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Tomasello B, Bellia F, Naletova I, Magrì A, Tabbì G, Attanasio F, Tomasello MF, Cairns WRL, Fortino M, Pietropaolo A, Greco V, La Mendola D, Sciuto S, Arena G, Rizzarelli E. BDNF- and VEGF-Responsive Stimulus to an NGF Mimic Cyclic Peptide with Copper Ionophore Capability and Ctr1/CCS-Driven Signaling. ACS Chem Neurosci 2024; 15:1755-1769. [PMID: 38602894 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.3c00716] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/13/2024] Open
Abstract
Neurotrophins are a family of growth factors that play a key role in the development and regulation of the functioning of the central nervous system. Their use as drugs is made difficult by their poor stability, cellular permeability, and side effects. Continuing our effort to use peptides that mimic the neurotrophic growth factor (NGF), the family model protein, and specifically the N-terminus of the protein, here we report on the spectroscopic characterization and resistance to hydrolysis of the 14-membered cyclic peptide reproducing the N-terminus sequence (SSSHPIFHRGEFSV (c-NGF(1-14)). Far-UV CD spectra and a computational study show that this peptide has a rigid conformation and left-handed chirality typical of polyproline II that favors its interaction with the D5 domain of the NGF receptor TrkA. c-NGF(1-14) is able to bind Cu2+ with good affinity; the resulting complexes have been characterized by potentiometric and spectroscopic measurements. Experiments on PC12 cells show that c-NGF(1-14) acts as an ionophore, influencing the degree and the localization of both the membrane transporter (Ctr1) and the copper intracellular transporter (CCS). c-NGF(1-14) induces PC12 differentiation, mimics the protein in TrkA phosphorylation, and activates the kinase cascade, inducing Erk1/2 phosphorylation. c-NGF(1-14) biological activities are enhanced when the peptide interacts with Cu2+ even with the submicromolar quantities present in the culture media as demonstrated by ICP-OES measurements. Finally, c-NGF(1-14) and Cu2+ concur to activate the cAMP response element-binding protein CREB that, in turn, induces the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and the vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) release.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Tomasello
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, University of Catania, V.le Andrea Doria 6, Catania 95125, Italy
| | - Francesco Bellia
- Institute of Crystallography, CNR, P. Gaifami 18, Catania 95126, Italy
| | - Irina Naletova
- Institute of Crystallography, CNR, P. Gaifami 18, Catania 95126, Italy
| | - Antonio Magrì
- Institute of Crystallography, CNR, P. Gaifami 18, Catania 95126, Italy
| | - Giovanni Tabbì
- Institute of Crystallography, CNR, P. Gaifami 18, Catania 95126, Italy
| | | | | | - Warren R L Cairns
- Istituto di Scienze Polari (ISP), c/o Campus Scientifico, Università Ca' Foscari Venezia Via Torino, Venezia Mestre 155-30170, Italy
| | - Mariagrazia Fortino
- Dipartimento di Scienze della Salute, Università di Catanzaro, Viale Europa, Catanzaro 88100, Italy
| | - Adriana Pietropaolo
- Dipartimento di Scienze della Salute, Università di Catanzaro, Viale Europa, Catanzaro 88100, Italy
| | - Valentina Greco
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Catania, A. Doria 6, Catania 95125, Italy
| | - Diego La Mendola
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Pisa, Bonanno Pisano 12, Pisa 56126, Italy
| | - Sebastiano Sciuto
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Catania, A. Doria 6, Catania 95125, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Arena
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Catania, A. Doria 6, Catania 95125, Italy
| | - Enrico Rizzarelli
- Institute of Crystallography, CNR, P. Gaifami 18, Catania 95126, Italy
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Catania, A. Doria 6, Catania 95125, Italy
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Lee YCJ, Javdan B, Cowan A, Smith K. More than skin deep: cyclic peptides as wound healing and cytoprotective compounds. Front Cell Dev Biol 2023; 11:1195600. [PMID: 37325572 PMCID: PMC10267460 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2023.1195600] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2023] [Accepted: 05/24/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023] Open
Abstract
The prevalence and cost of wounds pose a challenge to patients as well as the healthcare system. Wounds can involve multiple tissue types and, in some cases, become chronic and difficult to treat. Comorbidities may also decrease the rate of tissue regeneration and complicate healing. Currently, treatment relies on optimizing healing factors rather than administering effective targeted therapies. Owing to their enormous diversity in structure and function, peptides are among the most prevalent and biologically important class of compounds and have been investigated for their wound healing bioactivities. A class of these peptides, called cyclic peptides, confer stability and improved pharmacokinetics, and are an ideal source of wound healing therapeutics. This review provides an overview of cyclic peptides that have been shown to promote wound healing in various tissues and in model organisms. In addition, we describe cytoprotective cyclic peptides that mitigate ischemic reperfusion injuries. Advantages and challenges in harnessing the healing potential for cyclic peptides from a clinical perspective are also discussed. Cyclic peptides are a potentially attractive category of wound healing compounds and more research in this field could not only rely on design as mimetics but also encompass de novo approaches as well.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying-Chiang J. Lee
- Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, United States
| | - Bahar Javdan
- Rutgers Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, New Brunswick, NJ, United States
| | - Alexis Cowan
- Department of Microbiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Keith Smith
- Merck & Co., Inc., Kenilworth, NJ, United States
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Sankorrakul K, Qian L, Thangnipon W, Coulson EJ. Is there a role for the p75 neurotrophin receptor in mediating degeneration during oxidative stress and after hypoxia? J Neurochem 2021; 158:1292-1306. [PMID: 34109634 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.15451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2020] [Revised: 06/01/2021] [Accepted: 06/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Cholinergic basal forebrain (cBF) neurons are particularly vulnerable to degeneration following trauma and in neurodegenerative conditions. One reason for this is their characteristic expression of the p75 neurotrophin receptor (p75NTR ), which is up-regulated and mediates neuronal death in a range of neurological and neurodegenerative conditions, including dementia, stroke and ischaemia. The signalling pathway by which p75NTR signals cell death is incompletely characterised, but typically involves activation by neurotrophic ligands and signalling through c-Jun kinase, resulting in caspase activation via mitochondrial apoptotic signalling pathways. Less well appreciated is the link between conditions of oxidative stress and p75NTR death signalling. Here, we review the literature describing what is currently known regarding p75NTR death signalling in environments of oxidative stress and hypoxia to highlight the overlap in signalling pathways and the implications for p75NTR signalling in cBF neurons. We propose that there is a causal relationship and define key questions to test this assertion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kornraviya Sankorrakul
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Queensland Brain Institute, Clem Jones Centre for Ageing Dementia Research, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Qld., Australia.,Research Center for Neuroscience, Institute of Molecular Biosciences, Mahidol University, Salaya, Thailand
| | - Lei Qian
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Queensland Brain Institute, Clem Jones Centre for Ageing Dementia Research, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Qld., Australia
| | - Wipawan Thangnipon
- Research Center for Neuroscience, Institute of Molecular Biosciences, Mahidol University, Salaya, Thailand
| | - Elizabeth J Coulson
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Queensland Brain Institute, Clem Jones Centre for Ageing Dementia Research, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Qld., Australia
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Gascon S, Jann J, Langlois-Blais C, Plourde M, Lavoie C, Faucheux N. Peptides Derived from Growth Factors to Treat Alzheimer's Disease. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22116071. [PMID: 34199883 PMCID: PMC8200100 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22116071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2021] [Revised: 05/30/2021] [Accepted: 06/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a devastating neurodegenerative disease characterized by progressive neuron losses in memory-related brain structures. The classical features of AD are a dysregulation of the cholinergic system, the accumulation of amyloid plaques, and neurofibrillary tangles. Unfortunately, current treatments are unable to cure or even delay the progression of the disease. Therefore, new therapeutic strategies have emerged, such as the exogenous administration of neurotrophic factors (e.g., NGF and BDNF) that are deficient or dysregulated in AD. However, their low capacity to cross the blood-brain barrier and their exorbitant cost currently limit their use. To overcome these limitations, short peptides mimicking the binding receptor sites of these growth factors have been developed. Such peptides can target selective signaling pathways involved in neuron survival, differentiation, and/or maintenance. This review focuses on growth factors and their derived peptides as potential treatment for AD. It describes (1) the physiological functions of growth factors in the brain, their neuronal signaling pathways, and alteration in AD; (2) the strategies to develop peptides derived from growth factor and their capacity to mimic the role of native proteins; and (3) new advancements and potential in using these molecules as therapeutic treatments for AD, as well as their limitations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suzanne Gascon
- Laboratory of Cell-Biomaterial Biohybrid Systems, Department of Chemical and Biotechnological Engineering, 2500 Boulevard Université, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC J1K 2R1, Canada; (S.G.); (J.J.)
| | - Jessica Jann
- Laboratory of Cell-Biomaterial Biohybrid Systems, Department of Chemical and Biotechnological Engineering, 2500 Boulevard Université, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC J1K 2R1, Canada; (S.G.); (J.J.)
| | - Chloé Langlois-Blais
- Département de Pharmacologie-Physiologie, Faculté de Médecine et des Sciences de la Santé, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC J1H 5N4, Canada;
| | - Mélanie Plourde
- Centre de Recherche sur le Vieillissement, Centre Intégré Universitaire de Santé et Services Sociaux de l’Estrie–Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC J1G 1B1, Canada;
- Département de Médecine, Faculté de Médecine et des Sciences de la Santé, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC J1H 5N4, Canada
| | - Christine Lavoie
- Département de Pharmacologie-Physiologie, Faculté de Médecine et des Sciences de la Santé, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC J1H 5N4, Canada;
- Institut de Pharmacologie de Sherbrooke, 3001 12th Avenue, N., Sherbrooke, QC J1H 5N4, Canada
- Correspondence: (C.L.); (N.F.); Tel.: +1-819-821-8000 (ext. 72732) (C.L.); +1-819-821-8000 (ext. 61343) (N.F.)
| | - Nathalie Faucheux
- Laboratory of Cell-Biomaterial Biohybrid Systems, Department of Chemical and Biotechnological Engineering, 2500 Boulevard Université, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC J1K 2R1, Canada; (S.G.); (J.J.)
- Institut de Pharmacologie de Sherbrooke, 3001 12th Avenue, N., Sherbrooke, QC J1H 5N4, Canada
- Correspondence: (C.L.); (N.F.); Tel.: +1-819-821-8000 (ext. 72732) (C.L.); +1-819-821-8000 (ext. 61343) (N.F.)
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Kang YJ, Diep YN, Tran M, Cho H. Therapeutic Targeting Strategies for Early- to Late-Staged Alzheimer's Disease. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:E9591. [PMID: 33339351 PMCID: PMC7766709 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21249591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2020] [Revised: 11/30/2020] [Accepted: 12/08/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common cause of dementia, typically showing progressive neurodegeneration in aging brains. The key signatures of the AD progression are the deposition of amyloid-beta (Aβ) peptides, the formation of tau tangles, and the induction of detrimental neuroinflammation leading to neuronal loss. However, conventional pharmacotherapeutic options are merely relying on the alleviation of symptoms that are limited to mild to moderate AD patients. Moreover, some of these medicines discontinued to use due to either the insignificant effectiveness in improving the cognitive impairment or the adverse side effects worsening essential bodily functions. One of the reasons for the failure is the lack of knowledge on the underlying mechanisms that can accurately explain the major causes of the AD progression correlating to the severity of AD. Therefore, there is an urgent need for the better understanding of AD pathogenesis and the development of the disease-modifying treatments, particularly for severe and late-onset AD, which have not been covered thoroughly. Here, we review the underlying mechanisms of AD progression, which have been employed for the currently established therapeutic strategies. We believe this will further spur the discovery of a novel disease-modifying treatment for mild to severe, as well as early- to late-onset, AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- You Jung Kang
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Engineering Science, Center for Biomedical Engineering and Science, University of North Carolina, Charlotte, NC 28223, USA;
- Department of Biological Sciences, Center for Biomedical Engineering and Science, University of North Carolina, Charlotte, NC 28223, USA
| | - Yen N. Diep
- Institute of Quantum Biophysics, Department of Biophysics, Sungkyunkwan University, 2066 Seobu-ro, Jangan-gu, Suwon-si, Gyeonggi-do 16419, Korea; (Y.N.D.); (M.T.)
- Department of Intelligent Precision Healthcare Convergence, Sungkyunkwan University, 2066 Seobu-ro, Jangan-gu, Suwon-si, Gyeonggi-do 16419, Korea
| | - Minh Tran
- Institute of Quantum Biophysics, Department of Biophysics, Sungkyunkwan University, 2066 Seobu-ro, Jangan-gu, Suwon-si, Gyeonggi-do 16419, Korea; (Y.N.D.); (M.T.)
- Department of Intelligent Precision Healthcare Convergence, Sungkyunkwan University, 2066 Seobu-ro, Jangan-gu, Suwon-si, Gyeonggi-do 16419, Korea
| | - Hansang Cho
- Institute of Quantum Biophysics, Department of Biophysics, Sungkyunkwan University, 2066 Seobu-ro, Jangan-gu, Suwon-si, Gyeonggi-do 16419, Korea; (Y.N.D.); (M.T.)
- Department of Intelligent Precision Healthcare Convergence, Sungkyunkwan University, 2066 Seobu-ro, Jangan-gu, Suwon-si, Gyeonggi-do 16419, Korea
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Mitra S, Behbahani H, Eriksdotter M. Innovative Therapy for Alzheimer's Disease-With Focus on Biodelivery of NGF. Front Neurosci 2019; 13:38. [PMID: 30804738 PMCID: PMC6370742 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2019.00038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2018] [Accepted: 01/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder associated with abnormal protein modification, inflammation and memory impairment. Aggregated amyloid beta (Aβ) and phosphorylated tau proteins are medical diagnostic features. Loss of memory in AD has been associated with central cholinergic dysfunction in basal forebrain, from where the cholinergic circuitry projects to cerebral cortex and hippocampus. Various reports link AD progression with declining activity of cholinergic neurons in basal forebrain. The neurotrophic molecule, nerve growth factor (NGF), plays a major role in the maintenance of cholinergic neurons integrity and function, both during development and adulthood. Numerous studies have also shown that NGF contributes to the survival and regeneration of neurons during aging and in age-related diseases such as AD. Changes in neurotrophic signaling pathways are involved in the aging process and contribute to cholinergic and cognitive decline as observed in AD. Further, gradual dysregulation of neurotrophic factors like NGF and brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) have been reported during AD development thus intensifying further research in targeting these factors as disease modifying therapies against AD. Today, there is no cure available for AD and the effects of the symptomatic treatment like cholinesterase inhibitors (ChEIs) and memantine are transient and moderate. Although many AD treatment studies are being carried out, there has not been any breakthrough and new therapies are thus highly needed. Long-term effective therapy for alleviating cognitive impairment is a major unmet need. Discussion and summarizing the new advancements of using NGF as a potential therapeutic implication in AD are important. In summary, the intent of this review is describing available experimental and clinical data related to AD therapy, priming to gain additional facts associated with the importance of NGF for AD treatment, and encapsulated cell biodelivery (ECB) as an efficient tool for NGF delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sumonto Mitra
- Division of Clinical Geriatrics, Center for Alzheimer Research, Department of Neurobiology, Care Sciences and Society, Karolinska Institutet, Huddinge, Sweden
| | - Homira Behbahani
- Division of Neurogeriatrics, Center for Alzheimer Research, Department of Neurobiology, Care Sciences and Society, Karolinska Institutet, Solna, Sweden
| | - Maria Eriksdotter
- Division of Clinical Geriatrics, Center for Alzheimer Research, Department of Neurobiology, Care Sciences and Society, Karolinska Institutet, Huddinge, Sweden.,Aging Theme, Karolinska University Hospital, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
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Li Y, Sun Z, Cao Q, Chen M, Luo H, Lin X, Xiao F. Role of amyloid β protein receptors in mediating synaptic plasticity. Biomed Rep 2017; 6:379-386. [PMID: 28413635 DOI: 10.3892/br.2017.863] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2016] [Accepted: 12/01/2016] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
There are few diseases in modern biomedicine that have garnered as much scientific interest and public concern as Alzheimer's disease (AD). The amyloid hypothesis has become the dominant model of AD pathogenesis; however, the details of the hypothesis are changing over time. Recently, given the increasing recognition, subtle effects of amyloid β protein (Aβ) on synaptic efficacy may be critical to AD progression. Synaptic plasticity is the important neurochemical foundation of learning and memory. Recent studies have identified that soluble Aβ oligomers combine with certain receptors to impair synaptic plasticity in AD, which advanced the amyloid hypothesis. The aim of the present review was to summarize the role of Aβ-relevant receptors in regulating synaptic plasticity and their downstream signaling cascades, which may provide novel insights into the understanding of the pathogenesis of AD and the development of therapeutic strategies to slow down the progression of AD-associated memory decline in the early stages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Li
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510632, P.R. China
| | - Zhongqing Sun
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510632, P.R. China
| | - Qiaoyu Cao
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510632, P.R. China
| | - Meiwan Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Institute of Chinese Medical Sciences, University of Macau, Macau 999078, P.R. China
| | - Huanmin Luo
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510632, P.R. China
| | - Xi Lin
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510632, P.R. China
| | - Fei Xiao
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510632, P.R. China
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Pandini G, Satriano C, Pietropaolo A, Gianì F, Travaglia A, La Mendola D, Nicoletti VG, Rizzarelli E. The Inorganic Side of NGF: Copper(II) and Zinc(II) Affect the NGF Mimicking Signaling of the N-Terminus Peptides Encompassing the Recognition Domain of TrkA Receptor. Front Neurosci 2016; 10:569. [PMID: 28090201 PMCID: PMC5201159 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2016.00569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2016] [Accepted: 11/25/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The nerve growth factor (NGF) N-terminus peptide, NGF(1–14), and its acetylated form, Ac-NGF(1–14), were investigated to scrutinize the ability of this neurotrophin domain to mimic the whole protein. Theoretical calculations demonstrated that non-covalent forces assist the molecular recognition of TrkA receptor by both peptides. Combined parallel tempering/docking simulations discriminated the effect of the N-terminal acetylation on the recognition of NGF(1–14) by the domain 5 of TrkA (TrkA-D5). Experimental findings demonstrated that both NGF(1–14) and Ac-NGF(1–14) activate TrkA signaling pathways essential for neuronal survival. The NGF-induced TrkA internalization was slightly inhibited in the presence of Cu2+ and Zn2+ ions, whereas the metal ions elicited the NGF(1–14)-induced internalization of TrkA and no significant differences were found in the weak Ac-NGF(1–14)-induced receptor internalization. The crucial role of the metals was confirmed by experiments with the metal-chelator bathocuproine disulfonic acid, which showed different inhibitory effects in the signaling cascade, due to different metal affinity of NGF, NGF(1–14) and Ac-NGF(1–14). The NGF signaling cascade, activated by the two peptides, induced CREB phosphorylation, but the copper addition further stimulated the Akt, ERK and CREB phosphorylation in the presence of NGF and NGF(1–14) only. A dynamic and quick influx of both peptides into PC12 cells was tracked by live cell imaging with confocal microscopy. A significant role of copper ions was found in the modulation of peptide sub-cellular localization, especially at the nuclear level. Furthermore, a strong copper ionophoric ability of NGF(1–14) was measured. The Ac-NGF(1–14) peptide, which binds copper ions with a lower stability constant than NGF(1–14), exhibited a lower nuclear localization with respect to the total cellular uptake. These findings were correlated to the metal-induced increase of CREB and BDNF expression caused by NGF(1–14) stimulation. In summary, we here validated NGF(1–14) and Ac-NGF(1–14) as first examples of monomer and linear peptides able to activate the NGF-TrkA signaling cascade. Metal ions modulated the activity of both NGF protein and the NGF-mimicking peptides. Such findings demonstrated that NGF(1–14) sequence can reproduce the signal transduction of whole protein, therefore representing a very promising drug candidate for further pre-clinical studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giuseppe Pandini
- Endocrinology, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Garibaldi-Nesima Medical Center, University of CataniaCatania, Italy; Institute of Biostructures and Bioimages - Catania, National Research CouncilCatania, Italy
| | - Cristina Satriano
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of CataniaCatania, Italy; Consorzio Interuniversitario di Ricerca in Chimica dei Metalli nei Sistemi BiologiciBari, Italy
| | | | - Fiorenza Gianì
- Endocrinology, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Garibaldi-Nesima Medical Center, University of CataniaCatania, Italy; Institute of Biostructures and Bioimages - Catania, National Research CouncilCatania, Italy
| | | | - Diego La Mendola
- Consorzio Interuniversitario di Ricerca in Chimica dei Metalli nei Sistemi BiologiciBari, Italy; Department of Pharmacy, University of PisaPisa, Italy
| | - Vincenzo G Nicoletti
- Consorzio Interuniversitario di Ricerca in Chimica dei Metalli nei Sistemi BiologiciBari, Italy; Section of Medical Biochemistry, Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences (BIOMETEC), University of CataniaCatania, Italy
| | - Enrico Rizzarelli
- Institute of Biostructures and Bioimages - Catania, National Research CouncilCatania, Italy; Department of Chemical Sciences, University of CataniaCatania, Italy; Consorzio Interuniversitario di Ricerca in Chimica dei Metalli nei Sistemi BiologiciBari, Italy
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Kazim SF, Iqbal K. Neurotrophic factor small-molecule mimetics mediated neuroregeneration and synaptic repair: emerging therapeutic modality for Alzheimer's disease. Mol Neurodegener 2016; 11:50. [PMID: 27400746 PMCID: PMC4940708 DOI: 10.1186/s13024-016-0119-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2016] [Accepted: 07/02/2016] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is an incurable and debilitating chronic progressive neurodegenerative disorder which is the leading cause of dementia worldwide. AD is a heterogeneous and multifactorial disorder, histopathologically characterized by the presence of amyloid β (Aβ) plaques and neurofibrillary tangles composed of Aβ peptides and abnormally hyperphosphorylated tau protein, respectively. Independent of the various etiopathogenic mechanisms, neurodegeneration is a final common outcome of AD neuropathology. Synaptic loss is a better correlate of cognitive impairment in AD than Aβ or tau pathologies. Thus a highly promising therapeutic strategy for AD is to shift the balance from neurodegeneration to neuroregeneration and synaptic repair. Neurotrophic factors, by virtue of their neurogenic and neurotrophic activities, have potential for the treatment of AD. However, the clinical therapeutic usage of recombinant neurotrophic factors is limited because of the insurmountable hurdles of unfavorable pharmacokinetic properties, poor blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability, and severe adverse effects. Neurotrophic factor small-molecule mimetics, in this context, represent a potential strategy to overcome these short comings, and have shown promise in preclinical studies. Neurotrophic factor small-molecule mimetics have been the focus of intense research in recent years for AD drug development. Here, we review the relevant literature regarding the therapeutic beneficial effect of neurotrophic factors in AD, and then discuss the recent status of research regarding the neurotrophic factor small-molecule mimetics as therapeutic candidates for AD. Lastly, we summarize the preclinical studies with a ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF) small-molecule peptide mimetic, Peptide 021 (P021). P021 is a neurogenic and neurotrophic compound which enhances dentate gyrus neurogenesis and memory processes via inhibiting leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) signaling pathway and increasing brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) expression. It robustly inhibits tau abnormal hyperphosphorylation via increased BDNF mediated decrease in glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK-3β, major tau kinase) activity. P021 is a small molecular weight, BBB permeable compound with suitable pharmacokinetics for oral administration, and without adverse effects associated with native CNTF or BDNF molecule. P021 has shown beneficial therapeutic effect in several preclinical studies and has emerged as a highly promising compound for AD drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Syed Faraz Kazim
- />Department of Neurochemistry, and SUNY Downstate/NYSIBR Program in Developmental Neuroscience, New York State Institute for Basic Research (NYSIBR), 1050 Forest Hill Road, Staten Island, NY 10314 USA
- />Graduate Program in Neural and Behavioral Science, and Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, State University of New York (SUNY) Downstate Medical Center, 450 Clarkson Avenue, Brooklyn, NY 11203 USA
| | - Khalid Iqbal
- />Department of Neurochemistry, and SUNY Downstate/NYSIBR Program in Developmental Neuroscience, New York State Institute for Basic Research (NYSIBR), 1050 Forest Hill Road, Staten Island, NY 10314 USA
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Hasebe N, Fujita Y, Ueno M, Yoshimura K, Fujino Y, Yamashita T. Soluble β-amyloid Precursor Protein Alpha binds to p75 neurotrophin receptor to promote neurite outgrowth. PLoS One 2013; 8:e82321. [PMID: 24358169 PMCID: PMC3864954 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0082321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2013] [Accepted: 11/01/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The cleavage of β-amyloid precursor protein (APP) generates multiple proteins: Soluble β-amyloid Precursor Protein Alpha (sAPPα), sAPPβ, and amyloid β (Aβ). Previous studies have shown that sAPPα and sAPPβ possess neurotrophic properties, whereas Aβ is neurotoxic. However, the underlying mechanism of the opposing effects of APP fragments remains poorly understood. In this study, we have investigated the mechanism of sAPPα-mediated neurotrophic effects. sAPPα and sAPPβ interact with p75 neurotrophin receptor (p75NTR), and sAPPα promotes neurite outgrowth. Methods and Findings First, we investigated whether APP fragments interact with p75NTR, because full-length APP and Aβ have been shown to interact with p75NTR in vitro. Both sAPPα and sAPPβ were co-immunoprecipitated with p75NTR and co-localized with p75NTR on COS-7 cells. The binding affinity of sAPPα and sAPPβ for p75NTR was confirmed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Next, we investigated the effect of sAPPα on neurite outgrowth in mouse cortical neurons. Neurite outgrowth was promoted by sAPPα, but sAPPα was uneffective in a knockdown of p75NTR. Conclusion We conclude that p75NTR is the receptor for sAPPα to mediate neurotrophic effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noriko Hasebe
- Department of Molecular Neuroscience, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
- Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
- Core Research for Evolutional Science and Technology (CREST), Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST), Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yuki Fujita
- Department of Molecular Neuroscience, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
- Core Research for Evolutional Science and Technology (CREST), Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST), Tokyo, Japan
| | - Masaki Ueno
- Department of Molecular Neuroscience, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
- Core Research for Evolutional Science and Technology (CREST), Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST), Tokyo, Japan
- Division of Developmental Biology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Kazuhiro Yoshimura
- Department of Molecular Neuroscience, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
- Department of Neurosurgery, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Yuji Fujino
- Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Toshihide Yamashita
- Department of Molecular Neuroscience, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
- Core Research for Evolutional Science and Technology (CREST), Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST), Tokyo, Japan
- * E-mail:
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11
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Longo FM, Massa SM. Small-molecule modulation of neurotrophin receptors: a strategy for the treatment of neurological disease. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2013; 12:507-25. [PMID: 23977697 DOI: 10.1038/nrd4024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 198] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Neurotrophins and their receptors modulate multiple signalling pathways to regulate neuronal survival and to maintain axonal and dendritic networks and synaptic plasticity. Neurotrophins have potential for the treatment of neurological diseases. However, their therapeutic application has been limited owing to their poor plasma stability, restricted nervous system penetration and, importantly, the pleiotropic actions that derive from their concomitant binding to multiple receptors. One strategy to overcome these limitations is to target individual neurotrophin receptors — such as tropomyosin receptor kinase A (TRKA), TRKB, TRKC, the p75 neurotrophin receptor or sortilin — with small-molecule ligands. Such small molecules might also modulate various aspects of these signalling pathways in ways that are distinct from the programmes triggered by native neurotrophins. By departing from conventional neurotrophin signalling, these ligands might provide novel therapeutic options for a broad range of neurological indications.
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12
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Geetha T, Zheng C, McGregor WC, White BD, Diaz-Meco MT, Moscat J, Babu JR. TRAF6 and p62 inhibit amyloid β-induced neuronal death through p75 neurotrophin receptor. Neurochem Int 2012; 61:1289-93. [PMID: 23017601 PMCID: PMC3972807 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2012.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2012] [Revised: 09/04/2012] [Accepted: 09/16/2012] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Amyloid β (Aβ) aggregates are the primary component of senile plaques in Alzheimer disease (AD) patient's brain. Aβ is known to bind p75 neurotrophin receptor (p75(NTR)) and mediates Aβ-induced neuronal death. Recently, we showed that NGF leads to p75(NTR) polyubiquitination, which promotes neuronal cell survival. Here, we demonstrate that Aβ stimulation impaired the p75(NTR) polyubiquitination. TRAF6 and p62 are required for polyubiquitination of p75(NTR) on NGF stimulation. Interestingly, we found that overexpression of TRAF6/p62 restored p75(NTR) polyubiquitination upon Aβ/NGF treatment. Aβ significantly reduced NF-κB activity by attenuating the interaction of p75(NTR) with IKKβ. p75(NTR) increased NF-κB activity by recruiting TRAF6/p62, which thereby mediated cell survival. These findings indicate that TRAF6/p62 abrogated the Aβ-mediated inhibition of p75(NTR) polyubiquitination and restored neuronal cell survival.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thangiah Geetha
- Department of Nutrition, Dietetics, and Hospitality Management, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, United States
| | - Chen Zheng
- Department of Nutrition, Dietetics, and Hospitality Management, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, United States
| | - Wade C. McGregor
- Department of Applied Sciences and Mathematics, Arizona State University, Mesa, AZ 85212, United States
| | - B. Douglas White
- Department of Nutrition, Dietetics, and Hospitality Management, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, United States
| | - Maria T. Diaz-Meco
- Sanford-Burnham Medical Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, United States
| | - Jorge Moscat
- Sanford-Burnham Medical Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, United States
| | - Jeganathan Ramesh Babu
- Department of Nutrition, Dietetics, and Hospitality Management, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, United States
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13
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Knowles JK, Rajadas J, Nguyen TV, Yang T, LeMieux MC, Vander Griend L, Ishikawa C, Massa SM, Wyss-Coray T, Longo FM. The p75 neurotrophin receptor promotes amyloid-beta(1-42)-induced neuritic dystrophy in vitro and in vivo. J Neurosci 2009; 29:10627-37. [PMID: 19710315 DOI: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0620-09.2009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 127] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Oligomeric forms of amyloid-beta (Abeta) are thought to play a causal role in Alzheimer's disease (AD), and the p75 neurotrophin receptor (p75(NTR)) has been implicated in Abeta-induced neurodegeneration. To further define the functions of p75(NTR) in AD, we examined the interaction of oligomeric Abeta(1-42) with p75(NTR), and the effects of that interaction on neurite integrity in neuron cultures and in a chronic AD mouse model. Atomic force microscopy was used to ascertain the aggregated state of Abeta, and fluorescence resonance energy transfer analysis revealed that Abeta oligomers interact with the extracellular domain of p75(NTR). In vitro studies of Abeta-induced death in neuron cultures isolated from wild-type and p75(NTR-/-) mice, in which the p75(NTR) extracellular domain is deleted, showed reduced sensitivity of mutant cells to Abeta-induced cell death. Interestingly, Abeta-induced neuritic dystrophy and activation of c-Jun, a known mediator of Abeta-induced deleterious signaling, were completely prevented in p75(NTR-/-) neuron cultures. Thy1-hAPP(Lond/Swe) x p75(NTR-/-) mice exhibited significantly diminished hippocampal neuritic dystrophy and complete reversal of basal forebrain cholinergic neurite degeneration relative to those expressing wild-type p75(NTR). Abeta levels were not affected, suggesting that removal of p75(NTR) extracellular domain reduced the ability of excess Abeta to promote neuritic degeneration. These findings indicate that although p75(NTR) likely does not mediate all Abeta effects, it does play a significant role in enabling Abeta-induced neurodegeneration in vitro and in vivo, establishing p75(NTR) as an important therapeutic target for AD.
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14
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Tabaton M, Zhu X, Perry G, Smith MA, Giliberto L. Signaling effect of amyloid-beta(42) on the processing of AbetaPP. Exp Neurol 2009; 221:18-25. [PMID: 19747481 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2009.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2009] [Revised: 09/01/2009] [Accepted: 09/02/2009] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
The effects of amyloid-beta are extremely complex. Current work in the field of Alzheimer disease is focusing on discerning the impact between the physiological signaling effects of soluble low molecular weight amyloid-beta species and the more global cellular damage that could derive from highly concentrated and/or aggregated amyloid. Being able to dissect the specific signaling events, to understand how soluble amyloid-beta induces its own production by up-regulating BACE1 expression, could lead to new tools to interrupt the distinctive feedback cycle with potential therapeutic consequences. Here we describe a positive loop that exists between the secretases that are responsible for the generation of the amyloid-beta component of Alzheimer disease. According to our hypothesis, in familial Alzheimer disease, the primary overproduction of amyloid-beta can induce BACE1 transcription and drive a further increase of amyloid-beta precursor protein processing and resultant amyloid-beta production. In sporadic Alzheimer disease, many factors, among them oxidative stress and inflammation, with consequent induction of presenilins and BACE1, would activate a loop and proceed with the generation of amyloid-beta and its signaling role onto BACE1 transcription. This concept of a signaling effect by and feedback on the amyloid-beta precursor protein will likely shed light on how amyloid-beta generation, oxidative stress, and secretase functions are intimately related in sporadic Alzheimer disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Massimo Tabaton
- Departments of Neuroscience, Ophthalmology, and Genetics, University of Genova, Genova, Italy.
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15
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Fombonne J, Rabizadeh S, Banwait S, Mehlen P, Bredesen DE. Selective vulnerability in Alzheimer's disease: amyloid precursor protein and p75(NTR) interaction. Ann Neurol 2009; 65:294-303. [PMID: 19334058 DOI: 10.1002/ana.21578] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Selective neuronal vulnerability in neurodegenerative diseases is poorly understood. In Alzheimer's disease, the basal forebrain cholinergic neurons are selectively vulnerable, putatively because of their expression of the cell death mediator p75(NTR) (the common neurotrophin receptor), and its interaction with proapoptotic ligands pro-nerve growth factor and amyloid-beta peptide. However, the relation between amyloid precursor protein (APP) and p75(NTR) has not been described previously. METHODS APP and p75(NTR) were assayed for interaction by coimmunoprecipitation in vitro and in vivo, yeast two-hybrid assay, bioluminescence resonance energy transfer, and confocal microscopy. Effects on APP processing and signaling were studied using immunoblotting, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays, and luciferase reporter assays. RESULTS The results of this study are as follows: (1) p75(NTR) and APP interact directly; (2) this interaction is modified by ligands nerve growth factor and beta-amyloid; (3) APP and p75(NTR) colocalization in vivo is modified in Alzheimer's model transgenic mice; (4) APP processing is altered by p75(NTR), and to a lesser extent, p75(NTR) processing is altered by the presence of APP; (5) APP-dependent transcription mediated by Fe65 is blocked by p75(NTR); and (6) coexpression of APP and p75(NTR) triggers cell death. INTERPRETATION These results provide new insight into the emerging signaling network that mediates the Alzheimer's phenotype and into the mechanism of basal forebrain cholinergic neuronal selective vulnerability. In addition, the results argue that the interaction between APP and p75(NTR) may represent a therapeutic target in Alzheimer's disease.
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16
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Yaar M, Arble BL, Stewart KB, Qureshi NH, Kowall NW, Gilchrest BA. p75NTR antagonistic cyclic peptide decreases the size of beta amyloid-induced brain inflammation. Cell Mol Neurobiol 2008; 28:1027-31. [PMID: 18807174 PMCID: PMC2884272 DOI: 10.1007/s10571-008-9298-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2008] [Accepted: 06/30/2008] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Amyloid beta (Abeta) was shown to bind the 75 kD neurotrophin receptor (p75(NTR)) to induce neuronal death. We synthesized a p75(NTR) antagonistic peptide (CATDIKGAEC) that contains the KGA motif that is present in the toxic part of Abeta and closely resembles the binding site of NGF for p75(NTR). In vivo injections of Abeta into the cerebral cortex of B57BL/6 mice together with the peptide produced significantly less inflammation than simultaneous injections of Abeta and a control (CKETIADGAC, scrambled) peptide injected into the contralateral cortex. These data suggest that blocking the binding of Abeta to p75(NTR) may reduce neuronal loss in Alzheimer's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mina Yaar
- Department of Dermatology, Boston University School of Medicine, 715 Albany Street, Boston, MA 02118, USA. Department of Dermatology, Boston University School of Medicine, 715 Albany Street, Boston, MA 02118, USA
| | - Bennet L. Arble
- Department of Dermatology, Boston University School of Medicine, 715 Albany Street, Boston, MA 02118, USA
| | - Kenneth B. Stewart
- Department of Dermatology, Boston University School of Medicine, 715 Albany Street, Boston, MA 02118, USA
| | - Nazer H. Qureshi
- Department of Veterans Affairs, Geriatric Research Education and Clinical Center, VA Medical Center, 200 Springs Road, Bedford, MA 01730, USA
| | - Neil W. Kowall
- Department of Dermatology, Boston University School of Medicine, 715 Albany Street, Boston, MA 02118, USA. Department of Veterans Affairs, Geriatric Research Education and Clinical Center, VA Medical Center, 200 Springs Road, Bedford, MA 01730, USA. Department of Neurology, Boston University School of Medicine, 715 Albany Street, Boston, MA 02118, USA
| | - Barbara A. Gilchrest
- Department of Dermatology, Boston University School of Medicine, 715 Albany Street, Boston, MA 02118, USA. Department of Pathology, Boston University School of Medicine, 609 Albany Street, J-Building, Boston, MA 02118-2394, USA
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17
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Yang T, Knowles JK, Lu Q, Zhang H, Arancio O, Moore LA, Chang T, Wang Q, Andreasson K, Rajadas J, Fuller GG, Xie Y, Massa SM, Longo FM. Small molecule, non-peptide p75 ligands inhibit Abeta-induced neurodegeneration and synaptic impairment. PLoS One 2008; 3:e3604. [PMID: 18978948 PMCID: PMC2575383 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0003604] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2008] [Accepted: 10/09/2008] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The p75 neurotrophin receptor (p75(NTR)) is expressed by neurons particularly vulnerable in Alzheimer's disease (AD). We tested the hypothesis that non-peptide, small molecule p75(NTR) ligands found to promote survival signaling might prevent Abeta-induced degeneration and synaptic dysfunction. These ligands inhibited Abeta-induced neuritic dystrophy, death of cultured neurons and Abeta-induced death of pyramidal neurons in hippocampal slice cultures. Moreover, ligands inhibited Abeta-induced activation of molecules involved in AD pathology including calpain/cdk5, GSK3beta and c-Jun, and tau phosphorylation, and prevented Abeta-induced inactivation of AKT and CREB. Finally, a p75(NTR) ligand blocked Abeta-induced hippocampal LTP impairment. These studies support an extensive intersection between p75(NTR) signaling and Abeta pathogenic mechanisms, and introduce a class of specific small molecule ligands with the unique ability to block multiple fundamental AD-related signaling pathways, reverse synaptic impairment and inhibit Abeta-induced neuronal dystrophy and death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tao Yang
- Department of Neurology and Neurological Science, Stanford University, Stanford, California, United States of America
- Department of Neurology, University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Juliet K. Knowles
- Department of Neurology and Neurological Science, Stanford University, Stanford, California, United States of America
- Department of Neurology, University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Qun Lu
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, The Brody School of Medicine at East Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Hong Zhang
- Department of Pathology and Taub Institute, Columbia University, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Ottavio Arancio
- Department of Pathology and Taub Institute, Columbia University, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Laura A. Moore
- Department of Neurology, University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Timothy Chang
- Department of Neurology and Neurological Science, Stanford University, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Qian Wang
- Department of Neurology and Neurological Science, Stanford University, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Katrin Andreasson
- Department of Neurology and Neurological Science, Stanford University, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Jayakumar Rajadas
- Department of Neurology and Neurological Science, Stanford University, Stanford, California, United States of America
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Gerald G. Fuller
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Youmei Xie
- Department of Neurology, University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Stephen M. Massa
- Department of Neurology and Laboratory for Computational Neurochemistry and Drug Discovery, San Francisco Veterans Affairs Medical Center, and Department of Neurology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Frank M. Longo
- Department of Neurology and Neurological Science, Stanford University, Stanford, California, United States of America
- Department of Neurology, University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
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