Xinxiang, Henan, China; Henan Engineering Research Center of Crop Genome Editing, Henan Collaborative Innovation Center of Modern Biological Breeding, Xinxiang, Henan, China
| | - Dongfang Li
- School of Resource and Environmental Sciences, Henan Institute of Science and Technology, Xinxiang, Henan, China
| | - Haiyan Hu
- School of Life Sciences, Henan Institute of Science and Technology, Xinxiang, Henan, China; Henan Engineering Research Center of Crop Genome Editing, Henan Collaborative Innovation Center of Modern Biological Breeding, Xinxiang, Henan, China
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Sharma R, Gibb AA, Barnts K, Elrod JW, Puri S. Alternative oxidase promotes high iron tolerance in Candida albicans. Microbiol Spectr 2023; 11:e0215723. [PMID: 37929974 PMCID: PMC10714975 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.02157-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2023] [Accepted: 10/10/2023] [Indexed: 11/07/2023] Open
Abstract
IMPORTANCE The yeast C. albicans exhibits metabolic flexibility for adaptability to host niches with varying availability of nutrients including essential metals like iron. For example, blood is iron deplete, while the oral cavity and the intestinal lumen are considered iron replete. We show here that C. albicans can tolerate very high levels of environmental iron, despite an increase in high iron-induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) that it mitigates with the help of a unique oxidase, known as alternative oxidase (AOX). High iron induces AOX1/2 that limits mitochondrial accumulation of ROS. Genetic elimination of AOX1/2 resulted in diminished virulence during oropharyngeal candidiasis in high iron mice. Since human mitochondria lack AOX protein, it represents a unique target for treatment of fungal infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rishabh Sharma
- Oral Microbiome Research Laboratory, Kornberg School of Dentistry, Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Andrew A. Gibb
- Department of Cardiovascular Sciences, Cardiovascular Research Center, Lewis Katz School of Medicine at Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Kelcie Barnts
- Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology, Medicine and Surgery, Kornberg School of Dentistry, Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - John W. Elrod
- Department of Cardiovascular Sciences, Cardiovascular Research Center, Lewis Katz School of Medicine at Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Sumant Puri
- Oral Microbiome Research Laboratory, Kornberg School of Dentistry, Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
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Lukeš J, Speijer D, Zíková A, Alfonzo JD, Hashimi H, Field MC. Trypanosomes as a magnifying glass for cell and molecular biology. Trends Parasitol 2023; 39:902-912. [PMID: 37679284 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2023.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2023] [Revised: 08/08/2023] [Accepted: 08/09/2023] [Indexed: 09/09/2023]
Abstract
The African trypanosome, Trypanosoma brucei, has developed into a flexible and robust experimental model for molecular and cellular parasitology, allowing us to better combat these and related parasites that cause worldwide suffering. Diminishing case numbers, due to efficient public health efforts, and recent development of new drug treatments have reduced the need for continued study of T. brucei in a disease context. However, we argue that this pathogen has been instrumental in revolutionary discoveries that have widely informed molecular and cellular biology and justifies continuing research as an experimental model. Ongoing work continues to contribute towards greater understanding of both diversified and conserved biological features. We discuss multiple examples where trypanosomes pushed the boundaries of cell biology and hope to inspire researchers to continue exploring these remarkable protists as tools for magnifying the inner workings of cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julius Lukeš
- Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre, Czech Academy of Sciences, České Budějovice (Budweis), Czech Republic; Faculty of Sciences, University of South Bohemia, České Budějovice (Budweis), Czech Republic.
| | - Dave Speijer
- Medical Biochemistry, University of Amsterdam, AMC, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Alena Zíková
- Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre, Czech Academy of Sciences, České Budějovice (Budweis), Czech Republic; Faculty of Sciences, University of South Bohemia, České Budějovice (Budweis), Czech Republic
| | - Juan D Alfonzo
- Department of Molecular Biology, Cell Biology and Biochemistry, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA
| | - Hassan Hashimi
- Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre, Czech Academy of Sciences, České Budějovice (Budweis), Czech Republic; Faculty of Sciences, University of South Bohemia, České Budějovice (Budweis), Czech Republic
| | - Mark C Field
- Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre, Czech Academy of Sciences, České Budějovice (Budweis), Czech Republic; School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK
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Gao H, Zhou L, Zhang P, Wang Y, Qian X, Liu Y, Wu G. Filamentous Fungi-Derived Orsellinic Acid-Sesquiterpene Meroterpenoids: Fungal Sources, Chemical Structures, Bioactivities, and Biosynthesis. Planta Med 2023; 89:1110-1124. [PMID: 37225133 DOI: 10.1055/a-2099-4932] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Fungi-derived polyketide-terpenoid hybrids are important meroterpenoid natural products that possess diverse structure scaffolds with a broad spectrum of bioactivities. Herein, we focus on an ever-increasing group of meroterpenoids, orsellinic acid-sesquiterpene hybrids comprised of biosynthetic start unit orsellinic acid coupling to a farnesyl group or/and its modified cyclic products. The review entails the search of China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), Web of Science, Science Direct, Google Scholar, and PubMed databases up to June 2022. The key terms include "orsellinic acid", "sesquiterpene", "ascochlorin", "ascofuranone", and "Ascochyta viciae", which are combined with the structures of "ascochlorin" and "ascofuranone" drawn by the Reaxys and Scifinder databases. In our search, these orsellinic acid-sesquiterpene hybrids are mainly produced by filamentous fungi. Ascochlorin was the first compound reported in 1968 and isolated from filamentous fungus Ascochyta viciae (synonym: Acremonium egyptiacum; Acremonium sclerotigenum); to date, 71 molecules are discovered from various filamentous fungi inhabiting in a variety of ecological niches. As typical representatives of the hybrid molecules, the biosynthetic pathway of ascofuranone and ascochlorin are discussed. The group of meroterpenoid hybrids exhibits a broad arrange of bioactivities, as highlighted by targeting hDHODH (human dihydroorotate dehydrogenase) inhibition, antitrypanosomal, and antimicrobial activities. This review summarizes the findings related to the structures, fungal sources, bioactivities, and their biosynthesis from 1968 to June 2022.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hua Gao
- College of Chemical Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, People's Republic of China
| | - Luning Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Marine Drugs, Chinese Ministry of Education; School of Medicine and Pharmacy, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, Shandong, People's Republic of China
| | - Peng Zhang
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah, United States
| | - Ying Wang
- College of Chemical Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, People's Republic of China
| | - Xuan Qian
- College of Chemical Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, People's Republic of China
| | - Yujia Liu
- College of Chemical Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, People's Republic of China
| | - Guangwei Wu
- College of Chemical Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, People's Republic of China
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10
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Ikunishi R, Otani R, Masuya T, Shinzawa-Itoh K, Shiba T, Murai M, Miyoshi H. Respiratory complex I in mitochondrial membrane catalyzes oversized ubiquinones. J Biol Chem 2023; 299:105001. [PMID: 37394006 PMCID: PMC10416054 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2023.105001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2023] [Revised: 06/20/2023] [Accepted: 06/23/2023] [Indexed: 07/04/2023] Open
Abstract
NADH-ubiquinone (UQ) oxidoreductase (complex I) couples electron transfer from NADH to UQ with proton translocation in its membrane part. The UQ reduction step is key to triggering proton translocation. Structural studies have identified a long, narrow, tunnel-like cavity within complex I, through which UQ may access a deep reaction site. To elucidate the physiological relevance of this UQ-accessing tunnel, we previously investigated whether a series of oversized UQs (OS-UQs), whose tail moiety is too large to enter and transit the narrow tunnel, can be catalytically reduced by complex I using the native enzyme in bovine heart submitochondrial particles (SMPs) and the isolated enzyme reconstituted into liposomes. Nevertheless, the physiological relevance remained unclear because some amphiphilic OS-UQs were reduced in SMPs but not in proteoliposomes, and investigation of extremely hydrophobic OS-UQs was not possible in SMPs. To uniformly assess the electron transfer activities of all OS-UQs with the native complex I, here we present a new assay system using SMPs, which were fused with liposomes incorporating OS-UQ and supplemented with a parasitic quinol oxidase to recycle reduced OS-UQ. In this system, all OS-UQs tested were reduced by the native enzyme, and the reduction was coupled with proton translocation. This finding does not support the canonical tunnel model. We propose that the UQ reaction cavity is flexibly open in the native enzyme to allow OS-UQs to access the reaction site, but their access is obstructed in the isolated enzyme as the cavity is altered by detergent-solubilizing from the mitochondrial membrane.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryo Ikunishi
- Division of Applied Life Sciences, Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Ryohei Otani
- Division of Applied Life Sciences, Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Takahiro Masuya
- Division of Applied Life Sciences, Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Kyoko Shinzawa-Itoh
- Department of Life Science, Graduate School of Life Science, University of Hyogo, Hyogo, Japan
| | - Tomoo Shiba
- Department of Applied Biology, Graduate School of Science and Technology, Kyoto Institute of Technology, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Masatoshi Murai
- Division of Applied Life Sciences, Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Hideto Miyoshi
- Division of Applied Life Sciences, Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan.
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11
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Liu Z, Basso P, Hossain S, Liston SD, Robbins N, Whitesell L, Noble SM, Cowen LE. Multifactor transcriptional control of alternative oxidase induction integrates diverse environmental inputs to enable fungal virulence. Nat Commun 2023; 14:4528. [PMID: 37500616 PMCID: PMC10374912 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-40209-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2022] [Accepted: 07/17/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Metabolic flexibility enables fungi to invade challenging host environments. In Candida albicans, a common cause of life-threatening infections in humans, an important contributor to flexibility is alternative oxidase (Aox) activity. Dramatic induction of this activity occurs under respiratory-stress conditions, which impair the classical electron transport chain (ETC). Here, we show that deletion of the inducible AOX2 gene cripples C. albicans virulence in mice by increasing immune recognition. To investigate further, we examined transcriptional regulation of AOX2 in molecular detail under host-relevant, ETC-inhibitory conditions. We found that multiple transcription factors, including Rtg1/Rtg3, Cwt1/Zcf11, and Zcf2, bind and regulate the AOX2 promoter, conferring thousand-fold levels of inducibility to AOX2 in response to distinct environmental stressors. Further dissection of this complex promoter revealed how integration of stimuli ranging from reactive species of oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur to reduced copper availability is achieved at the transcriptional level to regulate AOX2 induction and enable pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhongle Liu
- Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Pauline Basso
- UCSF Department of Microbiology & Immunology, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Saif Hossain
- Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Sean D Liston
- Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Nicole Robbins
- Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Luke Whitesell
- Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Suzanne M Noble
- UCSF Department of Microbiology & Immunology, San Francisco, CA, USA.
- UCSF Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, San Francisco, CA, USA.
| | - Leah E Cowen
- Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada.
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12
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Ghifari AS, Saha S, Murcha MW. The biogenesis and regulation of the plant oxidative phosphorylation system. Plant Physiol 2023; 192:728-747. [PMID: 36806687 DOI: 10.1093/plphys/kiad108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2022] [Revised: 01/19/2023] [Accepted: 01/22/2023] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Mitochondria are central organelles for respiration in plants. At the heart of this process is oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) system, which generates ATP required for cellular energetic needs. OXPHOS complexes comprise of multiple subunits that originated from both mitochondrial and nuclear genome, which requires careful orchestration of expression, translation, import, and assembly. Constant exposure to reactive oxygen species due to redox activity also renders OXPHOS subunits to be more prone to oxidative damage, which requires coordination of disassembly and degradation. In this review, we highlight the composition, assembly, and activity of OXPHOS complexes in plants based on recent biochemical and structural studies. We also discuss how plants regulate the biogenesis and turnover of OXPHOS subunits and the importance of OXPHOS in overall plant respiration. Further studies in determining the regulation of biogenesis and activity of OXPHOS will advances the field, especially in understanding plant respiration and its role to plant growth and development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abi S Ghifari
- School of Molecular Sciences, The University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, Perth, WA 6009, Australia
| | - Saurabh Saha
- School of Molecular Sciences, The University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, Perth, WA 6009, Australia
| | - Monika W Murcha
- School of Molecular Sciences, The University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, Perth, WA 6009, Australia
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13
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Rosell-Hidalgo A, Moore AL, Ghafourian T. Prediction of drug-induced mitochondrial dysfunction using succinate-cytochrome c reductase activity, QSAR and molecular docking. Toxicology 2023; 485:153412. [PMID: 36584908 DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2022.153412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2022] [Revised: 12/15/2022] [Accepted: 12/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
There is increasing evidence that links mitochondrial off-target effects with organ toxicities. For this reason, predictive strategies need to be developed to identify mitochondrial dysfunction early in the drug discovery process. In this study, as a major mechanism of mitochondrial toxicity, first, the inhibitory activity of 35 compounds against succinate-cytochrome c reductase (SCR) was investigated. This in vitro study led to the generation of consistent experimental data for a diverse range of compounds, including pharmaceutical drugs and fungicides. Next, molecular docking and protein-ligand interaction fingerprinting (PLIF) analysis were used to identify significant residues and protein-ligand interactions for the Qo site of complex III and Q site of complex II. Finally, this data was used for the development of QSAR models using a regression-based approach to highlight structural and chemical features that might be responsible for SCR inhibition. The statistically validated QSAR models from this work highlighted the importance of low aqueous solubility, low ionisation, fewer 6-membered rings and shorter hydrocarbon alkane chains in the molecular structure for increased inhibition of SCR, hence mitochondrial toxicity. PLIF analysis highlighted two key residues for inhibitory activity of the Qo site of complex III: His 161 as H-bond acceptor and Pro 270 for arene interactions. Currently, there are limited structure-activity models published in the scientific literature for the prediction of mitochondrial toxicity. We believe this study helps shed light on the chemical space for the inhibition of mitochondrial electron transport chain (ETC).
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Affiliation(s)
- Alicia Rosell-Hidalgo
- Department of Biochemistry and Biomedicine, School of Life Sciences, University of Sussex, Falmer, Brighton BN1 9QG, United Kingdom.
| | - Anthony L Moore
- Department of Biochemistry and Biomedicine, School of Life Sciences, University of Sussex, Falmer, Brighton BN1 9QG, United Kingdom
| | - Taravat Ghafourian
- NSU College of Pharmacy, 3200 South University Drive, Ft. Lauderdale, FL 33328-2018, USA.
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14
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Thiers KLL, da Silva JHM, Vasconcelos DCA, Aziz S, Noceda C, Arnholdt-Schmitt B, Costa JH. Polymorphisms in alternative oxidase genes from ecotypes of Arabidopsis and rice revealed an environment-induced linkage to altitude and rainfall. Physiol Plant 2023; 175:e13847. [PMID: 36562612 DOI: 10.1111/ppl.13847] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2021] [Revised: 12/07/2022] [Accepted: 12/19/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
We investigated SNPs in alternative oxidase (AOX) genes and their connection to ecotype origins (climate, altitude, and rainfall) by using genomic data sets of Arabidopsis and rice populations from 1190 and 90 ecotypes, respectively. Parameters were defined to detect non-synonymous SNPs in the AOX ORF, which revealed amino acid (AA) changes in AOX1c, AOX1d, and AOX2 from Arabidopsis and AOX1c from rice in comparison to AOX references from Columbia-0 and Japonica ecotypes, respectively. Among these AA changes, Arabidopsis AOX1c_A161E&G165R and AOX1c_R242S revealed a link to high rainfall and high altitude, respectively, while all other changes in Arabidopsis and rice AOX was connected to high altitude and rainfall. Comparative 3D modeling showed that all mutant AOX presented structural differences in relation to the respective references. Molecular docking analysis uncovered lower binding affinity values between AOX and the substrate ubiquinol for most of the identified structures compared to their reference, indicating better enzyme-substrate binding affinities. Thus, our in silico data suggest that the majority of the AA changes found in the available ecotypes will confer better enzyme-subtract interactions and thus indicate environment-related, more efficient AOX activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karine Leitão Lima Thiers
- Functional Genomics and Bioinformatics, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Federal University of Ceara, Fortaleza, Brazil
- Non-Institutional Competence Focus (NICFocus) 'Functional Cell Reprogramming and Organism Plasticity' (FunCROP), coordinated from Foros de Vale de Figueira, Alentejo, Portugal
| | | | | | - Shahid Aziz
- Functional Genomics and Bioinformatics, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Federal University of Ceara, Fortaleza, Brazil
- Non-Institutional Competence Focus (NICFocus) 'Functional Cell Reprogramming and Organism Plasticity' (FunCROP), coordinated from Foros de Vale de Figueira, Alentejo, Portugal
| | - Carlos Noceda
- Non-Institutional Competence Focus (NICFocus) 'Functional Cell Reprogramming and Organism Plasticity' (FunCROP), coordinated from Foros de Vale de Figueira, Alentejo, Portugal
- Cell and Molecular Biology of Plants (BIOCEMP)/Industrial Biotechnology and Bioproducts, Departamento de Ciencias de la Vida y de la Agricultura, Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas-ESPE, Sangolquí, Ecuador
- Facultad de Ciencias de la ingeniería, Universidad Estatal de Milagro, Milagro, Ecuador
| | - Birgit Arnholdt-Schmitt
- Functional Genomics and Bioinformatics, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Federal University of Ceara, Fortaleza, Brazil
- Non-Institutional Competence Focus (NICFocus) 'Functional Cell Reprogramming and Organism Plasticity' (FunCROP), coordinated from Foros de Vale de Figueira, Alentejo, Portugal
| | - José Hélio Costa
- Functional Genomics and Bioinformatics, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Federal University of Ceara, Fortaleza, Brazil
- Non-Institutional Competence Focus (NICFocus) 'Functional Cell Reprogramming and Organism Plasticity' (FunCROP), coordinated from Foros de Vale de Figueira, Alentejo, Portugal
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15
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Adamu RM, Ibrahim B, Ibrahim MA, Balogun EO. Identification of megacerotonic acid and a quinazoline derivative from Universal Natural Product Database as potential inhibitors of Trypanosoma brucei brucei alternative oxidase: molecular docking, molecular dynamic simulation and MM/PBSA analysis. J Biomol Struct Dyn 2023; 41:45-54. [PMID: 34812693 PMCID: PMC9148700 DOI: 10.1080/07391102.2021.2003862] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2020] [Accepted: 11/03/2021] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
African trypanosomiasis is caused by Trypanosoma brucei subspecies and available drugs against it, are unsatisfactory due to poor pharmacokinetic properties. Trypanosomal Alternative Oxidase (TAO) is an attractive target for anti-trypanosome rational drug discovery because it is essential for parasite-specific ATP generation and absent in the mammalian host. In this study, 360 filtered ligands from the Universal Natural Product Database were virtually screened and docked on T. brucei brucei TAO (PDB-ID 3VVA). From the virtual screening, 10 ligands with binding energy from -10.6 to -9.0 kcal/mol were selected as hits and further subjected pharmacokinetic and toxicity analyses where all of them passed Lipinski's rule of five. Also, the compounds were non-mutagenic, non-tumorigenic and could cross the blood brain barrier. The two topmost hits (UNPD29179; megacerotonic acid and UNPD41551; a quinazoline derivative) interacted with `four glutamates (Glu123, Glu162, Glu213 and Glu266) close to di-iron (2 iron elements) at the catalytic site of the enzyme. Subsequently, 100 ns MD simulations of the two topmost hits were performed using GROMACS where high RMSD values of 0.75 nm (TAO-UNPD29179) and 0.52 nm (TAO- UNPD41551), low residues fluctuations and consistent values of radius of gyration were observed. Moreover, Solvent Accessible Surface Area showed a consistent value of 160 nm2 for both complexes while TAO-UNPD29179 had higher number of hydrogen bonds than the TAO-UNPD41551. Similarly, MM/PBSA calculations indicated that UNPD29179 had higher free binding energy with TAO than UNPD41551. The data suggest that megacerotonic acid and a quinazoline derivative could be potential inhibitors of TAO with improved pharmacokinetic properties.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rahma Muhammad Adamu
- Department of Biotechnology, School of Engineering and Technology, Sharda University, Greater Noida, India
| | - Bashiru Ibrahim
- Department of Biochemistry, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria
| | - Mohammed Auwal Ibrahim
- Department of Biochemistry, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria
- African Centre of Excellence for Neglected Tropical Diseases and Forensic Biotechnology, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria
| | - Emmanuel Oluwadare Balogun
- Department of Biochemistry, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria
- African Centre of Excellence for Neglected Tropical Diseases and Forensic Biotechnology, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria
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16
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Abstract
While alternative oxidase (AOX) was discovered in bacteria in 2003, the expression, function, and evolutionary history of this protein in these important organisms is largely unexplored. To date, expression and functional analysis is limited to studies in the Proteobacteria Novosphingobium aromaticivorans and Vibrio fischeri, where AOX likely plays roles in maintenance of cellular energy homeostasis and supporting responses to cellular stress. This review describes the history of the study of AOX in bacteria, details current knowledge of the predicted biochemical and structural characteristics, distribution, and function of bacterial AOX, and highlights interesting areas for the future study of AOX in bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne K Dunn
- Department of Microbiology and Plant Biology, University of Oklahoma, 770 Van Vleet Oval, Norman, OK 73019, USA.
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17
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Sendra KM, Watson AK, Kozhevnikova E, Moore AL, Embley TM, Hirt RP. Inhibition of mitosomal alternative oxidase causes lifecycle arrest of early-stage Trachipleistophora hominis meronts during intracellular infection of mammalian cells. PLoS Pathog 2022; 18:e1011024. [PMID: 36538568 PMCID: PMC9767352 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1011024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2022] [Accepted: 11/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Mitosomes are highly reduced forms of mitochondria which have lost two of the 'defining' features of the canonical organelle, the mitochondrial genome, and the capacity to generate energy in the form of ATP. Mitosomes are found in anaerobic protists and obligate parasites and, in most of the studied organisms, have a conserved function in the biosynthesis of iron-sulfur clusters (ISC) that are indispensable cofactors of many essential proteins. The genomes of some mitosome-bearing human pathogenic Microsporidia encode homologues of an alternative oxidase (AOX). This mitochondrial terminal respiratory oxidase is absent from the human host, and hence is a potential target for the development of new antimicrobial agents. Here we present experimental evidence for the mitosomal localization of AOX in the microsporidian Trachipleistophora hominis and demonstrate that it has an important role during the parasite's life cycle progression. Using a recently published methodology for synchronising T. hominis infection of mammalian cell lines, we demonstrated specific inhibition of T. hominis early meront growth and replication by an AOX inhibitor colletochlorin B. Treatment of T. hominis-infected host cells with the drug also inhibited re-infection by newly formed dispersive spores. Addition of the drug during the later stages of the parasite life cycle, when our methods suggest that AOX is not actively produced and T. hominis mitosomes are mainly active in Fe/S cluster biosynthesis, had no inhibitory effects on the parasites. Control experiments with the AOX-deficient microsporidian species Encephalitozoon cuniculi, further demonstrated the specificity of inhibition by the drug. Using the same methodology, we demonstrate effects of two clinically used anti-microsporidian drugs albendazole and fumagillin on the cell biology and life cycle progression of T. hominis infecting mammalian host cells. In summary, our results reveal that T. hominis mitosomes have an active role to play in the progression of the parasite life cycle as well as an important role in the biosynthesis of essential Fe/S clusters. Our work also demonstrates that T. hominis is a useful model for testing the efficacy of therapeutic agents and for studying the physiology and cell biology of microsporidian parasites growing inside infected mammalian cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kacper M. Sendra
- Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
- * E-mail: (KMS); (RPH)
| | - Andrew K. Watson
- Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
| | | | - Anthony L. Moore
- Department of Biochemistry and Biomedicine, School of Life Sciences, University of Sussex, Falmer, Brighton, United Kingdom
| | - T. Martin Embley
- Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
| | - Robert P. Hirt
- Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
- * E-mail: (KMS); (RPH)
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18
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Nishida Y, Yanagisawa S, Morita R, Shigematsu H, Shinzawa-Itoh K, Yuki H, Ogasawara S, Shimuta K, Iwamoto T, Nakabayashi C, Matsumura W, Kato H, Gopalasingam C, Nagao T, Qaqorh T, Takahashi Y, Yamazaki S, Kamiya K, Harada R, Mizuno N, Takahashi H, Akeda Y, Ohnishi M, Ishii Y, Kumasaka T, Murata T, Muramoto K, Tosha T, Shiro Y, Honma T, Shigeta Y, Kubo M, Takashima S, Shintani Y. Identifying antibiotics based on structural differences in the conserved allostery from mitochondrial heme-copper oxidases. Nat Commun 2022; 13:7591. [PMID: 36481732 PMCID: PMC9731990 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-34771-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2022] [Accepted: 11/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a global health problem. Despite the enormous efforts made in the last decade, threats from some species, including drug-resistant Neisseria gonorrhoeae, continue to rise and would become untreatable. The development of antibiotics with a different mechanism of action is seriously required. Here, we identified an allosteric inhibitory site buried inside eukaryotic mitochondrial heme-copper oxidases (HCOs), the essential respiratory enzymes for life. The steric conformation around the binding pocket of HCOs is highly conserved among bacteria and eukaryotes, yet the latter has an extra helix. This structural difference in the conserved allostery enabled us to rationally identify bacterial HCO-specific inhibitors: an antibiotic compound against ceftriaxone-resistant Neisseria gonorrhoeae. Molecular dynamics combined with resonance Raman spectroscopy and stopped-flow spectroscopy revealed an allosteric obstruction in the substrate accessing channel as a mechanism of inhibition. Our approach opens fresh avenues in modulating protein functions and broadens our options to overcome AMR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuya Nishida
- grid.410796.d0000 0004 0378 8307Department of Molecular Pharmacology, National Cerebral and Cardiovascular Center, Suita, Osaka Japan ,grid.136593.b0000 0004 0373 3971Department of Medical Biochemistry, Osaka University Graduate School of Frontier Biological Science, Suita, Osaka Japan
| | - Sachiko Yanagisawa
- grid.266453.00000 0001 0724 9317Graduate School of Science, University of Hyogo, Hyogo, Japan
| | - Rikuri Morita
- grid.20515.330000 0001 2369 4728Center for Computational Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki Japan
| | - Hideki Shigematsu
- grid.472717.0RIKEN SPring-8 Center, 1-1-1 Kouto, Sayo, Hyogo Japan ,grid.410592.b0000 0001 2170 091XPresent Address: Structural Biology Division, Japan Synchrotron Radiation Research Institute, SPring-8; Sayo, Hyogo, Japan
| | - Kyoko Shinzawa-Itoh
- grid.266453.00000 0001 0724 9317Graduate School of Science, University of Hyogo, Hyogo, Japan
| | - Hitomi Yuki
- grid.508743.dRIKEN Center for Biosystems Dynamics Research, Yokohama, Kanagawa Japan
| | - Satoshi Ogasawara
- grid.136304.30000 0004 0370 1101Department of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, Chiba University, Inage, Chiba Japan
| | - Ken Shimuta
- grid.410795.e0000 0001 2220 1880Department of Bacteriology I, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan ,grid.410795.e0000 0001 2220 1880Antimicrobial Resistance Research Center, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Takashi Iwamoto
- grid.136593.b0000 0004 0373 3971Department of Medical Biochemistry, Osaka University Graduate School of Frontier Biological Science, Suita, Osaka Japan
| | - Chisa Nakabayashi
- grid.410796.d0000 0004 0378 8307Department of Molecular Pharmacology, National Cerebral and Cardiovascular Center, Suita, Osaka Japan ,grid.136593.b0000 0004 0373 3971Department of Medical Biochemistry, Osaka University Graduate School of Frontier Biological Science, Suita, Osaka Japan
| | - Waka Matsumura
- grid.266453.00000 0001 0724 9317Graduate School of Science, University of Hyogo, Hyogo, Japan
| | - Hisakazu Kato
- grid.136593.b0000 0004 0373 3971Department of Medical Biochemistry, Osaka University Graduate School of Frontier Biological Science, Suita, Osaka Japan
| | | | - Takemasa Nagao
- grid.410796.d0000 0004 0378 8307Department of Molecular Pharmacology, National Cerebral and Cardiovascular Center, Suita, Osaka Japan
| | - Tasneem Qaqorh
- grid.410796.d0000 0004 0378 8307Department of Molecular Pharmacology, National Cerebral and Cardiovascular Center, Suita, Osaka Japan ,grid.136593.b0000 0004 0373 3971Department of Medical Biochemistry, Osaka University Graduate School of Frontier Biological Science, Suita, Osaka Japan
| | - Yusuke Takahashi
- grid.410796.d0000 0004 0378 8307Department of Molecular Pharmacology, National Cerebral and Cardiovascular Center, Suita, Osaka Japan
| | - Satoru Yamazaki
- grid.410796.d0000 0004 0378 8307Department of Molecular Pharmacology, National Cerebral and Cardiovascular Center, Suita, Osaka Japan
| | - Katsumasa Kamiya
- grid.419709.20000 0004 0371 3508Center for Basic Education Integrated Learning, Kanagawa Institute of Technology, Atsugi, Kanagawa Japan
| | - Ryuhei Harada
- grid.20515.330000 0001 2369 4728Center for Computational Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki Japan
| | - Nobuhiro Mizuno
- grid.410592.b0000 0001 2170 091XProtein Crystal Analysis Division, Japan Synchrotron Radiation Research Institute, SPring-8, Sayo, Hyogo Japan
| | - Hideyuki Takahashi
- grid.410795.e0000 0001 2220 1880Department of Bacteriology I, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yukihiro Akeda
- grid.410795.e0000 0001 2220 1880Department of Bacteriology I, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Makoto Ohnishi
- grid.410795.e0000 0001 2220 1880Department of Bacteriology I, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yoshikazu Ishii
- grid.265050.40000 0000 9290 9879Department of Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Toho University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Takashi Kumasaka
- grid.410592.b0000 0001 2170 091XProtein Crystal Analysis Division, Japan Synchrotron Radiation Research Institute, SPring-8, Sayo, Hyogo Japan
| | - Takeshi Murata
- grid.136304.30000 0004 0370 1101Department of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, Chiba University, Inage, Chiba Japan
| | - Kazumasa Muramoto
- grid.266453.00000 0001 0724 9317Graduate School of Science, University of Hyogo, Hyogo, Japan
| | - Takehiko Tosha
- grid.472717.0RIKEN SPring-8 Center, 1-1-1 Kouto, Sayo, Hyogo Japan
| | - Yoshitsugu Shiro
- grid.266453.00000 0001 0724 9317Graduate School of Science, University of Hyogo, Hyogo, Japan
| | - Teruki Honma
- grid.508743.dRIKEN Center for Biosystems Dynamics Research, Yokohama, Kanagawa Japan
| | - Yasuteru Shigeta
- grid.20515.330000 0001 2369 4728Center for Computational Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki Japan
| | - Minoru Kubo
- grid.266453.00000 0001 0724 9317Graduate School of Science, University of Hyogo, Hyogo, Japan
| | - Seiji Takashima
- grid.136593.b0000 0004 0373 3971Department of Medical Biochemistry, Osaka University Graduate School of Frontier Biological Science, Suita, Osaka Japan
| | - Yasunori Shintani
- grid.410796.d0000 0004 0378 8307Department of Molecular Pharmacology, National Cerebral and Cardiovascular Center, Suita, Osaka Japan ,grid.136593.b0000 0004 0373 3971Department of Medical Biochemistry, Osaka University Graduate School of Frontier Biological Science, Suita, Osaka Japan
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19
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Steverding D, do Nascimento LG, Perez-Castillo Y, de Sousa DP. Gallic Acid Alkyl Esters: Trypanocidal and Leishmanicidal Activity, and Target Identification via Modeling Studies. Molecules 2022; 27:molecules27185876. [PMID: 36144611 PMCID: PMC9501172 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27185876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2022] [Revised: 09/07/2022] [Accepted: 09/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Eight gallic acid alkyl esters (1−8) were synthesized via Fischer esterification and evaluated for their trypanocidal and leishmanicidal activity using bloodstream forms of Trypanosoma brucei and promastigotes of Leishmania major. The general cytotoxicity of the esters was evaluated with human HL-60 cells. The compounds displayed moderate to good trypanocidal but zero to low leishmanicidal activity. Gallic acid esters with alkyl chains of three or four carbon atoms in linear arrangement (propyl (4), butyl (5), and isopentyl (6)) were found to be the most trypanocidal compounds with 50% growth inhibition values of ~3 μM. On the other hand, HL-60 cells were less susceptible to the compounds, thus, resulting in moderate selectivity indices (ratio of cytotoxic to trypanocidal activity) of >20 for the esters 4−6. Modeling studies combining molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulations suggest that the trypanocidal mechanism of action of gallic acid alkyl esters could be related to the inhibition of the T. brucei alternative oxidase. This suggestion is supported by the observation that trypanosomes became immobile within minutes when incubated with the esters in the presence of glycerol as the sole substrate. These results indicate that gallic acid alkyl esters are interesting compounds to be considered for further antitrypanosomal drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dietmar Steverding
- Bob Champion Research and Education Building, Norwich Medical School, University of East Anglia, Norwich NR4 7UQ, UK
- Correspondence: (D.S.); (D.P.d.S.)
| | - Lázaro Gomes do Nascimento
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Federal University of Paraíba, João Pessoa 58051-900, PB, Brazil
| | - Yunierkis Perez-Castillo
- Bio-Cheminformatics Research Group, Universidad de Las Américas, Quito 170516, Ecuador
- Facultad de Ingeniería y Ciencias Aplicadas, Área de Ciencias Aplicadas, Universidad de Las Américas, Quito 170516, Ecuador
| | - Damião Pergentino de Sousa
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Federal University of Paraíba, João Pessoa 58051-900, PB, Brazil
- Correspondence: (D.S.); (D.P.d.S.)
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20
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El-Khoury R, Rak M, Bénit P, Jacobs HT, Rustin P. Cyanide resistant respiration and the alternative oxidase pathway: A journey from plants to mammals. Biochim Biophys Acta Bioenerg 2022; 1863:148567. [PMID: 35500614 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbabio.2022.148567] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2021] [Revised: 04/06/2022] [Accepted: 04/18/2022] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
In a large number of organisms covering all phyla, the mitochondrial respiratory chain harbors, in addition to the conventional elements, auxiliary proteins that confer adaptive metabolic plasticity. The alternative oxidase (AOX) represents one of the most studied auxiliary proteins, initially identified in plants. In contrast to the standard respiratory chain, the AOX mediates a thermogenic cyanide-resistant respiration; a phenomenon that has been of great interest for over 2 centuries in that energy is not conserved when electrons flow through it. Here we summarize centuries of studies starting from the early observations of thermogenicity in plants and the identification of cyanide resistant respiration, to the fascinating discovery of the AOX and its current applications in animals under normal and pathological conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Riyad El-Khoury
- American University of Beirut Medical Center, Pathology and Laboratory Medicine Department, Cairo Street, Hamra, Beirut, Lebanon
| | - Malgorzata Rak
- Université Paris Cité, Inserm, Maladies neurodéveloppementales et neurovasculaires, F-75019 Paris, France
| | - Paule Bénit
- Université Paris Cité, Inserm, Maladies neurodéveloppementales et neurovasculaires, F-75019 Paris, France
| | - Howard T Jacobs
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Technology, FI-33014, Tampere University, Finland; Institute of Biotechnology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.
| | - Pierre Rustin
- Université Paris Cité, Inserm, Maladies neurodéveloppementales et neurovasculaires, F-75019 Paris, France.
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21
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Meyer EH, Letts JA, Maldonado M. Structural insights into the assembly and the function of the plant oxidative phosphorylation system. New Phytol 2022; 235:1315-1329. [PMID: 35588181 DOI: 10.1111/nph.18259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2022] [Accepted: 05/05/2022] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
One of the key functions of mitochondria is the production of ATP to support cellular metabolism and growth. The last step of mitochondrial ATP synthesis is performed by the oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) system, an ensemble of protein complexes embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane. In the last 25 yr, many structures of OXPHOS complexes and supercomplexes have been resolved in yeast, mammals, and bacteria. However, structures of plant OXPHOS enzymes only became available very recently. In this review, we highlight the plant-specific features revealed by the recent structures and discuss how they advance our understanding of the function and assembly of plant OXPHOS complexes. We also propose new hypotheses to be tested and discuss older findings to be re-evaluated. Further biochemical and structural work on the plant OXPHOS system will lead to a deeper understanding of plant respiration and its regulation, with significant agricultural, environmental, and societal implications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Etienne H Meyer
- Institute of Plant Physiology, Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg, Weinbergweg 10, 06120, Halle (Saale), Germany
| | - James A Letts
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of California-Davis, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Maria Maldonado
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of California-Davis, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
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22
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Cantoni D, Osborne A, Taib N, Thompson G, Martín‐Escolano R, Kazana E, Edrich E, Brown IR, Gribaldo S, Gourlay CW, Tsaousis AD. Localization and functional characterization of the alternative oxidase in Naegleria. J Eukaryot Microbiol 2022; 69:e12908. [PMID: 35322502 PMCID: PMC9540462 DOI: 10.1111/jeu.12908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The alternative oxidase (AOX) is a protein involved in supporting enzymatic reactions of the Krebs cycle in instances when the canonical (cytochrome-mediated) respiratory chain has been inhibited, while allowing for the maintenance of cell growth and necessary metabolic processes for survival. Among eukaryotes, alternative oxidases have dispersed distribution and are found in plants, fungi, and protists, including Naegleria ssp. Naegleria species are free-living unicellular amoeboflagellates and include the pathogenic species of N. fowleri, the so-called "brain-eating amoeba." Using a multidisciplinary approach, we aimed to understand the evolution, localization, and function of AOX and the role that plays in Naegleria's biology. Our analyses suggest that AOX was present in last common ancestor of the genus and structure prediction showed that all functional residues are also present in Naegleria species. Using cellular and biochemical techniques, we also functionally characterize N. gruberi's AOX in its mitochondria, and we demonstrate that its inactivation affects its proliferation. Consequently, we discuss the benefits of the presence of this protein in Naegleria species, along with its potential pathogenicity role in N. fowleri. We predict that our findings will spearhead new explorations to understand the cell biology, metabolism, and evolution of Naegleria and other free-living relatives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diego Cantoni
- Laboratory of Molecular & Evolutionary Parasitology, RAPID GroupSchool of BiosciencesUniversity of KentCanterburyUK
| | - Ashley Osborne
- Laboratory of Molecular & Evolutionary Parasitology, RAPID GroupSchool of BiosciencesUniversity of KentCanterburyUK
| | - Najwa Taib
- Unit Evolutionary Biology of the Microbial CellDepartment of MicrobiologyInstitut Pasteur, UMR CNRS 2001ParisFrance
- Hub Bioinformatics and BiostatisticsDepartment of Computational BiologyInstitut Pasteur, USR 3756 CNRSParisFrance
| | - Gary Thompson
- NMR FacilitySchool of BiosciencesUniversity of KentCanterburyUK
| | - Rubén Martín‐Escolano
- Laboratory of Molecular & Evolutionary Parasitology, RAPID GroupSchool of BiosciencesUniversity of KentCanterburyUK
| | - Eleanna Kazana
- Laboratory of Molecular & Evolutionary Parasitology, RAPID GroupSchool of BiosciencesUniversity of KentCanterburyUK
| | - Elizabeth Edrich
- Kent Fungal Group, RAPID GroupSchool of BiosciencesUniversity of KentCanterburyUK
| | - Ian R. Brown
- Bioimaging FacilitySchool of BiosciencesUniversity of KentCanterburyUK
| | - Simonetta Gribaldo
- Unit Evolutionary Biology of the Microbial CellDepartment of MicrobiologyInstitut Pasteur, UMR CNRS 2001ParisFrance
| | - Campbell W. Gourlay
- Kent Fungal Group, RAPID GroupSchool of BiosciencesUniversity of KentCanterburyUK
| | - Anastasios D. Tsaousis
- Laboratory of Molecular & Evolutionary Parasitology, RAPID GroupSchool of BiosciencesUniversity of KentCanterburyUK
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23
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Szibor M, Schenkl C, Barsottini MRO, Young L, Moore AL. Targeting the alternative oxidase (AOX) for human health and food security, a pharmaceutical and agrochemical target or a rescue mechanism? Biochem J 2022; 479:1337-59. [PMID: 35748702 DOI: 10.1042/BCJ20180192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2022] [Revised: 05/23/2022] [Accepted: 06/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Some of the most threatening human diseases are due to a blockage of the mitochondrial electron transport chain (ETC). In a variety of plants, fungi, and prokaryotes, there is a naturally evolved mechanism for such threats to viability, namely a bypassing of the blocked portion of the ETC by alternative enzymes of the respiratory chain. One such enzyme is the alternative oxidase (AOX). When AOX is expressed, it enables its host to survive life-threatening conditions or, as in parasites, to evade host defenses. In vertebrates, this mechanism has been lost during evolution. However, we and others have shown that transfer of AOX into the genome of the fruit fly and mouse results in a catalytically engaged AOX. This implies that not only is the AOX a promising target for combating human or agricultural pathogens but also a novel approach to elucidate disease mechanisms or, in several cases, potentially a therapeutic cure for human diseases. In this review, we highlight the varying functions of AOX in their natural hosts and upon xenotopic expression, and discuss the resulting need to develop species-specific AOX inhibitors.
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24
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Araki Y, Shinohara Y, Hara S, Sato A, Sakaue R, Gomi K, Kita K, Ito K. Heterologous production of ascofuranone and ilicicolin A in Aspergillus sojae. J GEN APPL MICROBIOL 2022; 68:10-16. [PMID: 35418536 DOI: 10.2323/jgam.2021.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Ascofuranone and its precursor, ilicicolin A, are secondary metabolites with various pharmacological activities that are produced by Acremonium egyptiacum. In particular, ascofuranone strongly inhibits trypanosome alternative oxidase and represents a potential drug candidate against African trypanosomiasis. However, difficulties associated with industrial production of ascofuranone by A. egyptiacum, specifically the co-production of ascochlorin, which inhibits mammalian respiratory chain complex III at low concentrations, has precluded its widespread application. Therefore, in this study, ascofuranone biosynthetic genes (ascA-E and H-J) were heterologously expressed in Aspergillus sojae, which produced very low-levels of endogenous secondary metabolites under conventional culture conditions. As a result, although we obtained transformants producing both ilicicolin A and ascofuranone, they were produced only when an adequate concentration of chloride ions was added to the medium. In addition, we succeeded in increasing the production of ilicicolin A, by enhancing the expression of the rate-determining enzyme AscD, using a multi-copy integration system. The heterologous expression approach described here afforded the production of both ascofuranone and ilicicolin A, allowing for their development as therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasuko Araki
- Research and Development Division, Kikkoman Corporation
| | | | - Seiichi Hara
- Research and Development Division, Kikkoman Corporation
| | - Atsushi Sato
- Research and Development Division, Kikkoman Corporation
| | | | - Keiko Gomi
- Research and Development Division, Kikkoman Corporation
| | - Kiyoshi Kita
- School of Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nagasaki University.,Department of Host-Defense Biochemistry, Institute of Tropical Medicine
| | - Kotaro Ito
- Research and Development Division, Kikkoman Corporation
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25
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Zíková A. Mitochondrial adaptations throughout the Trypanosoma brucei life cycle. J Eukaryot Microbiol 2022; 69:e12911. [PMID: 35325490 DOI: 10.1111/jeu.12911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2022] [Revised: 03/18/2022] [Accepted: 03/18/2022] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
The unicellular parasite Trypanosoma brucei has a digenetic life cycle that alternates between a mammalian host and an insect vector. During programmed development, this extracellular parasite encounters strikingly different environments that determine its energy metabolism. Functioning as a bioenergetic, biosynthetic, and signaling center, the single mitochondrion of T. brucei is drastically remodeled to support the dynamic cellular demands of the parasite. This manuscript will provide an up-to-date overview of how the distinct T. brucei developmental stages differ in their mitochondrial metabolic and bioenergetic pathways, with a focus on the electron transport chain, proline oxidation, TCA cycle, acetate production, and ATP generation. Although mitochondrial metabolic rewiring has always been simply viewed as a consequence of the differentiation process, the possibility that certain mitochondrial activities reinforce parasite differentiation will be explored.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alena Zíková
- Biology Centre CAS, Institute of Parasitology, University of South Bohemia, Faculty of Science, České Budějovice, Czech Republic
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26
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Jiang N, Li SZ, Zhang YWQ, Habib MR, Xiong T, Xu S, Dong H, Zhao QP. The identification of alternative oxidase in intermediate host snails of Schistosoma and its potential role in protecting Oncomelania hupensis against niclosamide-induced stress. Parasit Vectors 2022; 15:97. [PMID: 35313980 PMCID: PMC8935807 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-022-05227-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2021] [Accepted: 03/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Snail intermediate hosts are mandatory for the transmission of schistosomiasis, which has to date infected more than 200 million people worldwide. Our previous studies showed that niclosamide treatment caused the inhibition of aerobic respiration and oxidative phosphorylation, and the disruption of energy supply, in one of the intermediate hosts of schistosomiasis, Oncomelania hupensis, which eventually led to the death of the snails. Meanwhile, the terminal oxidase in the mitochondrial respiratory chain, alternative oxidase (AOX), was significantly up-regulated, which was thought to counterbalance the oxidative stress and maintain metabolic homeostasis in the snails. The aims of the present study are to identify the AOXs in several species of snails and investigate the potential activation of O. hupensis AOX (OhAOX) under niclosamide-induced stress, leading to enhanced survival of the snail when exposed to this molluscicide. Methods The complete complementary DNA was amplified from the AOXs of O. hupensis and three species of Biomphalaria; the sequence characteristics were analysed and the phylogenetics investigated. The dynamic expression and localisation of the AOX gene and protein in O. hupensis under niclosamide-induced stress were examined. In addition, the expression pattern of genes in the mitochondrial respiratory complex was determined and the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) calculated. Finally, the molluscicidal effect of niclosamide was compared between snails with and without inhibition of AOX activity. Results AOXs containing the invertebrate AOX-specific motif NP-[YF]-XPG-[KQE] were identified from four species of snail, which phylogenetically clustered together into Gastropoda AOXs and further into Mollusca AOXs. After niclosamide treatment, the levels of OhAOX messenger RNA (mRNA) and OhAOX protein in the whole snail were 14.8 and 2.6 times those in untreated snails, respectively, but varied widely among tissues. Meanwhile, the level of cytochrome C reductase mRNA showed a significant decrease in the whole snail, and ROS production showed a significant decrease in the liver plus gonad (liver-gonad) of the snails. At 24 h post-treatment, the mortality of snails treated with 0.06–0.1 mg/L niclosamide and AOX inhibitor was 56.31–76.12% higher than that of snails treated with 0.1 mg/L niclosamide alone. Conclusions AOX was found in all the snail intermediate hosts of Schistosoma examined here. AOX was significantly activated in O. hupensis under niclosamide-induced stress, which led to a reduction in oxidative stress in the snail. The inhibition of AOX activity in snails can dramatically enhance the molluscicidal effect of niclosamide. A potential target for the development of an environmentally safe snail control method, which acts by inhibiting the activity of AOX, was identified in this study. Graphical abstract ![]()
Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13071-022-05227-5.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ni Jiang
- Department of Parasitology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei, China.,Joint Inspection Center of Precision Medicine, The People's Hospital of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, Nanning, Guangxi, China
| | - Shi-Zhu Li
- National Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Tropical Diseases Research, WHO Collaborating Center for Tropical Diseases, Key Laboratory of Parasite and Vector Biology, Ministry of Health, Shanghai, China.
| | - Yang-Wen-Qing Zhang
- Department of Parasitology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Mohamed R Habib
- Medical Malacology Department, Theodor Bilharz Research Institute, Giza, Egypt
| | - Tao Xiong
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medical Sciences, Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Sha Xu
- Department of Parasitology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Huifen Dong
- Department of Parasitology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Qin-Ping Zhao
- Department of Parasitology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei, China.
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27
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Friedrich T, Wohlwend D, Borisov VB. Recent Advances in Structural Studies of Cytochrome bd and Its Potential Application as a Drug Target. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23063166. [PMID: 35328590 PMCID: PMC8951039 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23063166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2022] [Revised: 03/14/2022] [Accepted: 03/14/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Cytochrome bd is a triheme copper-free terminal oxidase in membrane respiratory chains of prokaryotes. This unique molecular machine couples electron transfer from quinol to O2 with the generation of a proton motive force without proton pumping. Apart from energy conservation, the bd enzyme plays an additional key role in the microbial cell, being involved in the response to different environmental stressors. Cytochrome bd promotes virulence in a number of pathogenic species that makes it a suitable molecular drug target candidate. This review focuses on recent advances in understanding the structure of cytochrome bd and the development of its selective inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thorsten Friedrich
- Institut für Biochemie, Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg, D-79104 Freiburg, Germany; (T.F.); (D.W.)
| | - Daniel Wohlwend
- Institut für Biochemie, Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg, D-79104 Freiburg, Germany; (T.F.); (D.W.)
| | - Vitaliy B. Borisov
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Leninskie Gory, 119991 Moscow, Russia
- Correspondence:
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28
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Cisneros D, Cueto-Díaz EJ, Medina-Gil T, Chevillard R, Bernal-Fraile T, López-Sastre R, Aldfer MM, Ungogo MA, Elati HAA, Arai N, Otani M, Matsushiro S, Kojima C, Ebiloma GU, Shiba T, de Koning HP, Dardonville C. Imidazoline- and Benzamidine-Based Trypanosome Alternative Oxidase Inhibitors: Synthesis and Structure-Activity Relationship Studies. ACS Med Chem Lett 2022; 13:312-318. [PMID: 35178188 PMCID: PMC8842630 DOI: 10.1021/acsmedchemlett.1c00717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2021] [Accepted: 01/24/2022] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
![]()
The trypanosome alternative
oxidase (TAO), a mitochondrial enzyme
involved in the respiration of the bloodstream form trypomastigotes
of Trypanosoma brucei, is a validated
drug target against African trypanosomes. Earlier series of TAO inhibitors
having a 2,4-dihydroxy-6-methylbenzoic acid scaffold (“head”)
and a triphenylphosphonium or quinolin-1-ium cation as a mitochondrion-targeting
group (“tail”) were shown to be nanomolar inhibitors
in enzymatic and cellular assays. We investigated here the effect
of different mitochondrion-targeting cations and other scaffold modifications
on the in vitro activity of this class of inhibitors. Low micromolar
range activities were obtained, and the structure–activity
relationship studies showed that modulation of the tail region with
polar substituents is generally detrimental to the enzymatic and cellular
activity of TAO inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Cisneros
- Instituto de Química Médica, IQM−CSIC, Juan de la Cierva 3, E-28006 Madrid, Spain
| | | | - Tania Medina-Gil
- Instituto de Química Médica, IQM−CSIC, Juan de la Cierva 3, E-28006 Madrid, Spain
| | - Rebecca Chevillard
- Instituto de Química Médica, IQM−CSIC, Juan de la Cierva 3, E-28006 Madrid, Spain
| | - Teresa Bernal-Fraile
- Instituto de Química Médica, IQM−CSIC, Juan de la Cierva 3, E-28006 Madrid, Spain
| | - Ramón López-Sastre
- Instituto de Química Médica, IQM−CSIC, Juan de la Cierva 3, E-28006 Madrid, Spain
| | - Mustafa M. Aldfer
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, United Kingdom
| | - Marzuq A. Ungogo
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, United Kingdom
| | - Hamza A. A. Elati
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, United Kingdom
| | - Natsumi Arai
- Graduate School of Science and Technology, Department of Applied Biology, Kyoto Institute of Technology, Kyoto 606-8585, Japan
| | - Momoka Otani
- Graduate School of Science and Technology, Department of Applied Biology, Kyoto Institute of Technology, Kyoto 606-8585, Japan
| | - Shun Matsushiro
- Graduate School of Science and Technology, Department of Applied Biology, Kyoto Institute of Technology, Kyoto 606-8585, Japan
| | - Chiaki Kojima
- Graduate School of Science and Technology, Department of Applied Biology, Kyoto Institute of Technology, Kyoto 606-8585, Japan
| | - Godwin U. Ebiloma
- Graduate School of Science and Technology, Department of Applied Biology, Kyoto Institute of Technology, Kyoto 606-8585, Japan
- School of Health and Life Sciences, Teesside University, Middlesbrough TS1 3BX, United Kingdom
| | - Tomoo Shiba
- Graduate School of Science and Technology, Department of Applied Biology, Kyoto Institute of Technology, Kyoto 606-8585, Japan
| | - Harry P. de Koning
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, United Kingdom
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29
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Sankar TV, Saharay M, Santhosh D, Vishwakarma A, Padmasree K. Structural and Biophysical Characterization of Purified Recombinant Arabidopsis thaliana's Alternative Oxidase 1A (rAtAOX1A): Interaction With Inhibitor(s) and Activator. Front Plant Sci 2022; 13:871208. [PMID: 35783971 PMCID: PMC9243770 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2022.871208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2022] [Accepted: 04/27/2022] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
In higher plants, alternative oxidase (AOX) participates in a cyanide resistant and non-proton motive electron transport pathway of mitochondria, diverging from the ubiquinone pool. The physiological significance of AOX in biotic/abiotic stress tolerance is well-documented. However, its structural and biophysical properties are poorly understood as its crystal structure is not yet revealed in plants. Also, most of the AOX purification processes resulted in a low yield/inactive/unstable form of native AOX protein. The present study aims to characterize the purified rAtAOX1A protein and its interaction with inhibitors, such as salicylhydroxamic acid (SHAM) and n-propyl gallate (n-PG), as well as pyruvate (activator), using biophysical/in silico studies. The rAtAOX1A expressed in E. coli BL21(DE3) cells was functionally characterized by monitoring the respiratory and growth sensitivity of E. coli/pAtAOX1A and E. coli/pET28a to classical mitochondrial electron transport chain (mETC) inhibitors. The rAtAOX1A, which is purified through affinity chromatography and confirmed by western blotting and MALDI-TOF-TOF studies, showed an oxygen uptake activity of 3.86 μmol min-1 mg-1 protein, which is acceptable in non-thermogenic plants. Circular dichroism (CD) studies of purified rAtAOX1A revealed that >50% of the protein content was α-helical and retained its helical absorbance signal (ellipticity) at a wide range of temperature and pH conditions. Further, interaction with SHAM, n-PG, or pyruvate caused significant changes in its secondary structural elements while retaining its ellipticity. Surface plasmon resonance (SPR) studies revealed that both SHAM and n-PG bind reversibly to rAtAOX1A, while docking studies revealed that they bind to the same hydrophobic groove (Met191, Val192, Met195, Leu196, Phe251, and Phe255), to which Duroquinone (DQ) bind in the AtAOX1A. In contrast, pyruvate binds to a pocket consisting of Cys II (Arg174, Tyr175, Gly176, Cys177, Val232, Ala233, Asn294, and Leu313). Further, the mutational docking studies suggest that (i) the Met195 and Phe255 of AtAOX1A are the potential candidates to bind the inhibitor. Hence, this binding pocket could be a 'potential gateway' for the oxidation-reduction process in AtAOX1A, and (ii) Arg174, Gly176, and Cys177 play an important role in binding to the organic acids like pyruvate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tadiboina Veera Sankar
- Department of Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, School of Life Sciences, University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad, India
| | - Moumita Saharay
- Department of Systems and Computational Biology, School of Life Sciences, University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad, India
| | - Dharawath Santhosh
- Department of Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, School of Life Sciences, University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad, India
| | - Abhaypratap Vishwakarma
- Department of Plant Sciences, School of Life Sciences, University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad, India
- Department of Botany, Deshbandhu College, University of Delhi, New Delhi, India
| | - Kollipara Padmasree
- Department of Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, School of Life Sciences, University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad, India
- *Correspondence: Kollipara Padmasree
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30
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Møller IM, Rasmusson AG, Van Aken O. Plant mitochondria - past, present and future. Plant J 2021; 108:912-959. [PMID: 34528296 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.15495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2021] [Revised: 09/02/2021] [Accepted: 09/06/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The study of plant mitochondria started in earnest around 1950 with the first isolations of mitochondria from animal and plant tissues. The first 35 years were spent establishing the basic properties of plant mitochondria and plant respiration using biochemical and physiological approaches. A number of unique properties (compared to mammalian mitochondria) were observed: (i) the ability to oxidize malate, glycine and cytosolic NAD(P)H at high rates; (ii) the partial insensitivity to rotenone, which turned out to be due to the presence of a second NADH dehydrogenase on the inner surface of the inner mitochondrial membrane in addition to the classical Complex I NADH dehydrogenase; and (iii) the partial insensitivity to cyanide, which turned out to be due to an alternative oxidase, which is also located on the inner surface of the inner mitochondrial membrane, in addition to the classical Complex IV, cytochrome oxidase. With the appearance of molecular biology methods around 1985, followed by genomics, further unique properties were discovered: (iv) plant mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is 10-600 times larger than the mammalian mtDNA, yet it only contains approximately 50% more genes; (v) plant mtDNA has kept the standard genetic code, and it has a low divergence rate with respect to point mutations, but a high recombinatorial activity; (vi) mitochondrial mRNA maturation includes a uniquely complex set of activities for processing, splicing and editing (at hundreds of sites); (vii) recombination in mtDNA creates novel reading frames that can produce male sterility; and (viii) plant mitochondria have a large proteome with 2000-3000 different proteins containing many unique proteins such as 200-300 pentatricopeptide repeat proteins. We describe the present and fairly detailed picture of the structure and function of plant mitochondria and how the unique properties make their metabolism more flexible allowing them to be involved in many diverse processes in the plant cell, such as photosynthesis, photorespiration, CAM and C4 metabolism, heat production, temperature control, stress resistance mechanisms, programmed cell death and genomic evolution. However, it is still a challenge to understand how the regulation of metabolism and mtDNA expression works at the cellular level and how retrograde signaling from the mitochondria coordinates all those processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ian Max Møller
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Aarhus University, Forsøgsvej 1, DK-4200, Slagelse, Denmark
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31
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Shin I, Wang Y, Liu A. A new regime of heme-dependent aromatic oxygenase superfamily. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2021; 118:e2106561118. [PMID: 34667125 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2106561118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/31/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Two histidine-ligated heme-dependent monooxygenase proteins, TyrH and SfmD, have recently been found to resemble enzymes from the dioxygenase superfamily currently named after tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase (TDO), that is, the TDO superfamily. These latest findings prompted us to revisit the structure and function of the superfamily. The enzymes in this superfamily share a similar core architecture and a histidine-ligated heme. Their primary functions are to promote O-atom transfer to an aromatic metabolite. TDO and indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO), the founding members, promote dioxygenation through a two-step monooxygenation pathway. However, the new members of the superfamily, including PrnB, SfmD, TyrH, and MarE, expand its boundaries and mediate monooxygenation on a broader set of aromatic substrates. We found that the enlarged superfamily contains eight clades of proteins. Overall, this protein group is a more sizeable, structure-based, histidine-ligated heme-dependent, and functionally diverse superfamily for aromatics oxidation. The concept of TDO superfamily or heme-dependent dioxygenase superfamily is no longer appropriate for defining this growing superfamily. Hence, there is a pressing need to redefine it as a heme-dependent aromatic oxygenase (HDAO) superfamily. The revised concept puts HDAO in the context of thiol-ligated heme-based enzymes alongside cytochrome P450 and peroxygenase. It will update what we understand about the choice of heme axial ligand. Hemoproteins may not be as stringent about the type of axial ligand for oxygenation, although thiolate-ligated hemes (P450s and peroxygenases) more frequently catalyze oxygenation reactions. Histidine-ligated hemes found in HDAO enzymes can likewise mediate oxygenation when confronted with a proper substrate.
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Acharjee R, Talaam KK, Hartuti ED, Matsuo Y, Sakura T, Gloria BM, Hidano S, Kido Y, Mori M, Shiomi K, Sekijima M, Nozaki T, Umeda K, Nishikawa Y, Hamano S, Kita K, Inaoka DK. Biochemical Studies of Mitochondrial Malate: Quinone Oxidoreductase from Toxoplasma gondii. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:7830. [PMID: 34360597 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22157830] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2021] [Revised: 07/17/2021] [Accepted: 07/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is a protozoan parasite that causes toxoplasmosis and infects almost one-third of the global human population. A lack of effective drugs and vaccines and the emergence of drug resistant parasites highlight the need for the development of new drugs. The mitochondrial electron transport chain (ETC) is an essential pathway for energy metabolism and the survival of T. gondii. In apicomplexan parasites, malate:quinone oxidoreductase (MQO) is a monotopic membrane protein belonging to the ETC and a key member of the tricarboxylic acid cycle, and has recently been suggested to play a role in the fumarate cycle, which is required for the cytosolic purine salvage pathway. In T. gondii, a putative MQO (TgMQO) is expressed in tachyzoite and bradyzoite stages and is considered to be a potential drug target since its orthologue is not conserved in mammalian hosts. As a first step towards the evaluation of TgMQO as a drug target candidate, in this study, we developed a new expression system for TgMQO in FN102(DE3)TAO, a strain deficient in respiratory cytochromes and dependent on an alternative oxidase. This system allowed, for the first time, the expression and purification of a mitochondrial MQO family enzyme, which was used for steady-state kinetics and substrate specificity analyses. Ferulenol, the only known MQO inhibitor, also inhibited TgMQO at IC50 of 0.822 μM, and displayed different inhibition kinetics compared to Plasmodium falciparum MQO. Furthermore, our analysis indicated the presence of a third binding site for ferulenol that is distinct from the ubiquinone and malate sites.
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Copsey AC, Barsottini MRO, May B, Xu F, Albury MS, Young L, Moore AL. Kinetic characterisation and inhibitor sensitivity of Candida albicans and Candida auris recombinant AOX expressed in a self-assembled proteoliposome system. Sci Rep 2021; 11:14748. [PMID: 34285303 PMCID: PMC8292455 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-94320-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2020] [Accepted: 07/05/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Candidemia caused by Candida spp. is a serious threat in hospital settings being a major cause of acquired infection and death and a possible contributor to Covid-19 mortality. Candidemia incidence has been rising worldwide following increases in fungicide-resistant pathogens highlighting the need for more effective antifungal agents with novel modes of action. The membrane-bound enzyme alternative oxidase (AOX) promotes fungicide resistance and is absent in humans making it a desirable therapeutic target. However, the lipophilic nature of the AOX substrate (ubiquinol-10) has hindered its kinetic characterisation in physiologically-relevant conditions. Here, we present the purification and expression of recombinant AOXs from C. albicans and C. auris in a self-assembled proteoliposome (PL) system. Kinetic parameters (Km and Vmax) with respect to ubiquinol-10 have been determined. The PL system has also been employed in dose-response assays with novel AOX inhibitors. Such information is critical for the future development of novel treatments for Candidemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alice C Copsey
- Biochemistry and Biomedicine, School of Life Sciences, University of Sussex, Falmer, Brighton, BN1 9QG, UK
| | - Mario R O Barsottini
- Biochemistry and Biomedicine, School of Life Sciences, University of Sussex, Falmer, Brighton, BN1 9QG, UK
| | - Benjamin May
- Biochemistry and Biomedicine, School of Life Sciences, University of Sussex, Falmer, Brighton, BN1 9QG, UK
- Theradex (Europe) Ltd, 2nd Floor, The Pinnacle, Station Way, Crawley, RH10 1JH, UK
| | - Fei Xu
- Biochemistry and Biomedicine, School of Life Sciences, University of Sussex, Falmer, Brighton, BN1 9QG, UK
- Applied Biotechnology Center, Wuhan University of Bioengineering, Wuhan, China
| | - Mary S Albury
- Biochemistry and Biomedicine, School of Life Sciences, University of Sussex, Falmer, Brighton, BN1 9QG, UK
| | - Luke Young
- Biochemistry and Biomedicine, School of Life Sciences, University of Sussex, Falmer, Brighton, BN1 9QG, UK
| | - Anthony L Moore
- Biochemistry and Biomedicine, School of Life Sciences, University of Sussex, Falmer, Brighton, BN1 9QG, UK.
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Sakamoto H, Kita K, Matsuzaki M. A Novel 2A-peptide-containing Plasmid to Generate Stable Perkinsus marinus Cells Expressing Organelle-targeted Genes. J Eukaryot Microbiol 2021; 68:e12861. [PMID: 34051022 DOI: 10.1111/jeu.12861] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Genetic manipulation techniques for marine protists are not well-established, despite immense efforts. However, Perkinsus marinus is an exception and can be developed as a genetically tractable model organism for related protists. Here, we designed a new plasmid for P. marinus that allows two proteins from a single mRNA to be differently localized using a self-cleaving 2A peptide. This enabled us to establish a stable transfectant expressing a mitochondrially targeted fluorescent protein. The system can be applied to any protein in theory and would make a powerful tool for investigating unique organelles in P. marinus and related dinoflagellates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hirokazu Sakamoto
- Department of Biomedical Chemistry, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Kiyoshi Kita
- Department of Biomedical Chemistry, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan.,School of Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, Japan.,Department of Host-Defense Biochemistry, Institute of Tropical Medicine, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, Japan
| | - Motomichi Matsuzaki
- Department of Biomedical Chemistry, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan.,RIKEN Center for Advanced Intelligence Project, Tokyo, Japan
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Messant M, Krieger-Liszkay A, Shimakawa G. Dynamic Changes in Protein-Membrane Association for Regulating Photosynthetic Electron Transport. Cells 2021; 10:cells10051216. [PMID: 34065690 PMCID: PMC8155901 DOI: 10.3390/cells10051216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2021] [Revised: 05/13/2021] [Accepted: 05/13/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Photosynthesis has to work efficiently in contrasting environments such as in shade and full sun. Rapid changes in light intensity and over-reduction of the photosynthetic electron transport chain cause production of reactive oxygen species, which can potentially damage the photosynthetic apparatus. Thus, to avoid such damage, photosynthetic electron transport is regulated on many levels, including light absorption in antenna, electron transfer reactions in the reaction centers, and consumption of ATP and NADPH in different metabolic pathways. Many regulatory mechanisms involve the movement of protein-pigment complexes within the thylakoid membrane. Furthermore, a certain number of chloroplast proteins exist in different oligomerization states, which temporally associate to the thylakoid membrane and modulate their activity. This review starts by giving a short overview of the lipid composition of the chloroplast membranes, followed by describing supercomplex formation in cyclic electron flow. Protein movements involved in the various mechanisms of non-photochemical quenching, including thermal dissipation, state transitions and the photosystem II damage–repair cycle are detailed. We highlight the importance of changes in the oligomerization state of VIPP and of the plastid terminal oxidase PTOX and discuss the factors that may be responsible for these changes. Photosynthesis-related protein movements and organization states of certain proteins all play a role in acclimation of the photosynthetic organism to the environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marine Messant
- Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), CEA, CNRS, Université Paris-Saclay, CEDEX, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France;
| | - Anja Krieger-Liszkay
- Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), CEA, CNRS, Université Paris-Saclay, CEDEX, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France;
- Correspondence:
| | - Ginga Shimakawa
- Research Center for Solar Energy Chemistry, Osaka University, 1-3 Machikaneyama, Toyonaka, Osaka 560-8531, Japan;
- Department of Bioscience, School of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Kwansei-Gakuin University, 2-1 Gakuen, Sanda, Hyogo 669-1337, Japan
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Cueto-Díaz EJ, Ebiloma GU, Alfayez IA, Ungogo MA, Lemgruber L, González-García MC, Giron MD, Salto R, Fueyo-González FJ, Shiba T, González-Vera JA, Ruedas Rama MJ, Orte A, de Koning HP, Dardonville C. Synthesis, biological, and photophysical studies of molecular rotor-based fluorescent inhibitors of the trypanosome alternative oxidase. Eur J Med Chem 2021; 220:113470. [PMID: 33940464 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2021.113470] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2021] [Revised: 03/26/2021] [Accepted: 04/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
We have recently reported on the development and trypanocidal activity of a class of inhibitors of Trypanosome Alternative Oxidase (TAO) that are targeted to the mitochondrial matrix by coupling to lipophilic cations via C14 linkers to enable optimal interaction with the enzyme's active site. This strategy resulted in a much-enhanced anti-parasite effect, which we ascribed to the greater accumulation of the compound at the location of the target protein, i.e. the mitochondrion, but to date this localization has not been formally established. We therefore synthesized a series of fluorescent analogues to visualize accumulation and distribution within the cell. The fluorophore chosen, julolidine, has the remarkable extra feature of being able to function as a viscosity sensor and might thus additionally act as a probe of the cellular glycerol that is expected to be produced when TAO is inhibited. Two series of fluorescent inhibitor conjugates incorporating a cationic julolidine-based viscosity sensor were synthesized and their photophysical and biological properties were studied. These probes display a red emission, with a high signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), using both single- and two-photon excitation. Upon incubation with T. brucei and mammalian cells, the fluorescent inhibitors 1a and 2a were taken up selectively in the mitochondria as shown by live-cell imaging. Efficient partition of 1a in functional isolated (rat liver) mitochondria was estimated to 66 ± 20% of the total. The compounds inhibited recombinant TAO enzyme in the submicromolar (1a, 2c, 2d) to low nanomolar range (2a) and were effective against WT and multidrug-resistant trypanosome strains (B48, AQP1-3 KO) in the submicromolar range. Good selectivity (SI > 29) over mammalian HEK cells was observed. However, no viscosity-related shift could be detected, presumably because the glycerol was produced cytosolically, and released through aquaglyceroporins, whereas the probe was located, virtually exclusively, in the trypanosome's mitochondrion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eduardo J Cueto-Díaz
- Instituto de Química Médica, IQM-CSIC, Juan de la Cierva 3, E-28006, Madrid, Spain
| | - Godwin U Ebiloma
- Graduate School of Science and Technology, Department of Applied Biology, Kyoto Institute of Technology, Kyoto, 606-8585, Japan; Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom; School of Health and Life Sciences, Teesside University, Middlesbrough, United Kingdom
| | - Ibrahim A Alfayez
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Marzuq A Ungogo
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom; Department of Veterinary Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria
| | - Leandro Lemgruber
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - M Carmen González-García
- Departamento de Fisicoquimica, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Granada, C. U. Cartuja, E-18071, Granada, Spain
| | - Maria D Giron
- Departamento de Bioquimica y Biologia Molecular II. Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Granada, C. U. Cartuja, E-18071, Granada, Spain
| | - Rafael Salto
- Departamento de Bioquimica y Biologia Molecular II. Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Granada, C. U. Cartuja, E-18071, Granada, Spain
| | | | - Tomoo Shiba
- Graduate School of Science and Technology, Department of Applied Biology, Kyoto Institute of Technology, Kyoto, 606-8585, Japan
| | - Juan A González-Vera
- Departamento de Fisicoquimica, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Granada, C. U. Cartuja, E-18071, Granada, Spain
| | - Maria José Ruedas Rama
- Departamento de Fisicoquimica, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Granada, C. U. Cartuja, E-18071, Granada, Spain
| | - Angel Orte
- Departamento de Fisicoquimica, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Granada, C. U. Cartuja, E-18071, Granada, Spain
| | - Harry P de Koning
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
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Reed CJ, Lam QN, Mirts EN, Lu Y. Molecular understanding of heteronuclear active sites in heme-copper oxidases, nitric oxide reductases, and sulfite reductases through biomimetic modelling. Chem Soc Rev 2021; 50:2486-2539. [PMID: 33475096 PMCID: PMC7920998 DOI: 10.1039/d0cs01297a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Heme-copper oxidases (HCO), nitric oxide reductases (NOR), and sulfite reductases (SiR) catalyze the multi-electron and multi-proton reductions of O2, NO, and SO32-, respectively. Each of these reactions is important to drive cellular energy production through respiratory metabolism and HCO, NOR, and SiR evolved to contain heteronuclear active sites containing heme/copper, heme/nonheme iron, and heme-[4Fe-4S] centers, respectively. The complexity of the structures and reactions of these native enzymes, along with their large sizes and/or membrane associations, make it challenging to fully understand the crucial structural features responsible for the catalytic properties of these active sites. In this review, we summarize progress that has been made to better understand these heteronuclear metalloenzymes at the molecular level though study of the native enzymes along with insights gained from biomimetic models comprising either small molecules or proteins. Further understanding the reaction selectivity of these enzymes is discussed through comparisons of their similar heteronuclear active sites, and we offer outlook for further investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher J Reed
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urban, IL 61801, USA.
| | - Quan N Lam
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urban, IL 61801, USA
| | - Evan N Mirts
- Center for Biophysics and Quantitative Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA and Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Yi Lu
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urban, IL 61801, USA. and Department of Biochemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urban, IL 61801, USA and Center for Biophysics and Quantitative Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA and Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
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38
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Ito K, Ogata T, Seito T, Umekawa Y, Kakizaki Y, Osada H, Moore AL. Degradation of mitochondrial alternative oxidase in the appendices of Arum maculatum. Biochem J 2020; 477:3417-31. [PMID: 32856714 DOI: 10.1042/BCJ20200515] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2020] [Revised: 08/25/2020] [Accepted: 08/27/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Cyanide-resistant alternative oxidase (AOX) is a nuclear-encoded quinol oxidase located in the inner mitochondrial membrane. Although the quality control of AOX proteins is expected to have a role in elevated respiration in mitochondria, it remains unclear whether thermogenic plants possess molecular mechanisms for the mitochondrial degradation of AOX. To better understand the mechanism of AOX turnover in mitochondria, we performed a series of in organello AOX degradation assays using mitochondria from various stages of the appendices of Arum maculatum. Our analyses clearly indicated that AOX proteins at certain stages in the appendices are degraded at 30°C, which is close to the maximum appendix temperature observed during thermogenesis. Interestingly, such temperature-dependent protease activities were specifically inhibited by E-64, a cysteine protease inhibitor. Moreover, purification and subsequent nano LC–MS/MS analyses of E-64-sensitive and DCG-04-labeled active mitochondrial protease revealed an ∼30 kDa protein with an identical partial peptide sequence to the cysteine protease 1-like protein from Phoenix dactylifera. Our data collectively suggest that AOX is a potential target for temperature-dependent E-64-sensitive cysteine protease in the appendices of A. maculatum. A possible retrograde signalling cascade mediated by specific degradation of AOX proteins and its physiological significance are discussed.
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Subko K, Kildgaard S, Vicente F, Reyes F, Genilloud O, Larsen TO. Bioactive Ascochlorin Analogues from the Marine-Derived Fungus Stilbella fimetaria. Mar Drugs 2021; 19:46. [PMID: 33498522 DOI: 10.3390/md19020046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2020] [Revised: 01/12/2021] [Accepted: 01/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The marine-derived fungus Stilbella fimetaria is a chemically talented fungus producing several classes of bioactive metabolites, including meroterpenoids of the ascochlorin family. The targeted dereplication of fungal extracts by UHPLC-DAD-QTOF-MS revealed the presence of several new along with multiple known ascochlorin analogues (19–22). Their structures and relative configuration were characterized by 1D and 2D NMR. Further targeted dereplication based on a novel 1,4-benzoquinone sesquiterpene derivative, fimetarin A (22), resulted in the identification of three additional fimetarin analogues, fimetarins B–D (23–25), with their tentative structures proposed from detailed MS/HRMS analysis. In total, four new and eight known ascochlorin/fimetarin analogues were tested for their antimicrobial activity, identifying the analogues with a 5-chloroorcylaldehyde moiety to be more active than the benzoquinone analogue. Additionally, the presence of two conjugated double bonds at C-2′/C-3′ and C-4′/C-5′ were found to be essential for the observed antifungal activity, whereas the single, untailored bonds at C-4′/C-5′ and C-8′/C-9′ were suggested to be necessary for the observed antibacterial activity.
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Yamasaki S, Shoji M, Kayanuma M, Sladek V, Inaoka DK, Matsuo Y, Shiba T, Young L, Moore AL, Kita K, Shigeta Y. Weak O 2 binding and strong H 2O 2 binding at the non-heme diiron center of trypanosome alternative oxidase. Biochim Biophys Acta Bioenerg 2021; 1862:148356. [PMID: 33385341 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbabio.2020.148356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2020] [Revised: 12/10/2020] [Accepted: 12/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Alternative oxidase (AOX) catalyzes the four-electron reduction of dioxygen to water as an additional terminal oxidase, and the catalytic reaction is critical for the parasite to survive in its bloodstream form. Recently, the X-ray crystal structure of trypanosome alternative oxidase (TAO) complexed with ferulenol was reported and the molecular structure of the non-heme diiron center was determined. The binding of O2 was a unique side-on type compared to other iron proteins. In order to characterize the O2 binding state of TAO, the O2 binding states were searched at a quantum mechanics/molecular mechanics (QM/MM) theoretical level in the present study. We found that the most stable O2 binding state is the end-on type, and the binding states of the side-on type are higher in energy. Based on the binding energies and electronic structure analyses, O2 binds very weakly to the TAO iron center (ΔE =6.7 kcal mol-1) in the electronic state of Fe(II)…OO, not in the suggested charge transferred state such as the superoxide state (Fe(III)OO· -) as seen in hemerythrin. Coordination of other ligands such as water, Cl-, CN-, CO, N3- and H2O2 was also examined, and H2O2 was found to bind most strongly to the Fe(II) site by ΔE = 14.0 kcal mol-1. This was confirmed experimentally through the measurement of ubiquinol oxidase activity of TAO and Cryptosporidium parvum AOX which was found to be inhibited by H2O2 in a dose-dependent and reversible manner.
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Rosell-Hidalgo A, Young L, Moore AL, Ghafourian T. QSAR and molecular docking for the search of AOX inhibitors: a rational drug discovery approach. J Comput Aided Mol Des 2020; 35:245-260. [PMID: 33289903 PMCID: PMC7904559 DOI: 10.1007/s10822-020-00360-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2020] [Accepted: 11/12/2020] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The alternative oxidase (AOX) is a monotopic diiron carboxylate protein that catalyses the oxidation of ubiquinol and the reduction of oxygen to water. Although a number of AOX inhibitors have been discovered, little is still known about the ligand–protein interaction and essential chemical characteristics of compounds required for a potent inhibition. Furthermore, owing to the rapidly growing resistance to existing inhibitors, new compounds with improved potency and pharmacokinetic properties are urgently required. In this study we used two computational approaches, ligand–protein docking and Quantitative Structure–Activity Relationships (QSAR) to investigate binding of AOX inhibitors to the enzyme and the molecular characteristics required for inhibition. Docking studies followed by protein–ligand interaction fingerprint (PLIF) analysis using the AOX enzyme and the mutated analogues revealed the importance of the residues Leu 122, Arg 118 and Thr 219 within the hydrophobic cavity. QSAR analysis, using stepwise regression analysis with experimentally obtained IC50 values as the response variable, resulted in a multiple regression model with a good prediction accuracy. The model highlighted the importance of the presence of hydrogen bonding acceptor groups on specific positions of the aromatic ring of ascofuranone derivatives, acidity of the compounds, and a large linker group on the compounds on the inhibitory effect of AOX.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alicia Rosell-Hidalgo
- Department of Biochemistry and Biomedicine, School of Life Sciences, University of Sussex, Falmer, Brighton, BN1 9QG, UK
| | - Luke Young
- Department of Biochemistry and Biomedicine, School of Life Sciences, University of Sussex, Falmer, Brighton, BN1 9QG, UK
| | - Anthony L Moore
- Department of Biochemistry and Biomedicine, School of Life Sciences, University of Sussex, Falmer, Brighton, BN1 9QG, UK
| | - Taravat Ghafourian
- Department of Biochemistry and Biomedicine, School of Life Sciences, University of Sussex, Falmer, Brighton, BN1 9QG, UK. .,School of Life Sciences, Faculty of Creative Arts, Technologies and Science, University of Bedfordshire, Luton, Bedfordshire, LU1 3JU, UK.
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Romero-Aguilar L, Cárdenas-Monroy C, Garrido-Bazán V, Aguirre J, Guerra-Sánchez G, Pardo JP. On the use of n-octyl gallate and salicylhydroxamic acid to study the alternative oxidase role. Arch Biochem Biophys 2020; 694:108603. [PMID: 32986977 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2020.108603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2020] [Revised: 08/28/2020] [Accepted: 09/24/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The alternative oxidase (AOX) catalyzes the transfer of electrons from ubiquinol to oxygen without the translocation of protons across the inner mitochondrial membrane. This enzyme has been proposed to participate in the regulation of cell growth, sporulation, yeast-mycelium transition, resistance to reactive oxygen species, infection, and production of secondary metabolites. Two approaches have been used to evaluate AOX function: incubation of cells for long periods of time with AOX inhibitors or deletion of AOX gene. However, AOX inhibitors might have different targets. To test non-specific effects of n-octyl gallate (nOg) and salicylhydroxamic acid (SHAM) on fungal physiology we measured the growth and respiratory capacity of two fungal strains lacking (Ustilago maydis-Δaox and Saccharomyces cerevisiae) and three species containing the AOX gene (U. maydis WT, Debaryomyces hansenii, and Aspergillus nidulans). For U. maydis, a strong inhibition of growth and respiratory capacity by SHAM was observed, regardless of the presence of AOX. Similarly, A. nidulans mycelial growth was inhibited by low concentrations of nOg independently of AOX expression. In contrast, these inhibitors had no effect or had a minor effect on S. cerevisiae and D. hansenii growth. These results show that nOg and SHAM have AOX independent effects which vary in different microorganisms, indicating that studies based on long-term incubation of cells with these inhibitors should be considered as inconclusive.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucero Romero-Aguilar
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Avenida Universidad 3000, Copilco, Cd. Universitaria, Coyoacán, 04510, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Christian Cárdenas-Monroy
- Ciencia Forense, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Avenida Universidad 3000, Copilco, Cd. Universitaria, Coyoacán, 04510, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Verónica Garrido-Bazán
- Departamento de Biología Celular y del Desarrollo, Instituto de Fisiología Celular, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Avenida Universidad 3000, Copilco, Cd. Universitaria, Coyoacán, 04510, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Jesus Aguirre
- Departamento de Biología Celular y del Desarrollo, Instituto de Fisiología Celular, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Avenida Universidad 3000, Copilco, Cd. Universitaria, Coyoacán, 04510, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Guadalupe Guerra-Sánchez
- Departamento de Microbiología, Laboratorio de Bioquímica y Biotecnología de Hongos, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Carpio y Plan de Ayala S/N., Miguel Hidalgo, 11350, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Juan Pablo Pardo
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Avenida Universidad 3000, Copilco, Cd. Universitaria, Coyoacán, 04510, Ciudad de México, Mexico.
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Serricchio M, Hierro-Yap C, Schädeli D, Ben Hamidane H, Hemphill A, Graumann J, Zíková A, Bütikofer P. Depletion of cardiolipin induces major changes in energy metabolism in Trypanosoma brucei bloodstream forms. FASEB J 2020; 35:e21176. [PMID: 33184899 DOI: 10.1096/fj.202001579rr] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2020] [Accepted: 10/26/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
The mitochondrial inner membrane glycerophospholipid cardiolipin (CL) associates with mitochondrial proteins to regulate their activities and facilitate protein complex and supercomplex formation. Loss of CL leads to destabilized respiratory complexes and mitochondrial dysfunction. The role of CL in an organism lacking a conventional electron transport chain (ETC) has not been elucidated. Trypanosoma brucei bloodstream forms use an unconventional ETC composed of glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase and alternative oxidase (AOX), while the mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm) is generated by the hydrolytic action of the Fo F1 -ATP synthase (aka Fo F1 -ATPase). We now report that the inducible depletion of cardiolipin synthase (TbCls) is essential for survival of T brucei bloodstream forms. Loss of CL caused a rapid drop in ATP levels and a decline in the ΔΨm. Unbiased proteomic analyses revealed a reduction in the levels of many mitochondrial proteins, most notably of Fo F1 -ATPase subunits and AOX, resulting in a strong decline of glycerol-3-phosphate-stimulated oxygen consumption. The changes in cellular respiration preceded the observed decrease in Fo F1 -ATPase stability, suggesting that the AOX-mediated ETC is the first pathway responding to the decline in CL. Select proteins and pathways involved in glucose and amino acid metabolism were upregulated to counteract the CL depletion-induced drop in cellular ATP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mauro Serricchio
- Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Carolina Hierro-Yap
- Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic.,Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre, Czech Academy of Sciences, Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic
| | - David Schädeli
- Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland.,Graduate School for Cellular and Biomedical Sciences, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | | | - Andrew Hemphill
- Institute of Parasitology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Johannes Graumann
- Weill Cornell Medicine - Qatar, Doha, State of Qatar.,Biomolecular Mass Spectrometry, Max Planck Institute for Heart and Lung Research, Bad Nauheim, Germany
| | - Alena Zíková
- Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic.,Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre, Czech Academy of Sciences, Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic
| | - Peter Bütikofer
- Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
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Ukolova IV, Kondakova MA, Kondratov IG, Sidorov AV, Borovskii GB, Voinikov VK. New insights into the organisation of the oxidative phosphorylation system in the example of pea shoot mitochondria. Biochim Biophys Acta Bioenerg 2020; 1861:148264. [PMID: 32663476 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbabio.2020.148264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2020] [Revised: 06/20/2020] [Accepted: 07/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The physical and functional organisation of the OXPHOS system in mitochondria in vivo remains elusive. At present, different models of OXPHOS arrangement, representing either highly ordered respiratory strings or, vice versa, a set of randomly dispersed supercomplexes and respiratory complexes, have been suggested. In the present study, we examined a supramolecular arrangement of the OXPHOS system in pea shoot mitochondria using digitonin solubilisation of its constituents, which were further analysed by classical BN-related techniques and a multidimensional gel electrophoresis system when required. As a result, in addition to supercomplexes I1III2, I1III2IVn and III2IV1-2, dimer V2, and individual complexes I-V previously detected in plant mitochondria, new OXPHOS structures were also revealed. Of them, (1) a megacomplex (IIxIIIyIVz)n including complex II, (2) respirasomes I2III4IVn with two copies of complex I and dimeric complex III2, (3) a minor new supercomplex IV1Va2 comigrating with I1III2, and (4) a second minor form of ATP synthase, Va, were found. The activity of singular complexes I, IV, and V was higher than the activity of the associated forms. The detection of new supercomplex IV1Va2, along with assemblies I1III2 and I1-2III2-4IVn, prompted us to suggest the occurrence of in vivo oxphosomes comprising complexes I, III2, IV, and V. The putative oxphosome's stoichiometry, historical background, assumed functional significance, and subcompartmental location are discussed herein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irina V Ukolova
- Siberian Institute of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry SB RAS, 132, Lermontov St., Irkutsk 664033, Russia.
| | - Marina A Kondakova
- Siberian Institute of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry SB RAS, 132, Lermontov St., Irkutsk 664033, Russia
| | - Ilya G Kondratov
- Limnological Institute SB RAS, 3, Ulan-Batorskaya St., Irkutsk 664033, Russia
| | - Alexander V Sidorov
- Siberian Institute of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry SB RAS, 132, Lermontov St., Irkutsk 664033, Russia; Irkutsk State Medical University, 1, Krasnogo Vosstaniya St., Irkutsk 664003, Russia
| | - Gennadii B Borovskii
- Siberian Institute of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry SB RAS, 132, Lermontov St., Irkutsk 664033, Russia
| | - Victor K Voinikov
- Siberian Institute of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry SB RAS, 132, Lermontov St., Irkutsk 664033, Russia
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Messant M, Shimakawa G, Perreau F, Miyake C, Krieger-Liszkay A. Evolutive differentiation between alga- and plant-type plastid terminal oxidase: Study of plastid terminal oxidase PTOX isoforms in Marchantia polymorpha. Biochim Biophys Acta Bioenerg 2020; 1862:148309. [PMID: 32956677 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbabio.2020.148309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2020] [Revised: 09/02/2020] [Accepted: 09/14/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The liverwort Marchantia polymorpha contains two isoforms of the plastid terminal oxidase (PTOX), an enzyme that catalyzes the reduction of oxygen to water using plastoquinol as substrate. Phylogenetic analyses showed that one isoform, here called MpPTOXa, is closely related to isoforms occurring in plants and some algae, while the other isoform, here called MpPTOXb, is closely related to the two isoforms occurring in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. Mutants of each isoform were created in Marchantia polymorpha using CRISPR/Cas9 technology. While no obvious phenotype was found for these mutants, chlorophyll fluorescence analyses demonstrated that the plastoquinone pool was in a higher reduction state in both mutants. This was visible at the level of fluorescence measured in dark-adapted material and by post illumination fluorescence rise. These results suggest that both isoforms have a redundant function. However, when P700 oxidation and re-reduction was studied, differences between these two isoforms were observed. Furthermore, the mutant affected in MpPTOXb showed a slight alteration in the pigment composition, a higher non-photochemical quenching and a slightly lower electron transport rate through photosystem II. These differences may be explained either by differences in the enzymatic activities or by different activities attributed to preferential involvement of the two PTOX isoforms to either linear or cyclic electron flow.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marine Messant
- Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), CEA, CNRS, Université Paris-Saclay, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette cedex, France
| | - Ginga Shimakawa
- Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), CEA, CNRS, Université Paris-Saclay, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette cedex, France
| | - François Perreau
- Institut Jean-Pierre Bourgin, INRAE, AgroParisTech, Université Paris-Saclay, 78000 Versailles, France
| | - Chikahiro Miyake
- Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Kobe University, 1-1 Rokkodai, Nada, Kobe 657-8501, Japan
| | - Anja Krieger-Liszkay
- Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), CEA, CNRS, Université Paris-Saclay, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette cedex, France.
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Desaulniers AB, Kishore N, Adames K, Nargang FE. Characterization of Single Gene Deletion Mutants Affecting Alternative Oxidase Production in Neurospora crassa: Role of the yvh1 Gene. Microorganisms 2020; 8:E1186. [PMID: 32759834 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms8081186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2020] [Revised: 07/29/2020] [Accepted: 07/31/2020] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
The Neurospora crassa AOD1 protein is a mitochondrial alternative oxidase that passes electrons directly from ubiquinol to oxygen. The enzyme is encoded by the nuclear aod-1 gene and is produced when the standard electron transport chain is inhibited. We previously identified eleven strains in the N. crassa single gene deletion library that were severely deficient in their ability to produce AOD1 when grown in the presence of chloramphenicol, an inhibitor of mitochondrial translation that is known to induce the enzyme. Three mutants affected previously characterized genes. In this report we examined the remaining mutants and found that the deficiency of AOD1 was due to secondary mutations in all but two of the strains. One of the authentic mutants contained a deletion of the yvh1 gene and was found to have a deficiency of aod-1 transcripts. The YVH1 protein localized to the nucleus and a post mitochondrial pellet from the cytoplasm. A zinc binding domain in the protein was required for rescue of the AOD1 deficiency. In other organisms YVH1 is required for ribosome assembly and mutants have multiple phenotypes. Lack of YVH1 in N. crassa likely also affects ribosome assembly leading to phenotypes that include altered regulation of AOD1 production.
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Mochizuki K, Inaoka DK, Mazet M, Shiba T, Fukuda K, Kurasawa H, Millerioux Y, Boshart M, Balogun EO, Harada S, Hirayama K, Bringaud F, Kita K. The ASCT/SCS cycle fuels mitochondrial ATP and acetate production in Trypanosoma brucei. Biochim Biophys Acta Bioenerg 2020; 1861:148283. [PMID: 32763239 PMCID: PMC7402102 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbabio.2020.148283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2020] [Revised: 07/22/2020] [Accepted: 07/29/2020] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Acetate:succinate CoA transferase (ASCT) is a mitochondrial enzyme that catalyzes the production of acetate and succinyl-CoA, which is coupled to ATP production with succinyl-CoA synthetase (SCS) in a process called the ASCT/SCS cycle. This cycle has been studied in Trypanosoma brucei (T. brucei), a pathogen of African sleeping sickness, and is involved in (i) ATP and (ii) acetate production and proceeds independent of oxygen and an electrochemical gradient. Interestingly, knockout of ASCT in procyclic form (PCF) of T. brucei cause oligomycin A-hypersensitivity phenotype indicating that ASCT/SCS cycle complements the deficiency of ATP synthase activity. In bloodstream form (BSF) of T. brucei, ATP synthase works in reverse to maintain the electrochemical gradient by hydrolyzing ATP. However, no information has been available on the source of ATP, although ASCT/SCS cycle could be a potential candidate. Regarding mitochondrial acetate production, which is essential for fatty acid biosynthesis and growth of T. brucei, ASCT or acetyl-CoA hydrolase (ACH) are known to be its source. Despite the importance of this cycle, direct evidence of its function is lacking, and there are no comprehensive biochemical or structural biology studies reported so far. Here, we show that in vitro–reconstituted ASCT/SCS cycle is highly specific towards acetyl-CoA and has a higher kcat than that of yeast and bacterial ATP synthases. Our results provide the first biochemical basis for (i) rescue of ATP synthase-deficient phenotype by ASCT/SCS cycle in PCF and (ii) a potential source of ATP for the reverse reaction of ATP synthase in BSF. First biochemical and structural characterization of mitochondrial ASCT/SCS cycle It is essential for mitochondrial acetate/ATP production and T. brucei BSF growth. TbASCT/SCS cycle shows higher kcat than that of yeast and bacterial ATP synthases. Detailed comparative biochemical analysis between ASCT and human SCOT Active site residue and X-CoA binding site determined by site-directed mutagenesis
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Affiliation(s)
- Kota Mochizuki
- Department of Immunogenetics, Institute of Tropical Medicine (NEKKEN), Nagasaki University, Japan; Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki University, Japan
| | - Daniel Ken Inaoka
- Department of Molecular Infection Dynamics, Shionogi Global Infectious Diseases Division, Institute of Tropical Medicine (NEKKEN), Nagasaki University, Japan; School of Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nagasaki University, Japan; Department of Biomedical Chemistry, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Japan.
| | - Muriel Mazet
- Laboratoire de Microbiologie Fondamentale et Pathogénicité (MFP), Université de Bordeaux, CNRS UMR-5234, France
| | - Tomoo Shiba
- Department of Applied Biology, Graduate School of Science and Technology, Kyoto Institute of Technology, Japan.
| | - Keisuke Fukuda
- Department of Applied Biology, Graduate School of Science and Technology, Kyoto Institute of Technology, Japan
| | - Hana Kurasawa
- Department of Applied Biology, Graduate School of Science and Technology, Kyoto Institute of Technology, Japan
| | - Yoann Millerioux
- Laboratoire de Microbiologie Fondamentale et Pathogénicité (MFP), Université de Bordeaux, CNRS UMR-5234, France
| | - Michael Boshart
- Fakultät für Biologie, Genetik, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Germany
| | - Emmanuel O Balogun
- Department of Biomedical Chemistry, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Japan; Department of Biochemistry, Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria
| | - Shigeharu Harada
- Department of Applied Biology, Graduate School of Science and Technology, Kyoto Institute of Technology, Japan
| | - Kenji Hirayama
- Department of Immunogenetics, Institute of Tropical Medicine (NEKKEN), Nagasaki University, Japan
| | - Frédéric Bringaud
- Laboratoire de Microbiologie Fondamentale et Pathogénicité (MFP), Université de Bordeaux, CNRS UMR-5234, France
| | - Kiyoshi Kita
- School of Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nagasaki University, Japan; Department of Biomedical Chemistry, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Japan; Department of Host - Defense Biochemistry, Institute of Tropical Medicine (NEKKEN), Nagasaki University, Japan
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Masuya T, Sano Y, Tanaka H, Butler NL, Ito T, Tosaki T, Morgan JE, Murai M, Barquera B, Miyoshi H. Inhibitors of a Na +-pumping NADH-ubiquinone oxidoreductase play multiple roles to block enzyme function. J Biol Chem 2020; 295:12739-12754. [PMID: 32690607 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.ra120.014229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2020] [Revised: 07/18/2020] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The Na+-pumping NADH-ubiquinone (UQ) oxidoreductase (Na+-NQR) is present in the respiratory chain of many pathogenic bacteria and is thought to be a promising antibiotic target. Whereas many details of Na+-NQR structure and function are known, the mechanisms of action of potent inhibitors is not well-understood; elucidating the mechanisms would not only advance drug design strategies but might also provide insights on a terminal electron transfer from riboflavin to UQ. To this end, we performed photoaffinity labeling experiments using photoreactive derivatives of two known inhibitors, aurachin and korormicin, on isolated Vibrio cholerae Na+-NQR. The inhibitors labeled the cytoplasmic surface domain of the NqrB subunit including a protruding N-terminal stretch, which may be critical to regulate the UQ reaction in the adjacent NqrA subunit. The labeling was blocked by short-chain UQs such as ubiquinone-2. The photolabile group (2-aryl-5-carboxytetrazole (ACT)) of these inhibitors reacts with nucleophilic amino acids, so we tested mutations of nucleophilic residues in the labeled region of NqrB, such as Asp49 and Asp52 (to Ala), and observed moderate decreases in labeling yields, suggesting that these residues are involved in the interaction with ACT. We conclude that the inhibitors interfere with the UQ reaction in two ways: the first is blocking structural rearrangements at the cytoplasmic interface between NqrA and NqrB, and the second is the direct obstruction of UQ binding at this interfacial area. Unusual competitive behavior between the photoreactive inhibitors and various competitors corroborates our previous proposition that there may be two inhibitor binding sites in Na+-NQR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takahiro Masuya
- Division of Applied Life Sciences, Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Yuki Sano
- Division of Applied Life Sciences, Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Hinako Tanaka
- Division of Applied Life Sciences, Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | | | | | - Tatsuhiko Tosaki
- Division of Applied Life Sciences, Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Joel E Morgan
- Center for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Studies, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York, USA
| | - Masatoshi Murai
- Division of Applied Life Sciences, Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Blanca Barquera
- Department of Biological Science and.,Center for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Studies, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York, USA
| | - Hideto Miyoshi
- Division of Applied Life Sciences, Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
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49
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Folgueira I, Lamas J, Sueiro RA, Leiro JM. Molecular characterization and gene expression modulation of the alternative oxidase in a scuticociliate parasite by hypoxia and mitochondrial respiration inhibitors. Sci Rep 2020; 10:11880. [PMID: 32681023 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-68791-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2019] [Accepted: 07/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Philasterides dicentrarchi is a marine benthic microaerophilic scuticociliate and an opportunistic endoparasite that can infect and cause high mortalities in cultured turbot (Scophthalmus maximus). In addition to a cytochrome pathway (CP), the ciliate can use a cyanide-insensitive respiratory pathway, which indicates the existence of an alternative oxidase (AOX) in the mitochondrion. Although AOX activity has been described in P. dicentrarchi, based on functional assay results, genetic evidence of the presence of AOX in the ciliate has not previously been reported. In this study, we conducted genomic and transcriptomic analysis of the ciliate and identified the AOX gene and its corresponding mRNA. The AOX gene (size 1,106 bp) contains four exons and three introns that generate an open reading frame of 915 bp and a protein with a predicted molecular weight of 35.6 kDa. The amino acid (aa) sequence of the AOX includes an import signal peptide targeting the mitochondria and the protein is associated with the inner membrane of the mitochondria. Bioinformatic analysis predicted that the peptide is a homodimeric glycoprotein, although monomeric forms may also appear under native conditions, with EXXH motifs associated with the diiron active centers. The aa sequences of the AOX of different P. dicentrarchi isolates are highly conserved and phylogenetically closely related to AOXs of other ciliate species, especially scuticociliates. AOX expression increased significantly during infection in the host and after the addition of CP inhibitors. This confirms the important physiological roles of AOX in respiration under conditions of low levels of O2 and in protecting against oxidative stress generated during infection in the host.
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Young L, Rosell-Hidalgo A, Inaoka DK, Xu F, Albury M, May B, Kita K, Moore AL. Kinetic and structural characterisation of the ubiquinol-binding site and oxygen reduction by the trypanosomal alternative oxidase. Biochim Biophys Acta Bioenerg 2020; 1861:148247. [PMID: 32565080 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbabio.2020.148247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2020] [Revised: 06/08/2020] [Accepted: 06/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The alternative oxidase (AOX) is a monotopic di‑iron carboxylate protein which acts as a terminal respiratory chain oxidase in a variety of plants, fungi and protists. Of particular importance is the finding that both emerging infectious diseases caused by human and plant fungal pathogens, the majority of which are multi-drug resistant, appear to be dependent upon AOX activity for survival. Since AOX is absent in mammalian cells, AOX is considered a viable therapeutic target for the design of specific fungicidal and anti-parasitic drugs. In this work, we have mutated conserved residues within the hydrophobic channel (R96, D100, R118, L122, L212, E215 and T219), which crystallography has indicated leads to the active site. Our data shows that all mutations result in a drastic reduction in Vmax and catalytic efficiency whilst some also affected the Km for quinol and oxygen. The extent to which mutation effects inhibitor sensitivity was also investigated, with mutation of R118 and T219 leading to a complete loss of inhibitor potency. However, only a slight reduction in IC50 values was observed when R96 was mutated, implying that this residue is less important in inhibitor binding. In silico modelling has been used to provide insight into the reason for such changes, which we suggest is due to disruptions in the proton transfer network, resulting in a reduction in overall reaction kinetics. We discuss our results in terms of the structural features of the ubiquinol binding site and consider the implications of such findings on the nature of the catalytic cycle. SIGNIFICANCE: The alternative oxidase is a ubiquinol oxidoreductase enzyme that catalyses the oxidation of ubiquinol and the reduction of oxygen to water. It is widely distributed amongst the plant, fungal and parasitic kingdoms and plays a central role in metabolism through facilitating the turnover of the TCA cycle whilst reducing ROS production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luke Young
- Biochemistry and Biomedicine, School of Life Sciences, University of Sussex, Falmer, Brighton BN1 9QG, United Kingdom.
| | - Alicia Rosell-Hidalgo
- Biochemistry and Biomedicine, School of Life Sciences, University of Sussex, Falmer, Brighton BN1 9QG, United Kingdom
| | - Daniel Ken Inaoka
- Department of Molecular Infection Dynamics, Shinogi Global Infectious Diseases Division, Institute of Tropical Medicine (NEKKEN), Nagasaki University, Nagasaki 852-8523, Japan; School of Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki 852-8523, Japan
| | - Fei Xu
- Biochemistry and Biomedicine, School of Life Sciences, University of Sussex, Falmer, Brighton BN1 9QG, United Kingdom
| | - Mary Albury
- Biochemistry and Biomedicine, School of Life Sciences, University of Sussex, Falmer, Brighton BN1 9QG, United Kingdom
| | - Benjamin May
- Biochemistry and Biomedicine, School of Life Sciences, University of Sussex, Falmer, Brighton BN1 9QG, United Kingdom
| | - Kiyoshi Kita
- School of Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki 852-8523, Japan
| | - Anthony L Moore
- Biochemistry and Biomedicine, School of Life Sciences, University of Sussex, Falmer, Brighton BN1 9QG, United Kingdom
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