Effects of non-euphoric plant cannabinoids on muscle quality and performance of dystrophic mdx mice

Cannabidiol protects C2C12 myotubes against cisplatin-induced atrophy by regulating oxidative stress

Cancer and chemotherapy induce a severe loss of muscle mass (known as cachexia), which negatively impact cancer treatment and patient survival. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether cannabidiol (CBD) administration may potentially antagonize the effects of cisplatin in inducing muscle atrophy, using a model of myotubes in culture. Cisplatin treatment resulted in a reduction of myotube diameter (15.7 ± 0.3 vs. 22.2 ± 0.5 µm, P < 0.01) that was restored to control level with 5 µM CBD (20.1 ± 0.4 µM, P < 0.01). Protein homeostasis was severely altered with a ≈70% reduction in protein synthesis (P < 0.01) and a twofold increase in proteolysis (P < 0.05) in response to cisplatin. Both parameters were dose dependently restored by CBD cotreatment. Cisplatin treatment was associated with increased thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) content (0.21 ± 0.03 to 0.48 ± 0.03 nmol/mg prot, P < 0.05), catalase activity (0.24 ± 0.01 vs. 0.13 ± 0.02 nmol/min/µg prot, P < 0.01), whereas CBD cotreatment normalized TBARS content to control values (0.22 ± 0.01 nmol/mg prot, P < 0.01) and reduced catalase activity (0.17 ± 0.01 nmol/min/µg prot, P < 0.05). These changes were associated with increased mRNA expression of GPX1, SOD1, SOD2, and CAT mRNA expression in response to cisplatin (P < 0.01), which was corrected by CBD cotreatment (P < 0.05). Finally, cisplatin treatment increased the mitochondrial protein content of NDUFB8, UQCRC2, COX4, and VDAC1 (involved in mitochondrial respiration and apoptosis), and CBD cotreatment restored their expression to control values. Altogether, our results demonstrated that CBD antagonize the cisplatin-induced C2C12 myotube atrophy and could be used as an adjuvant in the treatment of cancer cachexia to help maintain muscle mass and improve patient quality of life.NEW & NOTEWORTHY In an in vitro model, cisplatin treatment led to myotube atrophy associated with dysregulation of protein homeostasis and increased oxidative stress, resulting in increased apoptosis. Cotreatment with cannabidiol was able to prevent this phenotype by promoting protein homeostasis and reducing oxidative stress.

Cannabinoids, Endocannabinoids, and Synthetic Cannabimimetic Molecules in Neuromuscular Disorders

Neuromuscular disorders (NMDs) encompass a large heterogeneous group of hereditary and acquired diseases primarily affecting motor neurons, peripheral nerves, and the skeletal muscle system. The symptoms of NMDs may vary depending on the specific condition, but some of the most common ones include muscle weakness, pain, paresthesias, and hyporeflexia, as well as difficulties with swallowing and breathing. NMDs are currently untreatable. Therapeutic options include symptomatic and experimental medications aimed at delaying and alleviating symptoms, in some cases supplemented by surgical and physical interventions. To address this unmet medical need, ongoing research is being conducted on new treatments, including studies on medical cannabis, endocannabinoids, and related molecules with cannabimimetic properties. In this context, a significant amount of knowledge about the safety and effectiveness of cannabinoids in NMDs has been obtained from studies involving patients with multiple sclerosis experiencing pain and spasticity. In recent decades, numerous other preclinical and clinical studies have been conducted to determine the potential benefits of cannabinoids in NMDs. This review article aims to summarize and provide an unbiased point of view on the current knowledge about the use of cannabinoids, endocannabinoids, and synthetic analogs in NMDs, drawing from an array of compelling studies.

TRPA1: A promising target for pulmonary fibrosis?

Pulmonary fibrosis is a disease characterized by progressive scar formation and the ultimate manifestation of numerous lung diseases. It is known as "cancer that is not cancer" and has attracted widespread attention. However, its formation process is very complex, and the mechanism of occurrence has not been fully elucidated. Current research has found that TRPA1 may be a promising target in the pathogenesis of pulmonary fibrosis. The TRPA1 channel was first successfully isolated in human lung fibroblasts, and it was found to have a relatively concentrated distribution in the lungs and respiratory tract. It is also involved in various acute and chronic inflammatory processes of lung diseases and may even play a core role in the progression and/or prevention of pulmonary fibrosis. Natural ligands targeting TRPA1 could offer a promising alternative treatment for pulmonary diseases. Therefore, this review delves into the current understanding of pulmonary fibrogenesis, analyzes TRPA1 biological properties and regulation of lung disease with a focus on pulmonary fibrosis, summarizes the TRPA1 molecular structure and its biological function, and summarizes TRPA1 natural ligand sources, anti-pulmonary fibrosis activity and potential mechanisms. The aim is to decipher the exact role of TRPA1 channels in the pathophysiology of pulmonary fibrosis and to consider their potential in the development of new therapeutic strategies.

Dysfunctional endocannabinoid CB1 receptor expression and signaling contribute to skeletal muscle cell toxicity induced by simvastatin

Statins are the most prescribed lipid-lowering agents worldwide. Their use is generally safe, although muscular toxicity occurs in about 1 in 10.000 patients. In this study, we explored the role of the endocannabinoid system (ECS) during muscle toxicity induced by simvastatin. In murine C2C12 myoblasts exposed to simvastatin, levels of the endocannabinoids AEA and 2-AG as well the expression of specific miRNAs (in particular miR-152) targeting the endocannabinoid CB1 gene were increased in a time-dependent manner. Rimonabant, a selective CB1 antagonist, exacerbated simvastatin-induced toxicity in myoblasts, while only a weak opposite effect was observed with ACEA and GAT211, selective orthosteric and allosteric agonists of CB1 receptor, respectively. In antagomiR152-transfected myoblasts, simvastatin toxicity was in part prevented together with the functional rescue of CB1. Further analyses revealed that simvastatin in C2C12 cells also suppresses PKC and ERK signaling pathways, which are instead activated downstream of CB1 receptor stimulation, thus adding more insight into the mechanism causing CB1 functional inactivation. Importantly, simvastatin induced similar alterations in skeletal muscles of C57BL/6 J mice and primary human myoblasts. In sum, we identified the dysregulated expression of the endocannabinoid CB1 receptor as well as the impairment of its downstream signaling pathways as a novel pathological mechanism involved in statin-induced myopathy.

Cannabis Pharmacogenomics: A Path to Personalized Medicine

Cannabis and related compounds have created significant research interest as a promising therapy in many disorders. However, the individual therapeutic effects of cannabinoids and the incidence of side effects are still difficult to determine. Pharmacogenomics may provide the answers to many questions and concerns regarding the cannabis/cannabinoid treatment and help us to understand the variability in individual responses and associated risks. Pharmacogenomics research has made meaningful progress in identifying genetic variations that play a critical role in interpatient variability in response to cannabis. This review classifies the current knowledge of pharmacogenomics associated with medical marijuana and related compounds and can assist in improving the outcomes of cannabinoid therapy and to minimize the adverse effects of cannabis use. Specific examples of pharmacogenomics informing pharmacotherapy as a path to personalized medicine are discussed.

Cannabidiol improves muscular lipid profile by affecting the expression of fatty acid transporters and inhibiting de novo lipogenesis

Obesity is one of the principal public health concerns leading to disturbances in glucose and lipid metabolism, which is a risk factor for several chronic diseases, including insulin resistance, type 2 diabetes mellitus, and cardiovascular diseases. In recent years, it turned out that cannabidiol (CBD) is a potential therapeutic agent in the treatment of obesity and its complications. Therefore, in the present study, we used CBD therapy (intraperitoneal injections in a dose of 10 mg/kg of body mass for 14 days) in a rat model of obesity induced by a high-fat diet (HFD). Gas-liquid chromatography and Western blotting were applied in order to determine the intramuscular lipid content and total expression of selected proteins in the white and red gastrocnemius muscle, respectively. Based on fatty acid composition, we calculated de novo lipogenesis ratio (16:0/18:2n-6), desaturation ratio (18:1n-9/18:0), and elongation ratios (18:0/16:0, 20:0/18:0, 22:0/20:0 and 24:0/22:0), in the selected lipid fractions. Two-week CBD administration significantly reduced the intramuscular fatty acids (FAs) accumulation and inhibited de novo lipogenesis in different lipid pools (in the free fatty acid, diacylglycerol, and triacylglycerol fractions) in both muscle types, which coincided with a decrease in the expression of membrane fatty acid transporters (fatty acid translocase, membrane-associated fatty acid binding protein, and fatty acid transport proteins 1 and 4). Moreover, CBD application profoundly improved the elongation and desaturation ratios, which was in line with downregulated expression of enzymes from the family of elongases and desaturases regardless of the metabolism presented by the muscle type. To our knowledge, this study is the first that outlines the novel effects of CBD action on skeletal muscle with different types of metabolism (oxidative vs. glycolytic).

Cannabidiol: Bridge between Antioxidant Effect, Cellular Protection, and Cognitive and Physical Performance

The literature provides scientific evidence for the beneficial effects of cannabidiol (CBD), and these effects extend beyond epilepsy treatment (e.g., Lennox-Gastaut and Dravet syndromes), notably the influence on oxidative status, neurodegeneration, cellular protection, cognitive function, and physical performance. However, products containing CBD are not allowed to be marketed everywhere in the world, which may ultimately have a negative effect on health as a result of the uncontrolled CBD market. After the isolation of CBD follows the discovery of CB1 and CB2 receptors and the main enzymatic components (diacylglycerol lipase (DAG lipase), monoacyl glycerol lipase (MAGL), fatty acid amino hydrolase (FAAH)). At the same time, the antioxidant potential of CBD is due not only to the molecular structure but also to the fact that this compound increases the expression of the main endogenous antioxidant systems, superoxide dismutase (SOD), and glutathione peroxidase (GPx), through the nuclear complex erythroid 2-related factor (Nrf2)/Keep1. Regarding the role in the control of inflammation, this function is exercised by inhibiting (nuclear factor kappa B) NF-κB, and also the genes that encode the expression of molecules with a pro-inflammatory role (cytokines and metalloproteinases). The other effects of CBD on cognitive function and physical performance should not be excluded. In conclusion, the CBD market needs to be regulated more thoroughly, given the previously listed properties, with the mention that the safety profile is a very good one.

Molecular Mechanisms Through Which Cannabidiol May Affect Skeletal Muscle Metabolism, Inflammation, Tissue Regeneration, and Anabolism: A Narrative Review

Background: Cannabidiol (CBD), a nonintoxicating constituent of the cannabis plant, recently gained a lot of interest among athletes, since it is no longer considered as a prohibited substance by the World Anti-Doping Agency. The increasing prevalence of CBD use among athletes is driven by a perceived improvement in muscle recovery and a reduction in pain. However, compelling evidence from intervention studies is lacking and the precise mechanisms through which CBD may improve muscle recovery remain unknown. This highlights the need for more scientific studies and an evidence-based background. In the current review, the state-of-the-art knowledge on the effects of CBD on skeletal muscle tissue is summarized with special emphasis on the underlying mechanisms and molecular targets. More specifically, the large variety of receptor families that are believed to be involved in CBD's physiological effects are discussed. Furthermore, in vivo and in vitro studies that investigated the actual effects of CBD on skeletal muscle metabolism, inflammation, tissue regeneration, and anabolism are summarized, together with the functional effects of CBD supplementation on muscle recovery in human intervention trials. Overall, CBD was effective to increase the expression of metabolic regulators in muscle of obese mice (e.g., Akt, glycogen synthase kinase-3). CBD treatment in rodents reduced muscle inflammation following eccentric exercise (i.e., nuclear factor kappa B [NF-κB]), in a model of muscle dystrophy (e.g., interleukin-6, tumor necrosis factor alpha) and of obesity (e.g., COX-2, NF-κB). In addition, CBD did not affect in vitro or in vivo muscle anabolism, but improved satellite cell differentiation in dystrophic muscle. In humans, there are some indications that CBD supplementation improved muscle recovery (e.g., creatine kinase) and performance (e.g., squat performance). However, CBD doses were highly variable (between 16.7 and 150 mg) and there are some methodological concerns that should be considered. Conclusion: CBD has the prospective to become an adequate supplement that may improve muscle recovery. However, this research domain is still in its infancy and future studies addressing the molecular and functional effects of CBD in response to exercise are required to further elucidate the ergogenic potential of CBD.

Non-psychotropic phytocannabinoid interactions with voltage-gated sodium channels: An update on cannabidiol and cannabigerol

Phytocannabinoids, found in the plant, Cannabis sativa, are an important class of natural compounds with physiological effects. These compounds can be generally divided into two classes: psychoactive and non-psychoactive. Those which do not impart psychoactivity are assumed to predominantly function via endocannabinoid receptor (CB) -independent pathways and molecular targets, including other receptors and ion channels. Among these targets, the voltage-gated sodium (Nav) channels are particularly interesting due to their well-established role in electrical signalling in the nervous system. The interactions between the main non-psychoactive phytocannabinoid, cannabidiol (CBD), and Nav channels were studied in detail. In addition to CBD, cannabigerol (CBG), is another non-psychoactive molecule implicated as a potential therapeutic for several conditions, including pain via interactions with Nav channels. In this mini review, we provide an update on the interactions of Nav channels with CBD and CBG.

Minor Phytocannabinoids: A Misleading Name but a Promising Opportunity for Biomedical Research

Despite the very large number of phytocannabinoids isolated from Cannabis (Cannabis sativa L.), bioactivity studies have long remained focused on the so called “Big Four” [Δ⁹-THC (1), CBD (2), CBG (3) and CBC (4)] because of their earlier characterization and relatively easy availability via isolation and/or synthesis. Bioactivity information on the chemical space associated with the remaining part of the cannabinome, a set of ca 150 compounds traditionally referred to as “minor phytocannabinoids”, is scarce and patchy, yet promising in terms of pharmacological potential. According to their advancement stage, we sorted the bioactivity data available on these compounds, better referred to as the “dark cannabinome”, into categories: discovery (in vitro phenotypical and biochemical assays), preclinical (animal models), and clinical. Strategies to overcome the availability issues associated with minor phytocannabinoids are discussed, as well as the still unmet challenges facing their development as mainstream drugs.

Cannabidiol increases gramicidin current in human embryonic kidney cells: An observational study

Gramicidin is a monomeric protein that is thought to non-selectively conduct cationic currents and water. Linear gramicidin is considered an antibiotic. This function is considered to be mediated by the formation of pores within the lipid membrane, thereby killing bacterial cells. The main non-psychoactive active constituent of the cannabis plant, cannabidiol (CBD), has recently gained interest, and is proposed to possess various potential therapeutic properties, including being an antibiotic. We previously determined that CBD’s activity on ion channels could be, in part, mediated by altering membrane biophysical properties, including elasticity. In this study, our goal was to determine the empirical effects of CBD on gramicidin currents in human embryonic kidney (HEK) cells, seeking to infer potential direct compound-protein interactions. Our results indicate that gramicidin, when applied to the extracellular HEK cell membrane, followed by CBD perfusion, increases the gramicidin current.

Molecular networks underlying cannabinoid signaling in skeletal muscle plasticity

The cannabinoid system is ubiquitously present and is classically considered to engage in neural and immunity processes. Yet, the role of the cannabinoid system in the whole body and tissue metabolism via central and peripheral mechanisms is increasingly recognized. The present review provides insights in (i) how cannabinoid signaling is regulated via receptor-independent and -dependent mechanisms and (ii) how these signaling cascades (might) affect skeletal muscle plasticity and physiology. Receptor-independent mechanisms include endocannabinoid metabolism to eicosanoids and the regulation of ion channels. Alternatively, endocannabinoids can act as ligands for different classic (cannabinoid receptor 1 [CB₁ ], CB₂ ) and/or alternative (e.g., TRPV1, GPR55) cannabinoid receptors with a unique affinity, specificity, and intracellular signaling cascade (often tissue-specific). Antagonism of CB₁ might hold clues to improve oxidative (mitochondrial) metabolism, insulin sensitivity, satellite cell growth, and muscle anabolism, whereas CB₂ agonism might be a promising way to stimulate muscle metabolism and muscle cell growth. Besides, CB₂ ameliorates muscle regeneration via macrophage polarization toward an anti-inflammatory phenotype, induction of MyoD and myogenin expression and antifibrotic mechanisms. Also TRPV1 and GPR55 contribute to the regulation of muscle growth and metabolism. Future studies should reveal how the cannabinoid system can be targeted to improve muscle quantity and/or quality in conditions such as ageing, disease, disuse, and metabolic dysregulation, taking into account challenges that are inherent to modulation of the cannabinoid system, such as central and peripheral side effects.

Minor Cannabinoids: Biosynthesis, Molecular Pharmacology and Potential Therapeutic Uses

The medicinal use of Cannabis sativa L. can be traced back thousands of years to ancient China and Egypt. While marijuana has recently shown promise in managing chronic pain and nausea, scientific investigation of cannabis has been restricted due its classification as a schedule 1 controlled substance. A major breakthrough in understanding the pharmacology of cannabis came with the isolation and characterization of the phytocannabinoids trans-Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ⁹-THC) and cannabidiol (CBD). This was followed by the cloning of the cannabinoid CB1 and CB2 receptors in the 1990s and the subsequent discovery of the endocannabinoid system. In addition to the major phytocannabinoids, Δ⁹-THC and CBD, cannabis produces over 120 other cannabinoids that are referred to as minor and/or rare cannabinoids. These cannabinoids are produced in smaller amounts in the plant and are derived along with Δ⁹-THC and CBD from the parent cannabinoid cannabigerolic acid (CBGA). While our current knowledge of minor cannabinoid pharmacology is incomplete, studies demonstrate that they act as agonists and antagonists at multiple targets including CB1 and CB2 receptors, transient receptor potential (TRP) channels, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs), serotonin 5-HT_1a receptors and others. The resulting activation of multiple cell signaling pathways, combined with their putative synergistic activity, provides a mechanistic basis for their therapeutic actions. Initial clinical reports suggest that these cannabinoids may have potential benefits in the treatment of neuropathic pain, neurodegenerative diseases, epilepsy, cancer and skin disorders. This review focuses on the molecular pharmacology of the minor cannabinoids and highlights some important therapeutic uses of the compounds.

Wonder or evil?: Multifaceted health hazards and health benefits of Cannabis sativa and its phytochemicals

Cannabis sativa, widely known as 'Marijuana' poses a dilemma for being a blend of both good and bad medicinal effects. The historical use of Cannabis for both medicinal and recreational purposes suggests it to be a friendly plant. However, whether the misuse of Cannabis and the cannabinoids derived from it can hamper normal body physiology is a focus of ongoing research. On the one hand, there is enough evidence to suggest that misuse of marijuana can cause deleterious effects on various organs like the lungs, immune system, cardiovascular system, etc. and also influence fertility and cause teratogenic effects. However, on the other hand, marijuana has been found to offer a magical cure for anorexia, chronic pain, muscle spasticity, nausea, and disturbed sleep. Indeed, most recently, the United Nations has given its verdict in favour of Cannabis declaring it as a non-dangerous narcotic. This review provides insights into the various health effects of Cannabis and its specialized metabolites and indicates how wise steps can be taken to promote good use and prevent misuse of the metabolites derived from this plant.

Cannabidiol Does Not Impact Acute Anabolic or Inflammatory Signaling in Skeletal Muscle In Vitro

Background: Cannabidiol (CBD) is becoming increasingly popular for the treatment of clinical conditions including as an aid for muscle recovery. Previous work demonstrated that CBD exhibited mild effects on skeletal muscle, with a tendency to increase anabolic signaling and decrease inflammatory signaling. Methods: To gain mechanistic insight and extend these findings, we conducted a set of experiments using C2C12 myotubes. Results: Increasing the dose of CBD (1-5 μM) provided with insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) showed no effect on anabolic signaling through mTORC1 (S6K1 [Thr389], p=0.27; rpS6 [Ser240/244], p=0.81; or 4E-BP1 [Thr37/46], p=0.87). Similarly, inflammatory signaling through nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) (p105, p=0.88; p50, p=0.93; or phosphorylated p65 [Ser536], p=0.84) in response to tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα) was unaffected by CBD (2.5 μM), whereas dioscin, a natural product that blocks NF-κB signaling, reduced p105 and phosphorylated p65 (Ser536) compared with the TNFα and the TNFα + CBD condition (p<0.01 and p<0.05, respectively). Finally, cannabinoid receptor type 1 (CB1) receptor levels were measured in C2C12 cells, murine skeletal muscle, cortex, and hippocampus. Although CB1 was not detectable in muscle cells or muscle tissue, high levels were observed in brain tissue. Conclusion: In conclusion, CBD does not directly modulate anabolic or inflammatory signaling in myotubes in vitro, which can likely be explained by the lack of functional receptors.

Duchenne's muscular dystrophy involves a defective transsulfuration pathway activity

Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is the most frequent X chromosome-linked disease caused by mutations in the gene encoding for dystrophin, leading to progressive and unstoppable degeneration of skeletal muscle tissues. Despite recent advances in the understanding of the molecular processes involved in the pathogenesis of DMD, there is still no cure. In this study, we aim at investigating the potential involvement of the transsulfuration pathway (TSP), and its by-end product namely hydrogen sulfide (H2S), in primary human myoblasts isolated from DMD donors and skeletal muscles of dystrophic (mdx) mice. In myoblasts of DMD donors, we demonstrate that the expression of key genes regulating the H2S production and TSP activity, including cystathionine γ lyase (CSE), cystathionine beta-synthase (CBS), 3 mercaptopyruvate sulfurtransferase (3-MST), cysteine dioxygenase (CDO), cysteine sulfonic acid decarboxylase (CSAD), glutathione synthase (GS) and γ -glutamylcysteine synthetase (γ-GCS) is reduced. Starting from these findings, using Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) and quantitative Polymerase Chain Reaction (qPCR) we show that the levels of TSP-related metabolites such as methionine, glycine, glutathione, glutamate and taurine, as well as the expression levels of the aforementioned TSP related genes, are significantly reduced in skeletal muscles of mdx mice compared to healthy controls, at both an early (7 weeks) and overt (17 weeks) stage of the disease. Importantly, the treatment with sodium hydrosulfide (NaHS), a commonly used H2S donor, fully recovers the impaired locomotor activity in both 7 and 17 old mdx mice. This is an effect attributable to the reduced expression of pro-inflammatory markers and restoration of autophagy in skeletal muscle tissues. In conclusion, our study uncovers a defective TSP pathway activity in DMD and highlights the role of H2S-donors for novel and safe adjuvant therapy to treat symptoms of DMD.

Identification and Characterization of Cannabidiol as an OX1R Antagonist by Computational and In Vitro Functional Validation

The potential, multifaceted therapeutic profile of cannabidiol (CBD), a major constituent derived from the Cannabis sativa plant, covers a wide range of neurological and psychiatric disorders, ranging from anxiety to pediatric epilepsy and drug addiction. However, the molecular targets responsible for these effects have been only partially identified. In this view, the involvement of the orexin system, the key regulator in arousal and the sleep/wake cycle, and in motivation and reward processes, including drug addiction, prompted us to explore, using computational and experimental approaches, the possibility that CBD could act as a ligand of orexin receptors, orexin 1 receptor of type 1 (OX1R) and type 2 (OX2R). Ligand-binding assays showed that CBD is a selective ligand of OX1R in the low micromolar range (Ki 1.58 ± 0.2 μM) while in vitro functional assays, carried out by intracellular calcium imaging and mobilization assays, showed that CBD acts as an antagonist at this receptor. Finally, the putative binding mode of CBD has been inferred by molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulations and its selectivity toward the OX1R subtype rationalized at the molecular level. This study provides the first evidence that CBD acts as an OX1R antagonist, supporting its potential use in addictive disorders and/or body weight regulation.

The Effects of Cannabidiol Oil on Noninvasive Measures of Muscle Damage in Men

PURPOSE

This study aimed to investigate the effect of CBD oil on perceived muscle soreness, inflammation, and strength performance after eccentric exercise (ECC) of the elbow flexors.

METHODS

Thirteen untrained men (mean ± SD age, 21.85 ± 2.73 yr) performed 6 sets of 10 maximal ECC isokinetic muscle actions of the elbow flexors as part of a double-blind crossover design. Noninvasive (perceived soreness, arm circumference, hanging joint angle (JA), and peak torque (PT)) measures were taken before and after ECC, and 24, 48, and 72 h after ECC. All subjects completed both the supplement (CBD: 150 mg POST, 24 h, 48 h) and placebo (PLC: POST, 24 h, 48 h) condition separated by 2 wk. Four separate two-way repeated-measures ANOVA (condition [CBD vs PLC] × time [PRE vs POST vs 24 h vs 48 h vs 72 h]) were used to analyze perceived soreness, arm circumference, JA, and PT. One-way repeated-measures ANOVA were used to decompose significant interactions and main effects.

RESULTS

There was no condition-time interaction or main effect of condition (P > 0.05) for perceived soreness, arm circumference, JA, or PT. There were main effects for time for perceived soreness (P = 0.000, ηp2 = 0.71) and JA (P = 0.006, ηp2 = 0.35).

CONCLUSIONS

The current dose of 150 mg CBD oil at POST, 24 h, and 48 h had no effect on noninvasive markers of muscle damage in the upper extremity. At the current dose and schedule, CBD oil may not be beneficial for untrained men as a recovery aid after exercise-induced muscle damage.

Cannabinoids in Neurology - Position paper from Scientific Departments from Brazilian Academy of Neurology

Cannabinoids comprehend endocannabinoids, phytocannabinoids, and synthetic cannabinoids, with actions both in the central and peripherical nervous systems. A considerable amount of publications have been made in recent years, although cannabis has been known for over a thousand years. Scientific Departments from the Brazilian Academy of Neurology described evidence for medical use in their areas. Literature is constantly changing, and possible new evidence can emerge in the next days or months. Prescription of these substances must be discussed with patients and their families, with knowledge about adverse events and their efficacy.

Cannabidiol and Sodium Channel Pharmacology: General Overview, Mechanism, and Clinical Implications

Voltage-gated sodium (Nav) channels initiate action potentials in excitable tissues. Altering these channels' function can lead to many pathophysiological conditions. Nav channels are composed of several functional and structural domains that could be targeted pharmacologically as potential therapeutic means against various neurological conditions. Mutations in Nav channels have been suggested to underlie various clinical syndromes in different tissues and in association with conditions ranging from epileptic to muscular problems. Treating those mutations that increase the excitability of Nav channels requires inhibitors that could effectively reduce channel firing. The main non-psychotropic constituent of the cannabis plant, cannabidiol (CBD), has recently gained interest as a viable compound to treat some of the conditions that are associated with Nav malfunctions. In this review, we discuss an overview of Nav channels followed by an in-depth description of the interactions of CBD and Nav channels. We conclude with some clinical implications of CBD use against Nav hyperexcitability based on a series of preclinical studies published to date, with a focus on Nav/CBD interactions.

Attenuation of Oxidative Stress and Inflammatory Response by Chronic Cannabidiol Administration Is Associated with Improved n-6/n-3 PUFA Ratio in the White and Red Skeletal Muscle in a Rat Model of High-Fat Diet-Induced Obesity

The consumption of fatty acids has increased drastically, exceeding the nutritional requirements of an individual and leading to numerous metabolic disorders. Recent data indicate a growing interest in using cannabidiol (CBD) as an agent with beneficial effects in the treatment of obesity. Therefore, our aim was to investigate the influence of chronic CBD administration on the n-6/n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) ratio in different lipid fractions, inflammatory pathway and oxidative stress parameters in the white and red gastrocnemius muscle. All the designed experiments were performed on Wistar rats fed a high-fat diet (HFD) or a standard rodent diet for seven weeks and subsequently injected with CBD (10 mg/kg once daily for two weeks) or its vehicle. Lipid content and oxidative stress parameters were assessed using gas-liquid chromatography (GLC), colorimetric and/or immunoenzymatic methods, respectively. The total expression of proteins of an inflammatory pathway was measured by Western blotting. Our results revealed that fatty acids (FAs) oversupply is associated with an increasing oxidative stress and inflammatory response, which results in an excessive accumulation of FAs, especially of n-6 PUFAs, in skeletal muscles. We showed that CBD significantly improved the n-6/n-3 PUFA ratio and shifted the equilibrium towards anti-inflammatory n-3 PUFAs, particularly in the red gastrocnemius muscle. Additionally, CBD prevented generation of lipid peroxidation products and attenuated inflammatory response in both types of skeletal muscle. In summary, the results mentioned above indicate that CBD presents potential therapeutic properties with respect to the treatment of obesity and related disturbances.

Therapeutic potential of cannabidivarin for epilepsy and autism spectrum disorder

Recent years have seen a renewed interest on the possible therapeutic exploitations of specific cannabinoids derived from the Cannabis sativa plant. Thus far, the most studied non-psychotomimetic cannabinoid is cannabidiol (CBD), which has shown promising therapeutic potential for relieving a variety of neurological diseases. However, also its propyl analogue, cannabidivarin (CBDV), has recently gained much attention as a potential therapeutic agent for the management of disabling neurological conditions. This review aims at providing a comprehensive and updated overview of the available animal and human data, which have investigated the possible therapeutic potential of CBDV for the management of epilepsy and autism spectrum disorder.

Cannabidiol inhibits the skeletal muscle Nav1.4 by blocking its pore and by altering membrane elasticity

Cannabidiol (CBD) is the primary nonpsychotropic phytocannabinoid found in Cannabis sativa, which has been proposed to be therapeutic against many conditions, including muscle spasms. Among its putative targets are voltage-gated sodium channels (Navs), which have been implicated in many conditions. We investigated the effects of CBD on Nav1.4, the skeletal muscle Nav subtype. We explored direct effects, involving physical block of the Nav pore, as well as indirect effects, involving modulation of membrane elasticity that contributes to Nav inhibition. MD simulations revealed CBD's localization inside the membrane and effects on bilayer properties. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) confirmed these results, showing CBD localizing below membrane headgroups. To determine the functional implications of these findings, we used a gramicidin-based fluorescence assay to show that CBD alters membrane elasticity or thickness, which could alter Nav function through bilayer-mediated regulation. Site-directed mutagenesis in the vicinity of the Nav1.4 pore revealed that removing the local anesthetic binding site with F1586A reduces the block of INa by CBD. Altering the fenestrations in the bilayer-spanning domain with Nav1.4-WWWW blocked CBD access from the membrane into the Nav1.4 pore (as judged by MD). The stabilization of inactivation, however, persisted in WWWW, which we ascribe to CBD-induced changes in membrane elasticity. To investigate the potential therapeutic value of CBD against Nav1.4 channelopathies, we used a pathogenic Nav1.4 variant, P1158S, which causes myotonia and periodic paralysis. CBD reduces excitability in both wild-type and the P1158S variant. Our in vitro and in silico results suggest that CBD may have therapeutic value against Nav1.4 hyperexcitability.

Cannabidiol Does Not Impair Anabolic Signaling Following Eccentric Contractions in Rats

Cannabidiol (CBD) has proven clinical benefits in the treatment of seizures, inflammation, and pain. The recent legalization of CBD in many countries has caused increased interest in the drug as an over-the-counter treatment for athletes looking to improve recovery. However, no data on the effects of CBD on the adaptive response to exercise in muscle are available. To address this gap, we eccentrically loaded the tibialis anterior muscle of 14 rats, injected them with a vehicle (n = 7) or 100 mg/kg CBD (n = 7), and measured markers of injury, inflammation, anabolic signaling, and autophagy 18 hr later. Pro-inflammatory signaling through nuclear factor kappa B (NF-kB) (Ser536) increased with loading in both groups; however, the effect was significantly greater (36%) in the vehicle group (p < .05). Simultaneously, anabolic signaling through ribosomal protein S6 kinase beta-1 (S6K1) (Thr389) increased after eccentric contractions in both groups with no difference between vehicle and CBD (p = .66). The ribosomal protein S6 phosphorylation (240/244) increased with stimulation (p < .001) and tended to be higher in the CBD group (p = .09). The ubiquitin-binding protein p62 levels were not modulated by stimulation (p = .6), but they were 46% greater in the CBD compared with the vehicle group (p = .01). Although liver weight did not differ between the groups (p = .99) and levels of proteins associated with stress were similar, we did observe serious side effects in one animal. In conclusion, an acute dose of CBD decreased pro-inflammatory signaling in the tibialis anterior without blunting the anabolic response to exercise in rats. Future research should determine whether these effects translate to improved recovery without altering adaptation in humans.

Cannabis sativa: Interdisciplinary Strategies and Avenues for Medical and Commercial Progression Outside of CBD and THC

Cannabis sativa (Cannabis) is one of the world’s most well-known, yet maligned plant species. However, significant recent research is starting to unveil the potential of Cannabis to produce secondary compounds that may offer a suite of medical benefits, elevating this unique plant species from its illicit narcotic status into a genuine biopharmaceutical. This review summarises the lengthy history of Cannabis and details the molecular pathways that underpin the production of key secondary metabolites that may confer medical efficacy. We also provide an up-to-date summary of the molecular targets and potential of the relatively unknown minor compounds offered by the Cannabis plant. Furthermore, we detail the recent advances in plant science, as well as synthetic biology, and the pharmacology surrounding Cannabis. Given the relative infancy of Cannabis research, we go on to highlight the parallels to previous research conducted in another medically relevant and versatile plant, Papaver somniferum (opium poppy), as an indicator of the possible future direction of Cannabis plant biology. Overall, this review highlights the future directions of cannabis research outside of the medical biology aspects of its well-characterised constituents and explores additional avenues for the potential improvement of the medical potential of the Cannabis plant.

Opportunities, Challenges and Pitfalls of Using Cannabidiol as an Adjuvant Drug in COVID-19

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection may lead to coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) which, in turn, may be associated with multiple organ dysfunction. In this review, we present advantages and disadvantages of cannabidiol (CBD), a non-intoxicating phytocannabinoid from the cannabis plant, as a potential agent for the treatment of COVID-19. CBD has been shown to downregulate proteins responsible for viral entry and to inhibit SARS-CoV-2 replication. Preclinical studies have demonstrated its effectiveness against diseases of the respiratory system as well as its cardioprotective, nephroprotective, hepatoprotective, neuroprotective and anti-convulsant properties, that is, effects that may be beneficial for COVID-19. Only the latter two properties have been demonstrated in clinical studies, which also revealed anxiolytic and antinociceptive effects of CBD (given alone or together with Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol), which may be important for an adjuvant treatment to improve the quality of life in patients with COVID-19 and to limit post-traumatic stress symptoms. However, one should be aware of side effects of CBD (which are rarely serious), drug interactions (also extending to drugs acting against COVID-19) and the proper route of its administration (vaping may be dangerous). Clearly, further clinical studies are necessary to prove the suitability of CBD for the treatment of COVID-19.

2-Pentadecyl-2-oxazoline ameliorates memory impairment and depression-like behaviour in neuropathic mice: possible role of adrenergic alpha2- and H3 histamine autoreceptors

Neuropathic pain (NP) remains an untreatable disease due to the complex pathophysiology that involves the whole pain neuraxis including the forebrain. Sensory dysfunctions such as allodynia and hyperalgesia are only part of the symptoms associated with neuropathic pain that extend to memory and affectivity deficits. The development of multi-target molecules might be a promising therapeutic strategy against the symptoms associated with NP. 2-pentadecyl-2-oxazoline (PEA-OXA) is a plant-derived agent, which has shown effectiveness against chronic pain and associated neuropsychiatric disorders. The molecular mechanisms by which PEA-OXA exerts its effects are, however, only partially known. In the current study, we show that PEA-OXA, besides being an alpha2 adrenergic receptor antagonist, also acts as a modulator at histamine H3 receptors, and report data on its effects on sensory, affective and cognitive symptoms associated with the spared nerve injury (SNI) model of neuropathic pain in mice. Treatment for 14 days with PEA-OXA after the onset of the symptoms associated with neuropathic pain resulted in the following effects: (i) allodynia was decreased; (ii) affective/cognitive impairment associated with SNI (depression, spatial, and working memories) was counteracted; (iii) long-term potentiation in vivo in the lateral entorhinal cortex-dentate gyrus (perforant pathway, LPP) was ameliorated, (iv) hippocampal glutamate, GABA, histamine, norepinephrine and dopamine level alterations after peripheral nerve injury were reversed, (v) expression level of the TH positive neurons in the Locus Coeruleus were normalized. Thus, a 16-day treatment with PEA-OXA alleviates the sensory, emotional, cognitive, electrophysiological and neurochemical alterations associated with SNI-induced neuropathic pain.

Phytocannabinoid Pharmacology: Medicinal Properties of Cannabis sativa Constituents Aside from the "Big Two"

Plant-based therapies date back centuries. Cannabis sativa is one such plant that was used medicinally up until the early part of the 20th century. Although rich in diverse and interesting phytochemicals, cannabis was largely ignored by the modern scientific community due to its designation as a schedule 1 narcotic and restrictions on access for research purposes. There was renewed interest in the early 1990s when the endocannabinoid system (ECS) was discovered, a complex network of signaling pathways responsible for physiological homeostasis. Two key components of the ECS, cannabinoid receptor 1 (CB1) and cannabinoid receptor 2 (CB2), were identified as the molecular targets of the phytocannabinoid Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ⁹-THC). Restrictions on access to cannabis have eased worldwide, leading to a resurgence in interest in the therapeutic potential of cannabis. Much of the focus has been on the two major constituents, Δ⁹-THC and cannabidiol (CBD). Cannabis contains over 140 phytocannabinoids, although only a handful have been tested for pharmacological activity. Many of these minor cannabinoids potently modulate receptors, ionotropic channels, and enzymes associated with the ECS and show therapeutic potential individually or synergistically with other phytocannabinoids. The following review will focus on the pharmacological developments of the next generation of phytocannabinoid therapeutics.

Cannabidiol: pharmacology and therapeutic targets

RATIONALE

Cannabidiol (CBD) products lacking regulatory approval are being used to self-treat a myriad of conditions and for their unsubstantiated health benefits. The scientific evidence supporting these claims largely arises not from controlled clinical trials, but from the recognition that CBD has numerous biological targets. Yet, CBD is commonly consumed and often in over-the-counter products that are unapproved and of unknown composition. Epidiolex® is the only product that has undergone rigorous pharmacokinetic assessment and testing in clinical trials; it was approved as a non-scheduled drug by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for the treatment of intractable childhood-onset seizures. However, studies investigating CBD for other medical conditions are limited in number and often lack the scientific rigor, controls, or sample sizes required to draw clinically meaningful conclusions. Although Epidiolex® is safe for human consumption, recent changes in regulation of commercially available CBD products have resulted in limited quality control and products marketed with unknown CBD bioavailability. Even scientifically rigorous studies have used different sources of CBD and different suspension vehicles for administration, making it difficult to compare results among studies and resolve mixed outcomes.

OBJECTIVES

This paper reviews the molecular targets, pharmacokinetics, and safety and abuse liability of CBD; additionally, the extant evidence on its potential therapeutic effects for neurological disorders, pain, inflammation, conditions related to immune function, psychiatric disorders, and substance use are described.

Chronic Cannabidiol Administration Attenuates Skeletal Muscle De Novo Ceramide Synthesis Pathway and Related Metabolic Effects in a Rat Model of High-Fat Diet-Induced Obesity

Numerous studies showed that sustained obesity results in accumulation of bioactive lipid derivatives in several tissues, including skeletal muscle, which further contributes to the development of metabolic disturbances and insulin resistance (IR). The latest data indicate that a potential factor regulating lipid and glucose metabolism is a phytocannabinoid—cannabidiol (CBD), a component of medical marijuana (Cannabis). Therefore, we aimed to investigate whether chronic CBD administration influences bioactive lipid content (e.g., ceramide (CER)), as well as glucose metabolism, in the red skeletal muscle (musculus gastrocnemius) with predominant oxidative metabolism. All experiments were conducted on an animal model of obesity, i.e., Wistar rats fed a high-fat diet (HFD) or standard rodent chow, and subsequently injected with CBD in a dose of 10 mg/kg or its solvent for two weeks. The sphingolipid content was assessed using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), while, in order to determine insulin and glucose concentrations, immunoenzymatic and colorimetric methods were used. The protein expression from sphingolipid and insulin signaling pathways, as well as endocannabinoidome components, was evaluated by immunoblotting. Unexpectedly, our experimental model revealed that the significantly intensified intramuscular de novo CER synthesis pathway in the HFD group was attenuated by chronic CBD treatment. Additionally, due to CBD administration, the content of other sphingolipid derivatives, i.e., sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) was restored in the high-fat feeding state, which coincided with an improvement in skeletal muscle insulin signal transduction and glycogen recovery.

Cannabidiol and Sports Performance: a Narrative Review of Relevant Evidence and Recommendations for Future Research

Cannabidiol (CBD) is a non-intoxicating cannabinoid derived from Cannabis sativa. CBD initially drew scientific interest due to its anticonvulsant properties but increasing evidence of other therapeutic effects has attracted the attention of additional clinical and non-clinical populations, including athletes. Unlike the intoxicating cannabinoid, Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC), CBD is no longer prohibited by the World Anti-Doping Agency and appears to be safe and well-tolerated in humans. It has also become readily available in many countries with the introduction of over-the-counter "nutraceutical" products. The aim of this narrative review was to explore various physiological and psychological effects of CBD that may be relevant to the sport and/or exercise context and to identify key areas for future research. As direct studies of CBD and sports performance are is currently lacking, evidence for this narrative review was sourced from preclinical studies and a limited number of clinical trials in non-athlete populations. Preclinical studies have observed robust anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective and analgesic effects of CBD in animal models. Preliminary preclinical evidence also suggests that CBD may protect against gastrointestinal damage associated with inflammation and promote healing of traumatic skeletal injuries. However, further research is required to confirm these observations. Early stage clinical studies suggest that CBD may be anxiolytic in "stress-inducing" situations and in individuals with anxiety disorders. While some case reports indicate that CBD improves sleep, robust evidence is currently lacking. Cognitive function and thermoregulation appear to be unaffected by CBD while effects on food intake, metabolic function, cardiovascular function, and infection require further study. CBD may exert a number of physiological, biochemical, and psychological effects with the potential to benefit athletes. However, well controlled, studies in athlete populations are required before definitive conclusions can be reached regarding the utility of CBD in supporting athletic performance.

Pharmacological potential of varinic-, minor-, and acidic phytocannabinoids

While natural Δ9-tetrahidrocannabinol (Δ9THC), cannabidiol (CBD), and their therapeutic potential have been extensively researched, some cannabinoids have been less extensively investigated. The present article compiles data from the literature that highlight the health benefits and therapeutic potential of lesser known phytocannabinoids, which we have divided into varinic, acidic, and "minor" (i.e., cannabinoids that are not present in high quantities in common varieties of Cannabis sativa L). A growing interest in these compounds, which are enriched in some cannabis varieties, has already resulted in enough preclinical information to show that they are promising therapeutic agents for a variety of diseases. Every phytocannabinoid has a "preferential" mechanism of action, and often targets the cannabinoid receptors, CB1 and/or CB2. The recent resolution of the structure of cannabinoid receptors demonstrates the atypical nature of cannabinoid binding, and that different binding modes depend on the agonist or partial agonist/inverse agonist, which allows for differential signaling, even acting on the same cannabinoid receptor. In addition, other players and multiple signaling pathways may be targeted/engaged by phytocannabinoids, thereby expanding the mechanistic possibilities for therapeutic use.

The GPR55 antagonist CID16020046 protects against ox-LDL-induced inflammation in human aortic endothelial cells (HAECs)

Atherosclerosis is a commonplace cardiovascular disease which affects most people in old age. While its causes are currently poorly understood, continuous study is being performed in order to elucidate both the pathogenesis and treatment of this insidious disease. Atherosclerosis is presently thought to be linked to several factors such as endothelial dysfunction, monocyte adhesion to the intima of the artery, and increased oxidative stress. Oxidized low-density lipoprotein (ox-LDL), colloquially known as the "bad cholesterol", is known to play a critical role in the previously mentioned atherosclerotic processes. In this study, our goal was to elucidate the role of the lysophospholipid receptor G protein-coupled receptor 55 (GPR55) and its antagonist, the cannabinoid CID16020046, in endothelial dysfunction. While their existence and especially their role in atherosclerosis has only semi-recently been elucidated, a growing body of research has begun to link their interaction to antiatherosclerosis. In our research, we found CID16020046 to have distinct atheroprotective properties such as anti-inflammation, antioxidant, and inhibition of monocyte attachment to endothelial cells. While there was previously a small body of research regarding the potential of cannabinoids to treat or prevent atherosclerosis, studies on the treatment potential of CID16020046 were even fewer. Thus, this study is one of the first to explore the effects of cannabinoids in atherosclerosis. Our findings in the present study provide a strong argument for the use of CID16020046 in the treatment of atherosclerosis as well as a basis for further experimentation using cannabinoids as therapy against atherosclerosis.

PGC-1α overexpression increases transcription factor EB nuclear localization and lysosome abundance in dystrophin-deficient skeletal muscle

Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is caused by the absence of functional dystrophin protein and results in progressive muscle wasting. Dystrophin deficiency leads to a host of dysfunctional cellular processes including impaired autophagy. Autophagic dysfunction appears to be due, at least in part, to decreased lysosomal abundance mediated by decreased nuclear localization of transcription factor EB (TFEB), a transcription factor responsible for lysosomal biogenesis. PGC-1α overexpression decreased disease severity in dystrophin-deficient skeletal muscle and increased PGC-1α has been linked to TFEB activation in healthy muscle. The purpose of this study was to determine the extent to which PGC-1α overexpression increased nuclear TFEB localization, increased lysosome abundance, and increased autophagosome degradation. We hypothesized that overexpression of PGC-1α would drive TFEB nuclear translocation, increase lysosome biogenesis, and improve autophagosome degradation. To address this hypothesis, we delivered PGC-1α via adeno-associated virus (AAV) vector injected into the right limb of 3-week-old mdx mice and the contralateral limbs received a sham injection. At 6 weeks of age, this approach increased PGC-1α transcript by 60-fold and increased TFEB nuclear localization in gastrocnemii from PGC-1α treated limbs by twofold compared to contralateral controls. Furthermore, lamp2, a marker of lysosome abundance, was significantly elevated in muscles from limbs overexpressing PGC-1α. Lastly, increased LC3II and similar p62 in PGC-1α overexpressing-limbs compared to contralateral limbs are supportive of increased degradation of autophagosomes. These data provide mechanistic insight into PGC-1α-mediated benefits to dystrophin-deficient muscle, such that increased TFEB nuclear localization in dystrophin-deficient muscle leads to increased lysosome biogenesis and autophagy.

Single-Dose Pharmacokinetics and Preliminary Safety Assessment with Use of CBD-Rich Hemp Nutraceutical in Healthy Dogs and Cats

The use of CBD-rich hemp products is becoming popular among pet owners with no long-term safety data related to consumption in adult dogs and cats. The purpose of this study was to determine the single-dose oral pharmacokinetics of CBD, and to provide a preliminary assessment of safety and adverse effects during 12-week administration using a hemp-based product in healthy dogs and cats. Eight of each species were provided a 2 mg/kg total CBD concentration orally twice daily for 12 weeks with screening of single-dose pharmacokinetics in six of each species. Pharmacokinetics revealed a mean maximum concentration (Cmax) of 301 ng/mL and 43 ng/mL, area under the curve (AUC) of 1297 ng-h/mL and 164 ng-h/mL, and time to maximal concentration (Tmax) of 1.4 h and 2 h, for dogs and cats, respectively. Serum chemistry and CBC results showed no clinically significant alterations, however one cat showed a persistent rise in alanine aminotransferase (ALT) above the reference range for the duration of the trial. In healthy dogs and cats, an oral CBD-rich hemp supplement administered every 12 h was not detrimental based on CBC or biochemistry values. Cats do appear to absorb or eliminate CBD differently than dogs, showing lower serum concentrations and adverse effects of excessive licking and head-shaking during oil administration.

Cannabidivarin completely rescues cognitive deficits and delays neurological and motor defects in male Mecp2 mutant mice

BACKGROUND

Recent evidence suggests that 2-week treatment with the non-psychotomimetic cannabinoid cannabidivarin (CBDV) could be beneficial towards neurological and social deficits in early symptomatic Mecp2 mutant mice, a model of Rett syndrome (RTT).

AIM

The aim of this study was to provide further insights into the efficacy of CBDV in Mecp2-null mice using a lifelong treatment schedule (from 4 to 9 weeks of age) to evaluate its effect on recognition memory and neurological defects in both early and advanced stages of the phenotype progression.

METHODS

CBDV 0.2, 2, 20 and 200 mg/kg/day was administered to Mecp2-null mice from 4 to 9 weeks of age. Cognitive and neurological defects were monitored during the whole treatment schedule. Biochemical analyses were carried out in brain lysates from 9-week-old wild-type and knockout mice to evaluate brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) levels as well as components of the endocannabinoid system.

RESULTS

CBDV rescues recognition memory deficits in Mecp2 mutant mice and delays the appearance of neurological defects. At the biochemical level, it normalizes BDNF/IGF1 levels and the defective PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway in Mecp2 mutant mice at an advanced stage of the disease. Mecp2 deletion upregulates CB1 and CB2 receptor levels in the brain and these changes are restored after CBDV treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

CBDV administration exerts an enduring rescue of memory deficits in Mecp2 mutant mice, an effect that is associated with the normalization of BDNF, IGF-1 and rpS6 phosphorylation levels as well as CB1 and CB2 receptor expression. CBDV delays neurological defects but this effect is only transient.

Is TRPA1 Burning Down TRPV1 as Druggable Target for the Treatment of Chronic Pain?

Over the last decades, a great array of molecular mediators have been identified as potential targets for the treatment of chronic pain. Among these mediators, transient receptor potential (TRP) channel superfamily members have been thoroughly studied. Namely, the nonselective cationic channel, transient receptor potential ankyrin subtype 1 (TRPA1), has been described as a chemical nocisensor involved in noxious cold and mechanical sensation and as rivalling TRPV1, which traditionally has been considered as the most important TRP channel involved in nociceptive transduction. However, few TRPA1-related drugs have succeeded in clinical trials. In the present review, we attempt to discuss the latest data on the topic and future directions for pharmacological intervention.

Cannabinoids and their actions: An update

LINKED ARTICLES

This article is part of a themed section on 8th European Workshop on Cannabinoid Research. To view the other articles in this section visit http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bph.v176.10/issuetoc.

Effects of non-euphoric plant cannabinoids on muscle quality and performance of dystrophic mdx mice

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD), caused by dystrophin deficiency, results in chronic inflammation and irreversible skeletal muscle degeneration. Moreover, the associated impairment of autophagy greatly contributes to the aggravation of muscle damage. We explored the possibility of using non-euphoric compounds present in Cannabis sativa, cannabidiol (CBD), cannabidivarin (CBDV) and tetrahydrocannabidivarin (THCV), to reduce inflammation, restore functional autophagy and positively enhance muscle function in vivo.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

Using quantitative PCR, western blots and [Ca²⁺ ]_i measurements, we explored the effects of CBD and CBDV on the differentiation of both murine and human skeletal muscle cells as well as their potential interaction with TRP channels. Male dystrophic mdx mice were injected i.p. with CBD or CBDV at different stages of the disease. After treatment, locomotor tests and biochemical analyses were used to evaluate their effects on inflammation and autophagy.

KEY RESULTS

CBD and CBDV promoted the differentiation of murine C2C12 myoblast cells into myotubes by increasing [Ca²⁺ ]_i mostly via TRPV1 activation, an effect that undergoes rapid desensitization. In primary satellite cells and myoblasts isolated from healthy and/or DMD donors, not only CBD and CBDV but also THCV promoted myotube formation, in this case, mostly via TRPA1 activation. In mdx mice, CBD (60 mg·kg^-1 ) and CBDV (60 mg·kg^-1 ) prevented the loss of locomotor activity, reduced inflammation and restored autophagy.

CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS

We provide new insights into plant cannabinoid interactions with TRP channels in skeletal muscle, highlighting a potential opportunity for novel co-adjuvant therapies to prevent muscle degeneration in DMD patients.

LINKED ARTICLES

This article is part of a themed section on 8^th European Workshop on Cannabinoid Research. To view the other articles in this section visit http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bph.v176.10/issuetoc.