A MITOCHONDRIAL PUMP IN THE CELLS OF THE ANAL PAPILLAE OF MOSQUITO LARVAE

The transcriptome of anal papillae of Aedes aegypti reveals their importance in xenobiotic detoxification and adds significant knowledge on ion, water and ammonia transport mechanisms

The anal papillae of mosquito larvae are osmoregulatory organs in direct contact with the external aquatic environment that actively sequester ions and take up water in dilute freshwater. In the disease vector Aedes aegypti mechanisms of ion, water and ammonia transport have only been partially resolved. Furthermore, A. aegypti larvae are known to reside in high ammonia sewage and high salt brackish waters, and understanding of anal papillae function in these conditions is in its infancy. The objective of this study was to identify the complement of ion and water transport genes expressed by the anal papillae of freshwater larvae by sequencing their transcriptome, and comparing their expression in anal papillae of larvae abruptly transferred to brackish water for 24 h. Results identified a number of ion and water transport proteins, ammonia detoxifying enzymes, a full suite of xenobiotic detoxifying enzymes and transporters, and G-protein coupled receptors of specific hormones. We identified a marked increase in transcript and protein abundance of aquaporin AaAQP2 in the anal papillae with abrupt transfer to brackish water. We present an updated and more comprehensive model for ion and water transport with additional putative transporters for Na⁺ and Cl^- uptake in the anal papillae. These are organs which are actively engaged in Na⁺, Cl^- and water uptake and regulation when the aquatic larvae encounter fluctuating salinities over the course of their development. Furthermore the transcriptome of the anal papillae includes a full set of xenobiotic detoxification genes suggesting that these are important detoxification organs which is particularly important when larvae reside in polluted water.

Evidence that Rh proteins in the anal papillae of the freshwater mosquito Aedes aegypti are involved in the regulation of acid-base balance in elevated salt and ammonia environments

Aedes aegypti commonly inhabit ammonia-rich sewage effluents in tropical regions of the world where the adults are responsible for the spread of disease. Studies have shown the importance of the anal papillae of A. aegypti in ion uptake and ammonia excretion. The anal papillae express ammonia transporters and Rhesus (Rh) proteins which are involved in ammonia excretion and studies have primarily focused on understanding these mechanisms in freshwater. In this study, effects of rearing larvae in salt (5 mmol l^-1 NaCl) or ammonia (5 mmol l^-1 NH₄Cl) on physiological endpoints of ammonia and ion regulation were assessed. In anal papillae of NaCl-reared larvae, Rh protein expression increased, NHE3 transcript abundance decreased and NH₄ ⁺ excretion increased, and this coincided with decreased hemolymph [NH₄ ⁺] and pH. We propose that under these conditions, larvae excrete more NH₄ ⁺ through Rh proteins as a means of eliminating acid from the hemolymph. In anal papillae of NH₄Cl-reared larvae, expression of an apical ammonia transporter and the Rh proteins decreased, the activities of NKA and VA decreased and increased, respectively, and this coincided with hemolymph acidification. The results present evidence for a role of Rh proteins in acid-base balance in response to elevated levels of salt, whereby ammonia is excreted as an acid equivalent.

Phenotypic Plasticity in Animals Exposed to Osmotic Stress - Is it Always Adaptive?

Hyperplasia and hypertrophy are elements of phenotypic plasticity adjusting organ size and function. Because they are costly, we assume that they are beneficial. In this review, the authors discuss examples of tissue and organ systems that respond with plastic changes to osmotic stress to raise awareness that we do not always have sufficient experimental evidence to conclude that such processes provide fitness advantages. Changes in hydranth architecture in the hydroid Cordylophora caspia or variations in size in the anal papillae of insect larvae upon changes in medium salinity may be adaptive or not. The restructuring of salt glands in ducklings upon salt-loading is an example of phenotypic plasticity which indeed seems beneficial. As the genomes of model species are recently sequenced and the animals are easy to rear, these species are suitable study objects to investigate the biological significance of phenotypic plasticity and to study potential epigenetic and other mechanisms underlying phenotypic changes.

Alleviatory effects of silicon on the foliar micromorphology and anatomy of rice (Oryza sativa L.) seedlings under simulated acid rain

Silicon (Si) is a macroelement in plants. The biological effects and mitigation mechanisms of silicon under environmental stress have become hot topics. The main objectives of this study were to elucidate the roles of Si in alleviating the effects on the phenotype, micromorphology and anatomy of the leaves of rice seedlings under acid rain stress. The results indicated that the combined or single effects of Si and simulated acid rain (SAR) stress on rice roots depended on the concentration of Si and the intensity of the SAR stress. The combined or single effects of the moderate concentration of Si (2.0 mM) and light SAR (pH 4.0) enhanced the growth of the rice leaves and the development of the mesophyll cells, and the combined effects were stronger than those of the single treatments. The high concentration of Si (4.0 mM) and severe SAR (pH 3.0 or 2.0) exerted deleterious effects. The incorporation of Si (2.0 or 4.0 mM) into SAR at pH values of 3.0 or 2.0 promoted rice leaf growth, decreased necrosis spots, maintained the structure and function of the mesophyll cells, increased the epicuticular wax content and wart-like protuberance (WP) density, and improved the stomatal characteristics of the leaves of rice seedlings more than the SAR only treatments. The alleviatory effects observed with a moderate concentration of Si (2.0 mM) were better than the effects obtained with the high concentration of Si (4.0 mM). The alleviatory effects were due to the enhancement of the mechanical barriers in the leaf epidermis.

Dose and developmental responses of Anopheles merus larvae to salinity

Saltwater tolerance is a trait that carries both ecological and epidemiological significance for Anopheles mosquitoes that transmit human malaria, as it plays a key role in determining their habitat use and ecological distribution, and thus their local contribution to malaria transmission. Here, we lay the groundwork for genetic dissection of this trait by quantifying saltwater tolerance in three closely related cryptic species and malaria vectors from the Afrotropical Anopheles gambiae complex that are known to differ starkly in their tolerance to salinity: the obligate freshwater species A. gambiae and A. coluzzii, and the saltwater-tolerant species A. merus. We performed detailed comparisons of survivorship under varying salinities, using multiple strains of A. gambiae, A. coluzzii and A. merus, as well as F1 progeny from reciprocal crosses of A. merus and A. coluzzii. Additionally, using immunohistochemistry, we compared the location of three ion regulatory proteins (Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase, carbonic anhydrase and Na(+)/H(+)-antiporter) in the recta of A. coluzzii and A. merus reared in freshwater or saline water. As expected, we found that A. merus survives exposure to high salinities better than A. gambiae and A. coluzzii. Further, we found that exposure to a salinity level of 15.85 g NaCl l(-1) is a discriminating dose that kills all A. gambiae, A. coluzzii and A. coluzzii-A. merus F1 larvae, but does not negatively impact the survival of A. merus. Importantly, phenotypic expression of saltwater tolerance by A. merus is highly dependent upon the developmental time of exposure, and based on immunohistochemistry, salt tolerance appears to involve a major shift in Na(+)/K+-ATPase localization in the rectum, as observed previously for the distantly related saline-tolerant species A. albimanus.

Fine structural organization of the spermatheca in the cockroach, Periplaneta americana

The detailed structure of the cockroach spermatheca is described and discussed firstly as an example of an insect integumentary gland, and secondly, from the standpoint of its role in reproduction. The gland comprises a cortical rank of separate secretory units, each associated with an epithelial duct cell responsible for receiving secreted materials and transporting them through the cuticular intima lining the reproductive tract. Secretory activity is cyclic, and the probable mode of elaboration and release of secretory material is described, together with the fine structure of the markedly differing intimas associated respectively with the glandular and conducting units.

Insects as model systems in cell biology

For almost 100 years, insects have been favorable "model systems" in biology. Just to mention a few examples: fruit flies in genetics and developmental biology; bugs and caterpillars in hormone research; houseflies, blowflies, and locusts in neurobiology; silk moths in pheromone research; honeybees and crickets in neuroethology. For more than 50 years the electron microscope (EM) has been a valuable tool in analyzing the structure of cells and organs of these creatures. However, progress in specimen preparation was relatively slow compared with mammalian material and, in 1970, it was taken for granted that insects were much more difficult to fix than mammals. Since then, methods have dramatically improved, and satisfactory results can now be obtained routinely with chemical as well as cryofixation. In this chapter we briefly demonstrate what can be achieved with insect material, and help the researcher to find the most appropriate method for her/his systems and scientific questions.

Studies on the tardigrades. IV. Fine structure of the hindgut of Milnesium tardigradum doyère

The hindgut of the semi-terrestrial tardigrade, Milnesium tardigradum was examined with light and electron microscopy. The hindgut consists of a cloaca and an anterior hindgut. It is delineated anteriorly by the pylorus into which four Malpighian tubules empty and posteriorly, by a broad cloacal slit. A single oviduct enters the hindgut at the junction between the cloaca and the anterior hindgut. Two pairs of muscles insert on the cloaca and anterior hindgut respectively. Electron microscopic observations demonstrate that the anterior hindgut is a specialized transporting epithelium. The luminal surface is covered by a thin layer of cuticle which penetrates into channel-like invaginations. Numerous mitochondria are concentrated apically. The basal and lateral surfaces are also folded. The cells are joined apically by deep tight junctions and a simple basal lamina lines the entire hindgut. The cloaca which receives the contents of the gut and Malpighian tubules as well as gametes of the reproductive tract is a transitional organ that exhibits several characteristics of the hypodermis and anterior hindgut. The cuticle of the cloaca changes sequentially from the complex structure of the integument to a simple layer of the anterior hindgut. The function of the hindgut is discussed with emphasis on the possible response of the anterior hindgut to a hypoosmotic habitat, evaporative water loss during the induction of anhydrobiosis and low oxygen tension.

Design of the labial cuticle in Cenocorixa bifida Hung. (Hemiptera: Corixidae) with reference to ionic transport

The surface topography and ultrastructure of the labial cuticle of Cenocorixa bifida were examined by scanning and transmission electron microscopy. The dorsal wall of the labium consists of seven sclerotized transverse bars each displaying two rows of semicircular grooves and pores. The cuticle is about 20 microm thick and is composed of epicuticle and lamellate exocuticle and endocuticle, the latter separated from the underlying epidermis by subcuticle containing amorphous material. The epicuticle is subdivided into an electron-dense very thin outer epicuticle and a homogenous thick inner epicuticle, which is penetrated by grooves. The exocuticle is filled with electron-dense blocks of material, which may provide mechanical support to the labial wall. The elongate epidermal cells display extensive infoldings of the apical plasma membrane (facing the cuticle) and contain abundant mitochondria in the cytoplasm. The presence of deep epicuticular grooves and pores in the thin labial cuticle and extensive apical membrane infolding and abundant mitochondria in the epidermal cells suggest that the labium in C. bifida is the site of osmoregulatory ionic uptake.

A light and electron microscopical study of the spermathecae and ventral receptacle of Anastrepha suspensa (Diptera: Tephritidae) and implications in female influence of sperm storage

Female insects with multiple sperm storage organs may potentially influence patterns of paternity by differential storage of sperm from competing males. The Caribbean Fruit Fly, Anastrepha suspensa, stores sperm differentially with respect to its three spermathecae. To understand the mechanisms and processes responsible for patterns of sperm storage and use in A. suspensa, details of the fine structure of female sperm storage organs were resolved by UV-light microscopy, confocal microscopy, tissue sectioning, and scanning and transmission electron microscopy. Structures not previously described for this species include a ventral receptacle for sperm storage and osmoregulation, a conical-shaped valve at the junction between the spermathecal capsules and their ducts, laminar and granular secretions, secretions from the signum, hemocytes surrounding the spermathecae, and spermathecae with sclerotized, hollow projections that terminate in single glandular cells. The independent organization of sperm storage organs, spermathecal ducts, associated musculature, gland cells, and innervation offer possible mechanisms by which sperm movement may be influenced by females. The implications of these structures for insemination and fertilization events are discussed.

The characterization of ion regulation in Amazonian mosquito larvae: evidence of phenotypic plasticity, population-based disparity, and novel mechanisms of ion uptake

This study is the first step in characterizing ion uptake mechanisms of mosquito larvae from the Amazon region of Brazil. Hemolymph NaCl levels and rates of unidirectional Na(+) and Cl(-) uptake were measured in larvae of Aedes aegypti and Culex quinquefasciatus in a series of environmental manipulations that are known to challenge ion regulation in other aquatic animals. Despite being reared for numerous generations in dilute media (20 micromol L(-1) NaCl), both species were able to maintain high hemolymph NaCl concentrations, a departure from previous studies. Exposure to distilled water or high-NaCl media did not affect hemolymph ion levels, but pH 3 caused significant decreases in hemolymph Na(+) and Cl(-) levels in both species. Exposure to water from Rio Negro (pH 5.5), an organically rich but ion-poor body of water, did not disturb hemolymph Na(+) and Cl(-) levels or the uptake of these ions. Acute exposure to control media or Rio Negro water titrated to pH 3.5 caused inhibition of Na(+) uptake and stimulation of Cl(-) uptake in C. quinquefasciatus, but A. aegypti larvae experienced only a significant reduction of Na(+) uptake in Rio Negro/pH 3.5 treatment. The stimulation of Cl(-) uptake at low pH has been documented only in aquatic insects and differs from all other invertebrate and vertebrate species. A similar pattern of Na(+) uptake inhibition and Cl(-) uptake stimulation was observed in A. aegypti larvae exposed to bafilomycin A(1), a blocker of V-type H(+) ATPase. Culex quinquefasciatus larvae were unaffected by this drug. Both Na(+) and Cl(-) uptake were reduced when C. quinquefasciatus larvae were exposed to acetazolamide, indicating that H(+) and HCO(3)(-), derived from hydration of CO(2), are involved with Na(+) and Cl(-) uptake. Kinetic analysis of Na(+) and Cl(-) uptake in C. quinquefasciatus, A. aegypti, and Anopheles nuneztovari larvae indicate that these Amazonian species share similar high-capacity and high-affinity mechanisms. Comparison of the Amazonian C. quinquefasciatus with a Californian population provided evidence of both phenotypic plasticity and population disparity in Na(+) and Cl(-) uptake, respectively. When the California population of C. quinquefasciatus was reared in a medium similar to that of the Amazonian group (60 micromol L(-1) NaCl) instead of 4,000 micromol L(-1) NaCl, larvae increased both Na(+) uptake capacity (J(max)) and affinity (i.e., reduced K(m)), yet Cl(-) uptake did not change from its nonsaturating, low-capacity pattern. In the reverse experiment, Amazonian C. quinquefasciatus demonstrated plasticity in both Na(+) and Cl(-) uptake by significantly reducing rates when held in 4,000 micromol L(-1) NaCl for 3 d.

Transduction of Aedes aegypti mosquitoes with vectors derived from Aedes densovirus

Aedes densovirus (AeDNV)-based constructs that express green fluorescent protein (GFP) from either the P7 or the P61 promoter were made. The construct in which GFP protein was expressed as a fusion protein to the C-terminus of NS1 (NS1-GFP) showed the highest level of GFP expression. This hybrid NS1-GFP protein preserved the biological functions of the parental proteins: it showed GFP fluorescence, it stimulated expression from the virus promoters, and it facilitated rescue and replication of the cloned AeDNV genome. Similar to NS1, the hybrid NS1-GFP localized in the nucleus predominantly in a punctate pattern. Transducing virus particles carrying the NS1-GFP gene infected mosquito larvae. Expression of GFP was detected as early as 48 h postinfection and in larval and pupal stages. Midgut, hindgut, and Malpighian tubule cells expressed GFP soon after transduction. However, the anal papillae were the most commonly infected organ system. The anal papillae are syncytia and regulate ion concentration in the hemolymph of mosquito larvae, and they might be a novel route of mosquito larvae infection with densoviruses.

The structure of the antennal heart ofAedes aegypti(Linnaeus)

The structure of the antennal heart of Aedes aegypti (L.) (Diptera: Culicidae) was observed using light and electron microscopy. The antennal heart consists of several distinct regions including a single layer of columnar cells, the chamber walls, the valve, the z-body, the muscle fibres, and the connective tissue filaments. The columnar cells are structurally similar to secretory and osmoregulatory cells. Features of tendinous epidermal cells typically involved in the attachment of muscles to the cuticle can be observed in various areas of the antennal heart when it is examined as a whole. A model describing the pumping mechanism of the antennal heart in A. aegypti is presented.

Ultrastructure of osmoregulatory organs in larvae of the brackish-water mosquito, Culiseta inornata (Williston)

The ultrastructure of the Malpighian tubules, ileum, rectum, anal canal, and anal papillae of larvae of the mosquito Culiseta inornata was examined. The Malpighian tubules, rectum, and anal papillae have many of the ultrastructural features characteristic of ion transport tissues, i.e., elaboration of the basal and apical membranes and a close association of these membranes with mitochondria. The Malpighian tubules possess two cell types, primary and stellate. The larval rectum of C. inornata is composed of a single segment containing a homogenous population of cells. In this respect, the larval rectum of C. inornata is distinct from that of saline-water species of Aedes. The cells in the larval rectum of C. inornata, however, closely resemble those of one cell type, the anterior rectal cells, of the saline-water mosquito Aedes campestris with regard to cell and nuclear size, the percentage of the cell occupied by apical folds, and mitochondrial density and distribution. No similarities can be found between the rectum of C. inornata and the posterior segment of the saline-water Aedes, which functions as a salt gland. On this basis, we have postulated that the rectum of C. inornata does not function as a site of hyperosmotic fluid secretion. The ultrastructure of the anal papillae of C. inornata is consistent with a role in ion transport. The significance of these findings to comparative aspects of osmoregulatory strategies in mosquito larvae is discussed.

An osmoregulatory syncytium and associated cells in a freshwater mosquito

In embryological terms the anal papillae are the product of eversion of the hindgut tissues. The rectum and the anal papillae have the same origin and have a marked structural similarity. The insect hindgut is very labile being able to produce salt transporting or 'chloride cells' from any of the tissues of which it is composed. The hindgut consists of four distinct regions: the ileum and part of the anal canal have a mechanical function, the rectum and the posterior anal canal contain transporting cells. Two new types, 'interstitial' and 'tertiary' are reported in the rectum. The structure of the anal papillae changes with increased salinity. Changes in the plasma membranes alter the surface area for transport. Changes in the number of mitochondria are not accompanied by changes in oxygen consumption. If mitochondria are the site of oxidative metabolism then their number does not control the level of oxygen consumption. In Aedes aegypti the papillary epithelium appears to be a syncytium. Across the lumen of the papillae there are cellular sheets supporting the tracheoles. At the base of the papillae there is a cellular transition zone; circular muscles in this region may be used to occlude the papillae. The control of salt transport may be hormonal.

A morphological study on gills of a crab acclimated to fresh water

The gills of the fully euryhaline Chinese crab Eriocheir sinensis were studied by light and electron microscopy. In these Phyllobranchiates, the gills consist of a double row of lamellae extending laterally from a central shaft. Haemolymph flow pattern inside the gill is described and the existence of a complex secondary vascularization inside the platelets is reported. It is shown that important differences exist between the ultrastructure of the three anterior and the three posterior pairs of large gills. The epithelium of the posterior gills is much thicker and possesses an extensive elaboration of the plasma membranes in the form of infoldings, crypts and interdigitations, along which are packed numerous mitochondria. The presence of such a complex membrane system opening to the extracellular space and closely associated with mitochondria is common to all salt-transporting tissues. This study corroborates the idea that the posterior pairs of gills of Eriocheir sinensis are the only ones implicated in active Na+ uptake when the crab lives in dilute aquatic environment. The epithelium of anterior gills is much thinner and the cells poor in intracellular organelles. It seems to be involved essentially in respiration. Thus this work clearly corroborates the existence already suggested by physiological approach of a functional difference between the different pairs of E. sinensis branchiae with respect to their participation in the respiration and in the regulation of the blood ions content. Common to both types of gills is the presence of a lamellar septum separating the haemolymph space into two compartments. The part played by that structure in determining the pattern of haemolymph flow, together with periodic bridges forming pillars across the haemolymph space, is emphasized.

A structural study of the anal papillae of the midge Chironomus riparius Meigen (Diptera: Chironomidae)

Larvae of the midge, Chironomus riparius Mg., have four anal papillae arranged as two pairs, one dorsal to and the other ventral to the anus. Structural study with light and electron microscopes has revealed that their integument consists of a thin cuticle overlaying a thick, syncytial epidermis which is specialised to facilitate ion transport. There is a distinct neck or collar region at the junction of each papilla with the rest of the body wall. Although in many respects these structures resemble those in mosquitoes, there are both morphological and physiological features which suggest that differences exist in the means by which ion exchange with the environment is controlled and effected in the two families.

Fine structure of the rectum in cockroaches (Dictyoptera): general organization and intercellular junctions

The organization of the rectal pads is described in cockroaches belonging to the Groups Blattoidea (Periplaneta americana, Blatta orientalis) and Blaberoidea (Supella supellectillu, Blaberus craniifer). In the Blattoidea, each pad is composed of two layers (principal and basal cells) and is surrounded by very narrow junctional cells supporting the sclerotized cuticle of the pad frame; basally, the junctional cells abut on to the basal cells. In the Blaberoidea, the basal cell layer is discontinuous, the basal cells being interspersed between extensions of the junctional cells beneath the pad. The ultrastructural features of each cell type is described, with special reference to the intercellular junctions, which exhibit unusual complexity. Four types of junction are recognized: desmosomes (belt and spot desmosomes), gap junctions, septate junctions and scalariform (ladder-like) junctions. The last are usually closely associated with mitochondria, forming mitochondrial-scalariform junction complexes (MS). The distribution of these junctions is examined in relation to the partitioning of extracellular spaces, and to the problem of fluid transport.

Electron microscopic study on gut epithelium of the tench (Tinca tinca L.) with respect to its absorptive functions

Few morphological differences are seen along the intestinal tract of the adult tench (Tinca tinca L.) a stomachless freshwater teleost. However, three segments can be distinguished, when function and structure of enterocytes are studied. The enterocytes of the proximal segment are found to be concerned with dietary lipids absorption. In the cell, absorbed fats are seen in two inclusion bodies: lipid particles and lipid droplets. Only lipid particles are involved in direct transport of absorbed fatty acids in the blood circulation, as in lymphatic vessels. Lipid droplets seem to be involved in temporary storage of fatty acids. Special features are found in enterocytes of the short middle segment; these cells show many invaginations and pinocytosis figures, a well-developed tubulo-vesicular network and large vacuoles in the supranuclear hyaloplasm. Such characters bear a resemblance to descriptions of the gut of some newborn mammals. The great permeability of this epithelium to macromolecules is demonstrated by the administration of horseradish peroxidase (HRP). Enterocytes of the distal segment show, at their basal pole, numerous invaginations of the plasma membrane, and a large mitochondrial population. Morphological similarity suggests a functional analogy with epithelia involved in water and ions transport.

The renal chloride cell of the fresh-water catfish, Parasilurus asotus, with special reference to the tubular membrane system

The kidney of the fresh-water catfish, Parasilurus asotus, was examined by electron microscopy. A special type of cell, very similar in appearance to the chloride cell of the teleostean gill filaments, is found in the kidney and is referred to as a renal chloride cell. This cell is characterized by an extensive tubular membrane system with a rather constant diameter of approximately 600 A. A number of mitochondria are closely associated with this system. Application of ruthenium red as an extra-cellular space marker revealed that the tubular system is a highly organized derivative of the cell membrane, infolded from the basal and lateral surfaces of the cell. The fine structural resemblance to other types of cells known to possess active transport of electrolytes suggests that these cells are involved in intrarenal osmoregulation.

Fine structure of the gastric epithelium of the ascidian Botryllus schlosseri. Mucous, endocrine and plicated cells

The following five cell types have been recognized and defined on the basis of their fine structure in the gastric epithelium of B. schlosseri: vacuolated and zymogenic cells (described in a previous paper); ciliated mucous, endocrine and plicated cells. The ciliated mucous cells are distributed at the apex and the bottom of the gastric folds and along the dorsal groove. The mucus droplets appear to form from the Golgi complex as secretory granules of variable density and texture, which are released from the cell after fusion of their membranes with the apical plasma membrane. Holocrine or apocrine secretion has not been observed. The endocrine cells are scattered and are characterized by electron dense granules, especially numerous in the basal region of the cell. Finally, the plicated cells, present in the pyloric caecum, show rod-like microvilli, a well developed Golgi complex and abundant, deep infoldings of the basal plasma membrane, which are associated with numerous mitochondria. The possible role of the gastric cell types is discussed taking into account information concerning morphologically similar cells in other animals, as well as previously reported data on the biochemistry and physiology of digestion and excretion in ascidians.