Milk consumption during pregnancy increases birth weight, a risk factor for the development of diseases of civilization

Remnant cholesterol, but not other cholesterol parameters, is associated with gestational diabetes mellitus in pregnant women: a prospective cohort study

OBJECTIVE

No evidence has been found of a relationship between remnant cholesterol (RC) and the likelihood of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) in pregnant women. The aim of our study was to investigate the link between serum RC at 12-14 weeks of gestation and the risk of GDM.

METHODS

This was a secondary analysis with data from a prospective cohort study in Korea. A total of 590 single pregnant women attending two hospitals in Korea, up to 14 weeks gestation, from November 2014 to July 2016 were included in the study. The formula used to calculate RC in detail was RC (mg/dL) = TC (mg/dL)-HDL-c (mg/dL)-LDL-c (mg/dL). Logistic regression models were employed to examine the relationship between RC and GDM and explore the association between other lipoprotein cholesterol parameters and the risk of GDM. Furthermore, receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis was performed to assess the ability of RC to identify GDM. Additionally, sensitivity and subgroup analyses were conducted.

RESULTS

The mean age of participants was 32.06 ± 3.80 years. The median of RC was 34.66 mg/dL. 37 pregnant women (6.27%) were eventually diagnosed with GDM. Multivariate adjusted logistic regression analysis showed that RC was positively associated with the risk of GDM (OR = 1.458, 95% CI 1.221, 1.741). There was no significant association between other lipoprotein cholesterols (including TC, LDL-c, HDL-c) and the risk of GDM. The area under the ROC curve for RC as a predictor of GDM was 0.8038 (95% CI 0.7338-0.8738), and the optimal RC cut-off was 24.30 mg/dL. Our findings were demonstrated to be robust by performing a series of sensitivity analyses.

CONCLUSION

Serum RC levels at 12-14 weeks of gestation are positively associated with GDM risk in pregnant women. RC in early pregnancy is an early warning indicator of GDM in pregnant women, especially those with normal HDL-c, LDL-c, and TC that are easily overlooked. There is a high risk of developing GDM in pregnant women whose RC is more than 24.30 mg/dL. This study may help optimize GDM prevention in pregnant women and facilitate communication between physicians, pregnant patients, and their families.

Exploring the Heart-Mind Connection: Unraveling the Shared Pathways between Depression and Cardiovascular Diseases

Civilization diseases are defined as non-communicable diseases that affect a large part of the population. Examples of such diseases are depression and cardiovascular disease. Importantly, the World Health Organization warns against an increase in both of these. This narrative review aims to summarize the available information on measurable risk factors for CVD and depression based on the existing literature. The paper reviews the epidemiology and main risk factors for the coexistence of depression and cardiovascular disease. The authors emphasize that there is evidence of a link between depression and cardiovascular disease. Here, we highlight common risk factors for depression and cardiovascular disease, including obesity, diabetes, and physical inactivity, as well as the importance of the prevention and treatment of CVD in preventing depression and other mental disorders. Conversely, effective treatment of CVD can also help prevent depression and improve mental health outcomes. It seems advisable to introduce screening tests for depression in patients treated for cardiac reasons. Importantly, in patients treated for mood disorders, it is worth controlling CVD risk factors, for example, by checking blood pressure and pulse during routine visits. It is also worth paying attention to the mental condition of patients with CVD. This study underlines the importance of interdisciplinary co-operation.

The Role of Cow's Milk Consumption in Breast Cancer Initiation and Progression

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

This review evaluates cow milk's impact on breast carcinogenesis by linking recent epidemiological evidence and new insights into the molecular signaling of milk and its constituents in breast cancer (BCa) pathogenesis.

RECENT FINDINGS

Recent prospective cohort studies support the association between cow's milk consumption and the risk of estrogen receptor-α-positive (ER⁺) BCa. Milk is a complex biological fluid that increases systemic insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), insulin and estrogen signaling, and interacting hormonal promoters of BCa. Further potential oncogenic components of commercial milk include exosomal microRNAs (miR-148a-3p, miR-21-5p), bovine meat and milk factors, aflatoxin M1, bisphenol A, pesticides, and micro- and nanoplastics. Individuals with BRCA1 loss-of-function mutations and FTO and IGF1 gain-of-function polymorphisms enhancing IGF-1/mTORC1 signaling may be at increased risk for milk-induced ER⁺ BCa. Recent prospective epidemiological and pathobiochemical studies identify commercial milk consumption as a critical risk factor of ER⁺ BCa. Large meta-analyses gathering individuals of different ethnic origins with milk derived from dairy cows of varying genetic backgrounds and diverse feeding procedures as well as missing data on thermal processing of milk (pasteurization versus ultra-heat treatment) make multi-national meta-analyses unsuitable for BCa risk estimations in susceptible populations. Future studies are required that consider all vulnerable periods of breast carcinogenesis to cow's milk exposure, beginning during the perinatal period and puberty, since these are the most critical periods of mammary gland morphogenesis. Notwithstanding the need for better studies including detailed information on milk processing and vulnerable periods of human breast carcinogenesis, the available evidence suggests that dietary guidelines on milk consumption may have to be reconsidered.

Multivariate Pharma Technology Transfer Analysis: Civilization Diseases and COVID-19 Perspective

The importance of studying civilization diseases manifests itself in the impact of changing lifestyles, on the number of deaths and causes of death. Technology transfer plays an important role in the prevention and treatment of these diseases. Through this, it is possible to transfer new treatments and diagnostics to clinics and hospitals more quickly and effectively, which leads to better healthcare for patients. Technology transfer can also aid in the development of new drugs and therapies that can be effective in the treatment of civilization diseases. The paper aims to evaluate the technology transfer process in the field of civilization diseases, using COVID-19 as an example of a pandemic that requires quick development and transfer of technology. To achieve the assumed goal, we propose a multivariate synthetic ratio in the field of civilization diseases (SMTT-Synthetic Measure of Technology Transfer) to analyze data from the Global Data database. We used sub-measures like SMTT_value (Synthetic Measure of Technology Transfer_value) and SMTT_quantity (Synthetic Measure of Technology Transfer_quantity) to measure technology transfer and put the data into a graph. Our analysis focuses on 14 diseases over a period of 10 years (2012-2021) and includes nine forms of technology transfer, allowing us to create a tool for analysing the process in multiple dimensions. Our results show that COVID-19 is similar in terms of technology transfer to diseases such as diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, neurodegenerative diseases, and breast cancer, even though data for COVID-19 is available for only 2 years.

Individualized high dairy protein + walking program supports bone health in pregnancy: a randomized controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Pregnancy induces bone mineral mobilization, which may be further compromised if diet and physical activity are suboptimal.

OBJECTIVES

We aimed to determine the effects of a Nutrition + Exercise intervention during pregnancy on maternal calciotropic and bone biomarker profiles throughout pregnancy and the postpartum.

METHODS

In the Be Healthy in Pregnancy (BHIP) randomized controlled trial, 203 of 225 participants who consented to the bone health substudy were, randomly assigned at 12-17 weeks gestation to receive either usual care (control) or a structured and monitored Nutrition + Exercise plan (intervention) providing an individualized high dairy protein diet and a walking program throughout pregnancy. Maternal serum total procollagen type 1 N-terminal propeptide (P1NP; bone formation), C-terminal telopeptide of type I collagen (CTX; bone resorption), and insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) were measured by ELISA, and vitamin D metabolites by ultra-performance LC tandem MS at early and late pregnancy, 6 mo postpartum, and in cord blood.

RESULTS

In 187 participants completing all measures, significantly higher intakes were observed in the intervention than in the control group for total protein (P < 0.0001), protein intake from dairy foods (P < 0.0001), and calcium (P < 0.0001), whereas vitamin D intake was similar between treatment groups in both the second and third trimesters. The intervention group had significantly lower serum CTX at end of pregnancy (mean ± SD: 0.78 ± 0.31 ng/mL; n = 91 compared with 0.89 ± 0.33 ng/mL; n = 96, P = 0.034) and in cord serum (0.58 ± 0.13 ng/mL; n = 31 compared with 0.69 ± 0.18 ng/mL; n = 22, P < 0.025). Serum concentrations of P1NP rose significantly (P < 0.02) from early pregnancy to 6 mo postpartum for the intervention group only. Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D status was >50 nmol/L for 97% of all participants.

CONCLUSIONS

Higher maternal dietary protein and calcium intakes than usual care in concert with normal vitamin D status minimized bone resorption and maintained bone formation and may protect bone health during pregnancy.This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT01689961.

LncRNA HOTAIR inhibits the progression of fibroblast-like synoviocytes by sponging miRNA-106b-5p in rheumatoid arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic progressive autoimmune disease of unknown etiology. Human fibroblast-like synoviocytes (HFLSs) are the main effector cells for synovial hyperplasia and invasion in RA. Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) play key roles in several autoimmune diseases, including RA. We investigated the effects of lncRNA HOX transcript antisense intergenic RNA (HOTAIR) on the pathological behavior of HFLSs in RA. The microRNAs (miRNAs) with potential binding sites for lncRNA HOTAIR were predicted using Starbase v2.0. TargetScan (http://www.targetscan.org) was used to analyze the potential target genes of miR-106b-5p. The interactions were further verified using a dual-luciferase reporter assay. RNA and protein expression was determined using quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) and western blotting. The proliferation, cell invasion and migration, and cell apoptosis of HFLSs in RA was detected by the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol)-2,5-diphenyl-tetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay, transwell assay, and flow cytometry (FCM). The dual luciferase reporter assay confirmed the interactions between lncRNA HOTAIR and miR-106b-5p and between miR-106b-5p and SMAD family member 7 (SMAD7). The qRT-PCR results indicated that the expression of lncRNA HOTAIR was markedly decreased and that of miR-106b-5p was markedly increased in HFLSs of RA. Cell proliferation, invasion, and migration of HFLSs were inhibited by lncRNA HOTAIR upregulation, and the expression of miR-106b-5p was negatively regulated by lncRNA HOTAIR in HFLSs. Apoptosis of HFLS cells was improved by the overexpression of lncRNA HOTAIR. All the effects of lncRNA HOTAIR upregulation on HFLSs were reversed after the overexpression of miR-106b-5p. Smad7 was identified as a target gene of miR-106b-5p, and the effects of downregulation of miR-106b-5p on HFLSs could be abolished by silencing Smad7. We found that lncRNA HOTAIR was significantly downregulated in the HFLSs of patients with RA. Moreover, lncRNA HOTAIR influenced cell growth, migration, invasion, and apoptosis in HFLSs through the miR-106b-5p/Smad7 axis.

Maternal Consumption of Milk or Dairy Products During Pregnancy and Birth Outcomes: A Systematic Review and Dose-Response Meta-Analysis

Purpose

This study aimed to systematically review current evidence and quantitatively evaluate the associations between milk or dairy consumption during pregnancy and birth outcomes.

Methods

This systematic review had been reported in accordance with the guidelines of Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) statement. A supplementary literature search in PubMed, Web of Science, Cochrane Library, and Embase was conducted on 30 March 2021. Studies that assessed the association of maternal consumption of milk or dairy with birth-related outcomes were identified. The dose-response meta-analyses of continuous data and categorical data were applied. One-stage approach and two-stage approach were used where appropriate.

Results

In total, 42 studies were eligible for the present systematic review, and 18 of them were included in the outcome-specific meta-analyses. The dose-response meta-analysis [Number of studies (N) = 9] predicted a maximum mean change in birthweight of 63.38 g [95% Confidence Interval (CI) = 0.08, 126.67] at 5.00 servings per day. Intake of dairy products had the greatest protective effect on small for gestational age at a maximum of 7.2 servings per day [Relative risk (RR) = 0.69, 95% CI = 0.56, 0.85] (N = 7). The risk of large for gestational age was predicted to be maximum at 7.20 servings per day of dairy consumption, with the RR and 95% CI of 1.30 (1.15, 1.46; N = 4). In addition, the relationship between dairy consumption and low birth weight (RR = 0.70, 95% CI = 0.33, 1.50; N = 5) and pre-mature birth (RR = 1.13, 95% CI = 0.87, 1.47; N = 5) was not significant, respectively.

Conclusions

Maternal consumption of dairy during pregnancy has a potential effect on fetal growth. Further well-designed studies are warranted to clarify the specific roles of individual dairy products.

Systematic Review Registration

identifier: PROSPERO 2020 CRD42020150608

Determinants of fetal macrosomia among live births in southern Ethiopia: a matched case–control study

Background

Fetal macrosomia defined as birth weight of 4000 g and above regardless of gestational age and associated with adverse maternal and fetal outcomes, especially among women in developing countries like Ethiopia. Despite the observed burden, there is limited evidence on determinants of fetal macrosomia. This study aimed to identify determinants of fetal macrosomia among live births at Wolaita Sodo town Southern Ethiopia.

Methods

A facility-based matched case–control study design involved 360 singletons deliveries attended at hospitals in Wolaita Sodo town, southern Ethiopia, with 120 cases and 240 controls included. Cases and control were matched by maternal age. Cases were neonates with a birth weight of ≥ 4000, while controls were neonates with a birthweight between 2500gm and less than 4000gm. Data were collected by interviews, measuring, and reviewing mothers' medical documents. Conditional logistic regression analysis was carried to identify the independent predictor variables. Statistical significance was set using a p-value < 0.05 and 95% CI for AOR.

Results

Male neonates were four times more likely to be macrosomia than female neonates MAOR = 4.0 [95%CI; 2.25–7.11, p < 0.001]. Neonates born at gestational age ≥ 40 weeks were 4.33 times more likely to be macrosomia with MAOR = 4.33 [95%CI; 2.37–7.91, p < 0.001]. Neonates born from physically inactive mothers were 7.76 times more likely to be macrosomia with MAOR = 7.76 [95CI; 3.33–18.08, p < 0.001]. Neonates born from mothers who consumed fruits and dairy products in their diet frequently were 2 and 4.9 times more likely to be macrosomia MAOR = 2.03 [95%CI; 1.11–3.69, p = 0.021] and AOR = 4.91[95%CI; 2.36–10.23, p < 0.001] respectively.

Conclusion

Mothers' physical exercise and consumption of fruit and dairy products were significant predictor variables for fetal macrosomia. Hence, health care providers may use these factors as a screening tool for the prediction, early diagnosis, and timely intervention of fetal macrosomia and its complications.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12884-022-04734-8.

Comparison of Estradiol, Testostosterone, and CYP19 Methylation Levels between Full-Term and Preterm Newborns

Estradiol (E), testosterone (T), and their ratio are crucial axis in life. Especially during intrauterine growth, they orchestrate the complex development of organs and their interaction, which have lifelong impact on health and an organism's capacity to respond to environmental stressors. The aim of this study was to compare for the first time E, T, and their ratio levels with aromatase (CYP19) gene methylation levels between preterm newborns (PN) and full-term newborns (FN) with respect to their mother's environmental exposure and diet. In this study, 56 FN of 37-42 weeks of gestation age (GA) and 46 PN at GA 27-36 weeks were analysed for E and T levels and CYP19A1 gene pI.3/II promoter region methylation. Results showed there was no difference in E levels between PN and FN, but there were significantly lower levels of T in PN than in FN (2.81 nmol vs. 3.76 nmol, respectively) and consequently a significantly higher E/T ratio in PN than in FN (5278.04 vs. 2891.23, respectively). CYP19A1 methylation was significantly lower in PN than in FN (86.04% vs. 90.04%, respectively). CYP19A1 methylation was significantly reduced in newborns whose mothers reported daily milk consumption. Our study is the first to provide referent values for CYP19A1 methylation levels in FN and PN and shows that PN and FN significantly differ in CYP19A1 methylation levels, T levels, and E/T ratio. Future research should further investigate the mechanisms involved in GA-dependent CYP19A1 methylation levels and mechanisms of sex hormone disturbances which may contribute to preterm birth.

Maternal diet quality during pregnancy and its influence on low birth weight and small for gestational age: a birth cohort in Beijing, China

This study aimed to describe diet quality of pregnant women and explore the association between maternal diet and the prevalence of low birth weight (LBW) and small for gestational age (SGA). A total of 3856 participants from a birth cohort in Beijing, China, were recruited between June 2018 and February 2019. Maternal diet in the first and second trimesters was assessed by the Chinese diet balance index for pregnancy (DBI-P), using data collected by the inconsecutive 2-d 24-h dietary recalls. Logistic regressions were performed to explore the independent effects of DBI-P components on LBW and SGA. The prevalence of LBW and SGA was 3·8% and 6·0%, respectively. Dietary intakes of the participants were imbalanced. The proportions of participants having insufficient intake of vegetables (87·3% and 86·6%), dairy product (95·9% and 96·7%) and aquatic foods (80·5% and 85·3%) were high in both trimesters. The insufficiency of fruit intake was more severe in the second (85·2%) than that in the first trimester (22·5%) (P < 0·05). After adjusting for potential confounders, the intake of fruits and dairy in the second trimester was negatively associated with the risk of LBW (OR = 0·850, 95% CI: 0·723, 0·999) and SGA (OR = 0·885, 95% CI: 0·787, 0.996), respectively. Sufficient consumption of fruits and dairy products in pregnancy may be suggested in order to prevent LBW and SGA.

Evolution of Lactase Persistence: Turbo-Charging Adaptation in Growth Under the Selective Pressure of Maternal Mortality?

The emergence of the capacity to digest milk in some populations represents a landmark in human evolution, linking genetic change with a component of niche construction, namely dairying. Alleles promoting continued activity of the enzyme lactase through the life-course (lactase persistence) evolved in several global regions within the last 7,000 years. In some European regions, these alleles underwent rapid selection and must have profoundly affected fertility or mortality. Elsewhere, alleles spread more locally. However, the functional benefits underlying the rapid spread of lactase persistence remain unclear. Here, we set out the hypothesis that lactase persistence promoted skeletal growth, thereby offering a generic rapid solution to childbirth complications arising from exposure to ecological change, or to new environments through migration. Since reduced maternal growth and greater neonatal size both increase the risk of obstructed labour, any ecological exposure impacting these traits may increase maternal mortality risk. Over many generations, maternal skeletal dimensions could adapt to new ecological conditions through genetic change. However, this adaptive strategy would fail if ecological change was rapid, including through migration into new niches. We propose that the combination of consuming milk and lactase persistence could have reduced maternal mortality by promoting growth of the pelvis after weaning, while high calcium intake would reduce risk of pelvic deformities. Our conceptual framework provides locally relevant hypotheses to explain selection for lactase persistence in different global regions. For any given diet and individual genotype, the combination of lactase persistence and milk consumption would divert more energy to skeletal growth, either increasing pelvic dimensions or buffering them from worsening ecological conditions. The emergence of lactase persistence among dairying populations could have helped early European farmers adapt rapidly to northern latitudes, East African pastoralists adapt to sudden climate shifts to drier environments, and Near Eastern populations counteract secular declines in height associated with early agriculture. In each case, we assume that lactase persistence accelerated the timescale over which maternal skeletal dimensions could change, thus promoting both maternal and offspring survival. Where lactase persistence did not emerge, birth weight was constrained at lower levels, and this contributes to contemporary variability in diabetes risk.

Maternal First-Trimester Cow-Milk Intake Is Positively Associated with Childhood General and Abdominal Visceral Fat Mass and Lean Mass but Not with Other Cardiometabolic Risk Factors at the Age of 10 Years

BACKGROUND

Higher maternal cow-milk intake during pregnancy is associated with higher fetal growth measures and higher birth weight.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to assess the associations of maternal milk intake during pregnancy with body fat measures and cardiometabolic risk factors at the age of 10 y.

METHODS

In a population-based cohort of Dutch mothers and their children (n = 2466) followed from early pregnancy onwards, we assessed maternal first-trimester milk intake (milk and milk drinks) by food-frequency questionnaire. Maternal milk intake was categorized into 0-0.9, 1-1.9, 2-2.9, 3-3.9, 4-4.9, and ≥5 glasses/d, with 1 glass equivalent to 150 mL milk. For children at the age of 10 y, we calculated BMI and obtained detailed measures of body and organ fat by DXA and MRI. We also measured blood pressure and lipid, insulin, and glucose concentrations. Data were analyzed using linear and logistic regression models.

RESULTS

Compared with children whose mothers consumed 0-0.9 glass of milk/d during their pregnancy, those whose mothers consumed ≥5 glasses of milk/d had a 0.29 SD (95% CI: 0.10, 0.48) higher BMI, 0.27 SD (95% CI: 0.08, 0.47) higher fat mass, 0.26 SD (95% CI: 0.07, 0.46) higher lean mass, 0.30 SD (95% CI: 0.09, 0.50) higher android-to-gynoid fat mass ratio and 0.38 SD (95% CI: 0.09, 0.67) higher abdominal visceral fat mass. After correction for multiple comparisons, groups of maternal milk intake were not associated with pericardial fat mass index, liver fat fraction, blood pressure, or lipid, insulin, or glucose concentrations (P values >0.0125).

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest that maternal first-trimester milk intake is positively associated with childhood general and abdominal visceral fat mass and lean mass, but not with other cardiometabolic risk factors.

Lifetime Impact of Cow's Milk on Overactivation of mTORC1: From Fetal to Childhood Overgrowth, Acne, Diabetes, Cancers, and Neurodegeneration

The consumption of cow's milk is a part of the basic nutritional habits of Western industrialized countries. Recent epidemiological studies associate the intake of cow's milk with an increased risk of diseases, which are associated with overactivated mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) signaling. This review presents current epidemiological and translational evidence linking milk consumption to the regulation of mTORC1, the master-switch for eukaryotic cell growth. Epidemiological studies confirm a correlation between cow's milk consumption and birthweight, body mass index, onset of menarche, linear growth during childhood, acne vulgaris, type 2 diabetes mellitus, prostate cancer, breast cancer, hepatocellular carcinoma, diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, neurodegenerative diseases, and all-cause mortality. Thus, long-term persistent consumption of cow's milk increases the risk of mTORC1-driven diseases of civilization. Milk is a highly conserved, lactation genome-controlled signaling system that functions as a maternal-neonatal relay for optimized species-specific activation of mTORC1, the nexus for regulation of eukaryotic cell growth, and control of autophagy. A deeper understanding of milk´s impact on mTORC1 signaling is of critical importance for the prevention of common diseases of civilization.

The effect of consuming milk and related products during human pregnancy over birth weight and perinatal outcomes: A systematic review and meta-analysis

OBJECTIVE

Data addressing the effect of milk and related products (M&RPs) on fetal growth are contradictory. The aim was to meta-analyze the effect of consuming M&RPs during human pregnancy over perinatal outcomes.

METHOD

A systematic literature search was performed in PubMed, EMBASE, Scopus, Web of Science, and Cochrane Library. Eligibility criteria for selection were: studies evaluating the effect of consuming M&RPs during pregnancy over birth weight and different perinatal outcomes. Random effect models were used for meta-analyses, and effects are reported as mean differences (MD) or odds ratio (OR) and their 95 % confidence intervals (CIs).

RESULTS

Fourteen studies (111,184 pregnant women) reported on the targeted perinatal outcomes. The meta-analysis of ten studies revealed a positive association between consuming a higher amount of M&RPs and birth weight (MD =51.0 g, 95 % CI 24.7-77.3), whereas in five studies a positive effect was observed on infant length (MD =0.33 cm, 95 % CI: 0.03-0.64). The higher birth weight was detected both in Western world gravids, consuming standard/conventional diets, as well as in vegetarian women from India. There were no significant differences in ultrasound measured fetal head circumference, biparietal diameter, abdominal circumference and femur length. The consumption of a higher amount of M&RPs was associated with a reduced risk of small-for-gestational age (SGA) (OR = 0.69, 95 % CI: 0.56-0.84) and low birth weight infants (OR = 0.63, 95 % CI: 0.48-0.84); in addition to a higher risk of large-for-gestational age (LGA) infants (OR = 1.11, 95 % CI: 1.02-1.21).

CONCLUSION

The consumption of a higher amount of M&RPs during pregnancy was associated with greater infant birth weight and length; in addition to a lower risk of having SGA and low birth weight infants, and a higher risk of LGA infants.

Calcium intake from diet and supplement use during early pregnancy: the Expect study I

PURPOSE

Adequate calcium intake during pregnancy is of major importance for the health of both mother and fetus. Up to date, evidence on the prevalence of inadequate calcium intake among pregnant women is sparse for Western countries, and it is unknown to what extent inadequate dietary calcium intake is adequately balanced by supplement use. The objective of this study was to estimate calcium intake from diet and supplement use during the early pregnancy in The Netherlands.

METHODS

As part of the Expect cohort study, 2477 pregnant women (8-16 weeks of gestation) completed an online questionnaire including questions on baseline characteristics, the use of calcium containing supplements, and a short food-frequency questionnaire (FFQ). Intake data were used to calculate median calcium intakes from diet, from supplements, and combined, and to compare these values with currently accepted requirement levels.

RESULTS

Forty-two percent of the pregnant women had a total calcium intake below the estimated average requirement of 800 mg/day. Median (interquartile range) calcium intake was 886 (611-1213) mg/day. Calcium or multivitamin supplements were used by 64.8% of the women at 8 weeks of gestation, with a median calcium content of 120.0 (60.0-200.0) mg/day. Prenatal vitamins were the most often used supplements (60.6%).

CONCLUSIONS

Forty-two percent of Dutch pregnant women have an inadequate calcium intake. Supplements are frequently used, but most do not contain sufficient amounts to correct this inadequate intake.

Dietary Quantity and Diversity among Anemic Pregnant Women in Madura Island, Indonesia

Dietary diversity and quantity are important for pregnant women, particularly anemic pregnant women. This study aimed to analyze the association between dietary quantity and diversity among anemic pregnant women. This cross-sectional study was conducted in 2017 at Madura Island, Indonesia, and involved 152 anemic pregnant women. Hemoglobin concentration was analyzed by the cyanmethemoglobin method. Dietary quantity was measured by the 2 × 24 h recall. Dietary diversity was determined by Minimum Dietary Diversity for Women of Reproductive Age (MDD-W). Spearman's rank association was performed to analyze the association between dietary diversity and quantity. The median of hemoglobin concentration was 10.1 g/dL, and 57.2% pregnant women had mild anemia. Most of the pregnant women had low adequacy levels of energy and macro- and micronutrients (except for iron). More than half (57.9%) of anemic pregnant women had reached minimum dietary diversity. Family size (p=0.048) and gestational age (p=0.004) had negative associations with dietary diversity. Dietary diversity had positive associations with energy (p=0.029), protein (p=0.003), vitamin A (p=0.001), vitamin C (p=0.004), and zinc (p=0.015) adequacy levels. Dietary diversity had no significant association with calcium (p=0.078) and iron adequacy level (p=0.206). High prevalence of mild and moderate anemia was found among pregnant women in their third trimester. Anemic pregnant women already consumed food with minimum dietary diversity but did not meet dietary quantity. Increasing dietary quantity is a priority for anemic pregnant women.

Nutritional and non-nutritional factors associated with low birth weight in Sawula Town, Gamo Gofa Zone, Southern Ethiopia

OBJECTIVE

Birth weight is a major predictor of infant growth and survival, and is dependent on maternal health and nutrition during pregnancy. This study aimed to determine the magnitude and identify nutritional and non-nutritional factors associated with LBW among newborn in Southern Ethiopia. Institutional-based cross-sectional study was used. Systematic random sampling was employed to select the study subjects. Data were entered into Epi-info Version 3.5.3 and then exported to SPSS Version 20 for analysis. Bivariable and multivariable logistic regression were used to compare birth weight across categories of independent variables. The output of the analysis were presented using adjusted odd ratio (AOR) with the corresponding 95% confidence interval (CI).

RESULTS

A total of 358 mothers participated in the study. The mean (± standard deviation) birth weight of all term infants was 3304 (± 684) gram. The prevalence of LBW was 17.3% (95% CI 13.7-21.2%). Mothers who had MUAC less than 23 cm [AOR = 6.51 (95% CI 2.85-14.91)] and with hemoglobin < 11 mg/dl [AOR = 3.42 (95% CI 1.73-6.78)] have increased odds of delivering LBW and mothers who often take dairy products [AOR = 0.36 (95% CI 0.13-0.98)] were less likely deliver LBW babies than their counterparts.

Dairy Products: Is There an Impact on Promotion of Prostate Cancer? A Review of the Literature

This review of the literature aims to study potential associations between high consumption of milk and/or dairy products and prostate cancer (PC). Literature is scarce, yet there is a direct relationship between mTORC1 activation and PC; several ingredients in milk/dairy products, when in high concentrations, increase signaling of the mTORC1 pathway. However, there are no studies showing an unequivocal relationship between milk products PC initiation and/or progression. Three different reviews were conducted with articles published in the last 5 years: (M1) PC and intake of dairy products, taking into account the possible mTORC1signaling mechanism; (M2) Intake of milk products and incidence/promotion of PC; (M3) mTORC1 activation signaling pathway, levels of IGF-1 and PC; (M4) mTORC pathway and dairy products. Of the 32 reviews identified, only 21 met the inclusion criteria and were analyzed. There is little scientific evidence that directly link the three factors: incidence/promotion of PC, intake of dairy products and PC, and PC and increased mTORC1 signaling. Persistent hyper-activation of mTORC1 is associated with PC promotion. The activity of exosomal mRNA in cellular communication may lead to different impacts of different types of milk and whether or not mammalian milks will have their own characteristics within each species. Based on this review of the literature, it is possible to establish a relationship between the consumption of milk products and the progression of PC; we also found a possible association with PC initiation, hence it is likely that the intake of dairy products should be reduced or minimized in mens' diet.

Effects of Milk and Dairy Product Consumption on Pregnancy and Lactation Outcomes: A Systematic Review

Pregnancy and lactation are considered critical periods in a female's life. Thus, the maternal diet must provide sufficient energy and nutrients to meet the mother's higher than usual requirements as well as the needs of the growing fetus. The maternal diet must enable the mother to provide stores of nutrients required for adequate fetal development, and good health and quality of life in infancy and later adulthood. Among the food and beverage groups, milk and dairy products can play a very important role in achieving these targets due to their high nutrient density and bioavailability, as well as their availability and widespread consumption. The objective of this study was to evaluate the influence of maternal milk and dairy consumption on pregnancy and lactation outcomes in healthy women. This report mainly focuses on the effects of the mother's intake of dairy products on infant birth weight and length, fetal femur length, head circumference, gestational weight gain, preterm birth, spontaneous abortion, breast milk consumption, and human milk nutritional value. A systematic review of available studies published up to May 2018 was conducted. A preliminary broad search of the literature yielded 5,695 citations. Four of the investigators independently selected studies for inclusion according to predefined eligibility criteria. Thirty-seven full-text articles were evaluated for potential inclusion, and 17 studies were finally included. Six were prospective cohort studies, 3 were intervention studies, 3 were retrospective cohort studies, 3 were cross-sectional studies, and 2 were case-control studies. Although the number and types of studies prevent definite conclusions, there appears to be a trend that maternal milk intake during pregnancy is positively associated with infant birth weight and length. The lack of studies prevents any conclusions being drawn related to preterm deliveries, spontaneous abortion, and lactation.

Exosomes of pasteurized milk: potential pathogens of Western diseases

Milk consumption is a hallmark of western diet. According to common believes, milk consumption has beneficial effects for human health. Pasteurization of cow's milk protects thermolabile vitamins and other organic compounds including bioactive and bioavailable exosomes and extracellular vesicles in the range of 40-120 nm, which are pivotal mediators of cell communication via systemic transfer of specific micro-ribonucleic acids, mRNAs and regulatory proteins such as transforming growth factor-β. There is compelling evidence that human and bovine milk exosomes play a crucial role for adequate metabolic and immunological programming of the newborn infant at the beginning of extrauterine life. Milk exosomes assist in executing an anabolic, growth-promoting and immunological program confined to the postnatal period in all mammals. However, epidemiological and translational evidence presented in this review indicates that continuous exposure of humans to exosomes of pasteurized milk may confer a substantial risk for the development of chronic diseases of civilization including obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus, osteoporosis, common cancers (prostate, breast, liver, B-cells) as well as Parkinson's disease. Exosomes of pasteurized milk may represent new pathogens that should not reach the human food chain.

Consumption habits of pregnant women in the Jazan region, Saudi Arabia: a descriptive study

OBJECTIVE

Maternal nutritional habits are critical for the health of both mother and offspring. Postpartum outcomes for mother and infant are strongly influenced by the mother's nutritional status. Information about consumption habits among pregnant women in Saudi Arabia is scarce. Thus, this study aims to describe the consumption habits of pregnant women in the Jazan region, Saudi Arabia.

RESULTS

Meat, fish, and fruits were consumed by 97%, 86%, and 90% of the sample. Sugary desserts, fast food, and canned food were consumed by 90%, 81%, and 71% of the sample. Caffeine, juices, and milk were consumed by 75%, 92%, and 81% of the sample. Previous percentages show general higher consumption habits of food and beverages. Over-the-counter medication was used by only 17%. Folic acid, iron, and calcium use by 77%, 64%, and 58% of the sample, respectively. These percentage shows conservative use of Over-the-counter medication and sub-optimal use of important dietary supplements. Moreover, there was a positive association between caffeine intake and trimesters. Furthermore, there was negative association between education level and fish intake. Finally, canned foods consumption was higher among low income pregnant women.

Consumption of dairy, fruits and dark green leafy vegetables is associated with lower risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes (APO): a prospective cohort study in rural Ethiopia

BACKGROUND

Poor maternal nutrition during pregnancy is a leading modifiable risk factor associated with risks of adverse pregnancy outcomes (APO). Nevertheless, there is paucity of evidence if consumption of some food groups is associated with lower risk of APO, particularly in low-income settings. We aimed to determine whether consumption of some food groups is associated with lower risk of APOs such as: preterm birth (PTB), low-birth weight (LBW), and stillbirth in rural Central Ethiopia.

METHODS

A multi-center (8 health centers) prospective cohort study, enrolling 432 pregnant women during their initial antenatal care visit, was employed. All mothers were then followed monthly (for a total of four visits) from enrollment to delivery. Midwives in respective health centers assessed dietary diversity using the Women's individual dietary diversity score and evaluated birth outcomes following standard procedures. Logistic regression models were run to predict association of food groups with the APO.

FINDINGS

Out of the 374 pregnant women who completed the study, one in five [74 (19.8%)] experienced at least one of the APO: 34 (9.1%) gave birth to LBW babies, 51(13.6%) had PTB and 17 (4.5%) experienced stillbirth. Poor or inconsistent consumption (<¾ assessments) of dark green leafy vegetables (adjusted odds ratio (AOR) = 2.01; 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.04-3.87), dairy products (AOR = 2.64; 95% CI: 1.11-6.30), and fruits and vegetables (AOR = 2.92; 95% CI: 1.49-5.67) were independently associated with higher APO risks. Whereas, being nonanemic at term (AOR = 0.24; 95% CI: 0.12-0.48) was independently associated with lower APO risks.

CONCLUSIONS

Poor or inconsistent consumption of dairy, dark green leafy vegetables and fruits were associated with higher risk of APOs. While community-based trials and mechanistic studies are needed to substantiate these findings, efforts to promote dietary diversity through increased consumption of fruits, vegetables and dairy may be beneficial in this and similar settings.

Iodine intake from supplements and diet during pregnancy and child cognitive and motor development: the INMA Mother and Child Cohort Study

Background

The effect of mild-to-moderate maternal iodine deficiency on the neuropsychological development of their offspring is uncertain. We aimed to assess the association between iodine status during pregnancy and the cognitive and motor development of children at 4–5 years.

Methods

We conducted a prospective cohort study in four Spanish regions with recruitment of pregnant women between 2003 and 2008 and follow-up of their children up to 4–5 years (mean (SD)=4.8 (0.6)). Cognitive and motor function was assessed in 1803 children using the McCarthy Scales of Children’s Abilities. Dietary iodine and supplementation were measured through questionnaires twice during pregnancy. Urinary iodine concentration (UIC) was measured in spot samples. The residuals of a regression of UIC against creatinine were used to define a variable corrected for creatinine (UIC~Cr).

Results

Neither iodine supplements nor iodised salt consumption or maternal UIC were associated with cognitive or motor function. After adjusting for creatinine, children of women with UIC~Cr <100 µg/L had 3.93 (95% CI −6.18 to –1.69) general cognitive scores lower than the reference (150–249 µg/L). Dietary iodine was inversely associated with motor scores and milk but not other dairy products or seafood consumption accounted for this association (beta: −1.36; 95% CI −2.12 to –0.61; per one daily milk serving).

Conclusions

We found an association between low maternal urinary iodine and lower cognitive scores in childhood, although only when corrected for creatinine, adding to the evidence that iodine deficiency may have potential harmful effects on neurodevelopment. Iodine supplementation does not appear to improve child’s neurodevelopment at 4–5 years.

MicroRNAs: Milk's epigenetic regulators

Our perception of milk has changed from a "simple food" to a highly sophisticated maternal-neonatal nutrient and communication system orchestrating early programming of the infant. Milk miRNAs delivered by exosomes and milk fat globules derived from mammary gland epithelial cells play a key role in this process. Exosomes resist the harsh intestinal environment, are taken up by intestinal cells via endocytosis, and reach the systemic circulation of the milk recipient. The most abundant miRNA found in exosomes and milk fat globules of human and cow's milk, miRNA-148a, attenuates the expression of DNA methyltransferase 1, which is critically involved in epigenetic regulation. Another important miRNA of milk, miRNA-125b, targets p53, the guardian of the genome, and its diverse transcriptional network. The deficiency of exosomal miRNAs in infant formula and the persistent uptake of milk miRNAs after the nursing period via consumption of cow's milk are two epigenetic aberrations that may induce adverse long-term effects on human health.

Milk's Role as an Epigenetic Regulator in Health and Disease

It is the intention of this review to characterize milk's role as an epigenetic regulator in health and disease. Based on translational research, we identify milk as a major epigenetic modulator of gene expression of the milk recipient. Milk is presented as an epigenetic "doping system" of mammalian development. Milk exosome-derived micro-ribonucleic acids (miRNAs) that target DNA methyltransferases are implicated to play the key role in the upregulation of developmental genes such as FTO, INS, and IGF1. In contrast to miRNA-deficient infant formula, breastfeeding via physiological miRNA transfer provides the appropriate signals for adequate epigenetic programming of the newborn infant. Whereas breastfeeding is restricted to the lactation period, continued consumption of cow's milk results in persistent epigenetic upregulation of genes critically involved in the development of diseases of civilization such as diabesity, neurodegeneration, and cancer. We hypothesize that the same miRNAs that epigenetically increase lactation, upregulate gene expression of the milk recipient via milk-derived miRNAs. It is of critical concern that persistent consumption of pasteurized cow's milk contaminates the human food chain with bovine miRNAs, that are identical to their human analogs. Commercial interest to enhance dairy lactation performance may further increase the epigenetic miRNA burden for the milk consumer.

Triglyceride glucose-waist circumference, a novel and effective predictor of diabetes in first-degree relatives of type 2 diabetes patients: cross-sectional and prospective cohort study

BACKGROUND

Body mass index (BMI), waist circumference (WC), visceral adiposity index (VAI), triglyceride glucose index (TyG), TyG-BMI, and TyG-WC have been reported as markers of insulin resistance or type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). However, little is known about the associations between the aforementioned markers and the risk of prediabetes and diabetes in first-degree relatives (FDRs) of T2DM patients.

METHODS

1544 FDRs of T2DM patients (635 men and 909 women) were enrolled in the initial cross-sectional study and all of them finished corresponding examinations. Logistic regression analysis and receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve were used to compare and identify the associations of the six parameters (BMI, WC, VAI, TyG, TyG-BMI and TyG-WC) with the prevalence of prediabetes and diabetes. Subsequently, 452 of them were followed-up for an average of 5 years. Cox proportional hazard regression model was applied to confirm the predictive value of the optimal marker.

RESULTS

Among the indices, TyG-WC was more strongly associated with the prevalence of prediabetes and diabetes. Compared with participants in the lowest quartile of TyG-WC, the adjusted odds ratio and 95 % CIs for prediabetes and diabetes was 11.19 (7.62-16.42) for those in the top quartile of TyG-WC. Moreover, the largest AUC was also observed in TyG-WC (0.765, 95 % CIs 0.741-0.789, P < 0.001). The robust predictive value of TyG-WC was further confirmed in the follow-up study (HR: 7.13, 95 % CIs 3.41-14.90, P < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

TyG-WC is a novel and clinically effective marker for early identifying the risks of prediabetes and diabetes in FDRs of T2DM patients.

Relationship between dairy product intake during pregnancy and neonatal and maternal outcomes among Portuguese women

BACKGROUND

The role played by dairy product intake during pregnancy on neonatal outcomes has raised interest in the last few years. However, studies on this association remain scarce. Thus, the aim of this study was to determine the association between dairy product consumption during pregnancy and neonatal and maternal outcomes.

METHODS

A prospective study was conducted with 98 pregnant women, aged 18-40, from the city of Porto, Portugal. Socio-demographic and lifestyle characteristics were assessed through a questionnaire. Dairy product consumption was assessed with a three-day food diary completed during the first and second trimesters. Postpartum medical records were examined for neonatal and maternal outcomes. Multivariate linear regression analyses were performed to assess the association between dairy intake and neonatal and maternal outcomes, adjusting for dietary variables and maternal characteristics.

RESULTS

Compared to the first trimester pregnant women had higher energy intake and lower calcium, iodine and yogurt intake in the second trimester (P<0.05). Total dairy and yogurt intake in the first trimester were positively associated with head circumference and placental weight (respectively β=0.002, P=0.014, β=0.333, P=0.012). Change in total dairy intake between the second and first trimester was negatively associated with maternal weight gain during pregnancy (β=-0.007, P=0.020).

CONCLUSION

The findings of this study suggest that dairy product intake during pregnancy may have an effect on neonatal head circumference, placental weight, and gestational weight gain.

Milk: an epigenetic amplifier of FTO-mediated transcription? Implications for Western diseases

Single-nucleotide polymorphisms within intron 1 of the FTO (fat mass and obesity-associated) gene are associated with enhanced FTO expression, increased body weight, obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). The N⁶-methyladenosine (m⁶A) demethylase FTO plays a pivotal regulatory role for postnatal growth and energy expenditure. The purpose of this review is to provide translational evidence that links milk signaling with FTO-activated transcription of the milk recipient. FTO-dependent demethylation of m⁶A regulates mRNA splicing required for adipogenesis, increases the stability of mRNAs, and affects microRNA (miRNA) expression and miRNA biosynthesis. FTO senses branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs) and activates the nutrient sensitive kinase mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1), which plays a key role in translation. Milk provides abundant BCAAs and glutamine, critical components increasing FTO expression. CpG hypomethylation in the first intron of FTO has recently been associated with T2DM. CpG methylation is generally associated with gene silencing. In contrast, CpG demethylation generally increases transcription. DNA de novo methylation of CpG sites is facilitated by DNA methyltransferases (DNMT) 3A and 3B, whereas DNA maintenance methylation is controlled by DNMT1. MiRNA-29s target all DNMTs and thus reduce DNA CpG methylation. Cow´s milk provides substantial amounts of exosomal miRNA-29s that reach the systemic circulation and target mRNAs of the milk recipient. Via DNMT suppression, milk exosomal miRNA-29s may reduce the magnitude of FTO methylation, thereby epigenetically increasing FTO expression in the milk consumer. High lactation performance with increased milk yield has recently been associated with excessive miRNA-29 expression of dairy cow mammary epithelial cells (DCMECs). Notably, the galactopoietic hormone prolactin upregulates the transcription factor STAT3, which induces miRNA-29 expression. In a retrovirus-like manner milk exosomes may transfer DCMEC-derived miRNA-29s and bovine FTO mRNA to the milk consumer amplifying FTO expression. There is compelling evidence that obesity, T2DM, prostate and breast cancer, and neurodegenerative diseases are all associated with increased FTO expression. Maximization of lactation performance by veterinary medicine with enhanced miRNA-29s and FTO expression associated with increased exosomal miRNA-29 and FTO mRNA transfer to the milk consumer may represent key epigenetic mechanisms promoting FTO/mTORC1-mediated diseases of civilization.

MicroRNAs in Breastmilk and the Lactating Breast: Potential Immunoprotectors and Developmental Regulators for the Infant and the Mother

Human milk (HM) is the optimal source of nutrition, protection and developmental programming for infants. It is species-specific and consists of various bioactive components, including microRNAs, small non-coding RNAs regulating gene expression at the post-transcriptional level. microRNAs are both intra- and extra-cellular and are present in body fluids of humans and animals. Of these body fluids, HM appears to be one of the richest sources of microRNA, which are highly conserved in its different fractions, with milk cells containing more microRNAs than milk lipids, followed by skim milk. Potential effects of exogenous food-derived microRNAs on gene expression have been demonstrated, together with the stability of milk-derived microRNAs in the gastrointestinal tract. Taken together, these strongly support the notion that milk microRNAs enter the systemic circulation of the HM fed infant and exert tissue-specific immunoprotective and developmental functions. This has initiated intensive research on the origin, fate and functional significance of milk microRNAs. Importantly, recent studies have provided evidence of endogenous synthesis of HM microRNA within the human lactating mammary epithelium. These findings will now form the basis for investigations of the role of microRNA in the epigenetic control of normal and aberrant mammary development, and particularly lactation performance.

Milk--A Nutrient System of Mammalian Evolution Promoting mTORC1-Dependent Translation

Based on own translational research of the biochemical and hormonal effects of cow's milk consumption in humans, this review presents milk as a signaling system of mammalian evolution that activates the nutrient-sensitive kinase mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1), the pivotal regulator of translation. Milk, a mammary gland-derived secretory product, is required for species-specific gene-nutrient interactions that promote appropriate growth and development of the newborn mammal. This signaling system is highly conserved and tightly controlled by the lactation genome. Milk is sufficient to activate mTORC1, the crucial regulator of protein, lipid, and nucleotide synthesis orchestrating anabolism, cell growth and proliferation. To fulfill its mTORC1-activating function, milk delivers four key metabolic messengers: (1) essential branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs); (2) glutamine; (3) palmitic acid; and (4) bioactive exosomal microRNAs, which in a synergistical fashion promote mTORC1-dependent translation. In all mammals except Neolithic humans, postnatal activation of mTORC1 by milk intake is restricted to the postnatal lactation period. It is of critical concern that persistent hyperactivation of mTORC1 is associated with aging and the development of age-related disorders such as obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus, cancer, and neurodegenerative diseases. Persistent mTORC1 activation promotes endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and drives an aimless quasi-program, which promotes aging and age-related diseases.

The pathogenic role of persistent milk signaling in mTORC1- and milk-microRNA-driven type 2 diabetes mellitus

Milk, the secretory product of the lactation genome, promotes growth of the newborn mammal. Milk delivers insulinotropic amino acids, thus maintains a molecular crosstalk with the pancreatic β-cell of the milk recipient. Homeostasis of β-cells and insulin production depend on the appropriate magnitude of mTORC1 signaling. mTORC1 is activated by branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs), glutamine, and palmitic acid, abundant nutrient signals of cow´s milk. Furthermore, milk delivers bioactive exosomal microRNAs. After milk consumption, bovine microRNA-29b, a member of the diabetogenic microRNA-29- family, reaches the systemic circulation and the cells of the milk consumer. MicroRNA-29b downregulates branchedchain α-ketoacid dehydrogenase, a potential explanation for increased BCAA serum levels, the metabolic signature of insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). In non-obese diabetic mice, microRNA-29b downregulates the antiapoptotic protein Mcl-1, which leads to early β-cell death. In all mammals except Neolithic humans, milk-driven mTORC1 signaling is physiologically restricted to the postnatal period. In contrast, chronic hyperactivated mTORC1 signaling has been associated with the development of age-related diseases of civilization including T2DM. Notably, chronic hyperactivation of mTORC1 enhances endoplasmic reticulum stress that promotes apoptosis. In fact, hyperactivated β-cell mTORC1 signaling induced early β-cell apoptosis in a mouse model. The EPIC-InterAct Study demonstrated an association between milk consumption and T2DM in France, Italy, United Kingdom, Germany, and Sweden. In contrast, fermented milk products and cheese exhibit an inverse correlation. Since the early 1950´s, refrigeration technology allowed widespread consumption of fresh pasteurized milk, which facilitates daily intake of bioactive bovine microRNAs. Persistent uptake of cow´s milk-derived microRNAs apparently transfers an overlooked epigenetic diabetogenic program that should not reach the human food chain.

Hypothetic Interindividual and Interspecies Relevance of microRNAs Released in Body Fluids

MicroRNAs may not only be relevant within the organism, but microRNAs released in body fluids might affect other individuals and hypothetically also other species. Such interindividual and cross-species activity of microRNAs appears to be very interesting, but these actions are largely hypothetic at present warranting extensive experimental validation. Food-derived microRNAs might extend the relevance of food for epigenetic regulation; however, the efficient gastrointestinal transfer of microRNAs needs to be demonstrated. We have raised the hypothesis that the nonprotein coding "dark matter" of the genome containing microRNA genes might be relevant in the regulation of interindividual and interspecies epigenetic communication.