Seroepidemiology and the Molecular Detection of Animal Brucellosis in Punjab, Pakistan

Epidemiology of Brucellosis in Small Ruminants of Rural and Peri-Urban Areas of Multan, Pakistan

Brucellosis is a widespread zoonotic disease of veterinary and public health importance with considerably higher prevalence in developing/underdeveloped countries. This study reports the prevalence and risk determinants of brucellosis in small ruminants of peri-urban and rural areas of district Multan, Southern Punjab, Pakistan. For this purpose, sera samples (n = 392) of small ruminants were collected and subjected to preliminary screening using commercially available RBPT reagents followed by serodetection of brucellosis using multispecies i-ELISA kit (ID.vet, France). All the ELISA positive samples were confirmed by PCR using genus-specific primers, and frequencies of Brucella species in positive samples were enumerated using species-specific primers. Results indicated seropositivity rates of 9.69, 9.95, and 10.20% in study population using RBPT reagents of IDEXX-USA, ID.Vet-France, and VRI-Pakistan, respectively, with a statistically nonsignificant difference (p > 0.05). Results of ELISA showed an overall seroprevalence rate of 7.14% in target population with a slightly higher rate in sheep (7.65%) as compared to goat (6.63%) population (p = 0.695; OR = 1.16, 95% CI = 0.53, 2.57). Results revealed that out of total positive samples, B. abortus was detected in 60.71% of seropositive samples and B. melitensis was detected in 14.28% of positive samples. It was revealed that risk factors including body condition scores, hygienic conditions of the housing facility, farming system, reproductive disorders, educational status of farmers, and awareness of farmers about brucellosis had significant association with brucellosis in small ruminants of study area (p < 0.05). Conversely, farm/herd size, locality, gender, age, weight, and parity showed a nonsignificant association (p > 0.05) with brucellosis. In conclusion, brucellosis is prevalent in small ruminants of Multan, Pakistan. It is recommended to devise and implement effective control strategies with a major focus on raising awareness about brucellosis in farmers for the containment of infection in the region.

The Reasons Behind Long-Term Endemicity of Brucellosis in Low and Middle-Income Countries: Challenges and Future Perspectives

Brucellosis is a neglected worldwide zoonotic disease with more than 500,000 new human cases each year. Direct contact with infected animals and consumption of undercooked animal origin foods are the main routes of brucellosis transmission to humans. Although long endeavor has been applied to control and eliminate brucellosis from animal and human populations in developing countries especially in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), the disease is still endemic in these regions. Many common or unique factors including raw milk consumption, unhygienic slaughter of livestock, extensive husbandry, budgetary limitations, misdiagnosis, and other conditions play a role in long-term endemicity of brucellosis in these locations. It has been shown that One Health is the only practical approach to control brucellosis; however, applying such methods is challenging in low-resource areas. In such conditions, brucellosis is continuously maintained in animals and repeatedly spread to human populations. In this article, factors playing a critical role in brucellosis endemicity, and the real conditions challenging the application of One Health approach in control of brucellosis are highlighted.

Human Brucellosis: An Observational Study From a Tertiary Care Centre in North India

AIM

The main aim/objective of this study was to detect and characterize the Brucella species from patients having complaints of joint pain and also to know the potential causes of human brucellosis. In our study, we focused on joint pain symptoms that may be due to arthralgia or arthritis.  Introduction: Brucellosis is a neglected zoonotic disease that affects both humans and animals. In humans, brucellosis begins with chronic illness leading to great financial losses from not being able to work well and continued treatment costs, but few such studies have come from northern India. Joint pain is the common presentation of brucellosis and there are several risk factors associated with brucellosis.

METHODS

A total of 200 blood samples were collected from the participants having joints pain from September 2019 to September 2021 at Gandhi Memorial & Associated Hospitals of King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India, and tested by serology for anti-Brucella IgM and IgG enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), molecular tests byreverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), conventional polymerase chain reaction (PCR), and automated blood culture system. The anti-Brucella IgM and IgG ELISA were performed using the kit from NovaTec Immundiagnostica GmbH (Dietzenbach, Germany). Isolation of DNA was carried out using the QIAamp DNA Mini kit (QIAGEN, Hilden, Germany), and the primers and probes specific for targeted regions (BCSP31 and IS711 gene) in the Brucella genome were procured from Eurofins Scientific SE (Luxembourg, France), and for internal control from CDC.

RESULT

The study showed 19 (9.5%) and 23 (11.5%) positive results by anti-Brucella IgM ELISA and anti-Brucella IgG, respectively, and of these, one (0.5%) was positive for both anti-Brucella IgM and anti-Brucella IgG ELISA. Out of 19 anti-Brucella IgM ELISA positive, eight (4%) samples were positive for PCR/RT-PCR and that was negative for anti-Brucella IgG ELISA. All blood culture reports of all patients were negative.  Conclusion: Anti-Brucella IgM ELISA was more accurate than anti-Brucella IgG ELISA in detecting human brucellosis. Consumption of animal products (i.e. milk, a dairy product of cow, buffalo, goat, and meat of goat) and contact with animals were the main risk factors that were identified for Brucella disease.

Comparison of Illumina and Oxford Nanopore Technology for genome analysis of Francisella tularensis, Bacillus anthracis, and Brucella suis

BACKGROUND

Bacterial epidemiology needs to understand the spread and dissemination of strains in a One Health context. This is important for highly pathogenic bacteria such as Bacillus anthracis, Brucella species, and Francisella tularensis. Whole genome sequencing (WGS) has paved the way for genetic marker detection and high-resolution genotyping. While such tasks are established for Illumina short-read sequencing, Oxford Nanopore Technology (ONT) long-read sequencing has yet to be evaluated for such highly pathogenic bacteria with little genomic variations between strains. In this study, three independent sequencing runs were performed using Illumina, ONT flow cell version 9.4.1, and 10.4 for six strains of each of Ba. anthracis, Br. suis and F. tularensis. Data from ONT sequencing alone, Illumina sequencing alone and two hybrid assembly approaches were compared.

RESULTS

As previously shown, ONT produces ultra-long reads, while Illumina produces short reads with higher sequencing accuracy. Flow cell version 10.4 improved sequencing accuracy over version 9.4.1. The correct (sub-)species were inferred from all tested technologies, individually. Moreover, the sets of genetic markers for virulence, were almost identical for the respective species. The long reads of ONT allowed to assemble not only chromosomes of all species to near closure, but also virulence plasmids of Ba. anthracis. Assemblies based on nanopore data alone, Illumina data alone, and both hybrid assemblies correctly detected canonical (sub-)clades for Ba. anthracis and F. tularensis as well as multilocus sequence types for Br. suis. For F. tularensis, high-resolution genotyping using core-genome MLST (cgMLST) and core-genome Single-Nucleotide-Polymorphism (cgSNP) typing produced highly comparable results between data from Illumina and both ONT flow cell versions. For Ba. anthracis, only data from flow cell version 10.4 produced similar results to Illumina for both high-resolution typing methods. However, for Br. suis, high-resolution genotyping yielded larger differences comparing Illumina data to data from both ONT flow cell versions.

CONCLUSIONS

In summary, combining data from ONT and Illumina for high-resolution genotyping might be feasible for F. tularensis and Ba. anthracis, but not yet for Br. suis. The ongoing improvement of nanopore technology and subsequent data analysis may facilitate high-resolution genotyping for all bacteria with highly stable genomes in future.

Perspectives of economic losses due to condemnation of cattle and buffalo carcasses in the northern region of Brazil

The work aims to study the economical losses of the condemnation of bovine and buffalo carcasses, in order to estimate the losses in animals slaughtered in Santarém-Pará, Brazil, between 2016 and 2018, with data obtained from the Municipal Department of Agriculture and Fisheries. Sex, age, origin, total number of animals slaughtered and causes of condemnation of carcasses were considered. All analyzes were performed in RStudio version 1.1.463. In this study, 71,277 bovine carcasses and 2,016 buffalo carcasses were inspected, of which 300 bovine and 71 buffalo were condemned. The highest prevalence of causes of condemnation in cattle was recorded for brucellosis (0.0020%) and tuberculosis (0.0019%). In buffaloes, tuberculosis (0.0307%) peritonitis (0,0019%) were the main causes of condemnations. Economical losses were more evident in females, for both species. The projection of economical losses related to the condemnation of carcasses showed a sharp growth for the next three years, if the average growth remains constant. The biggest projected loss was for bovine females, with an accumulated projection of $ 5,451.44. The smallest estimated loss was for buffalo males, projected at more than thirty-two thousand reais. The most important causes of condemnation report the diseases brucellosis and tuberculosis, as the ones with the greatest impact. In the buffalo species this was even more accentuated, even though the number of buffaloes slaughtered is more than 35 times smaller than the number of cattle.

Molecular detection of Brucella abortus and Brucella melitensis in domestic ruminants and their ticks in selected areas of western Iran

Background

Brucellosis is one of the most important zoonotic diseases caused by Gram-negative bacteria belonging to the genus Brucella. Detection of Brucella species in different countries is of utmost importance.

Aims

This study aimed to detect Brucella abortus and Brucella melitensis in domestic ruminant blood samples and their ticks in western Iran.

Methods

Sampling was conducted on ruminants from August to September 2020 in four different counties of Kurdistan Province, including Divandareh, Marivan, Baneh, and Sanandaj. Totally, 250 blood samples were collected from 250 small ruminants. There were no ticks on the skin of six (2.4%) ruminants, and 244 ticks were isolated from 244 animals. After genomic DNA extraction from all the collected samples, quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) was performed to detect IS711 gene.

Results

Based on qPCR results, Brucella genus was detected in two blood samples (0.8%) from female sheep and four ticks (1.6%) from male sheep, including three Dermacentor marginatus (1.22%) and one Rhipicephalus turanicus (0.4%). Although B. melitensis was not detected in any tick or blood sample, one tick sample (D. marginatus) was positive for B. abortus.

Conclusion

Considering the positivity of ticks for brucellosis in this study, there is a possibility of Brucella transmission from infected ticks to humans and animals through tick bites, nevertheless, in order to identify the Brucella transmission relationship between ticks and animals, serological tests should be used in future studies.

The first study on seroprevalence and risk factors for zoonotic transmission of ovine and caprine brucellosis in the Province of Bam, Burkina Faso

Background and Aim:

Brucellosis is a bacterial disease notorious for its ability to infect a wide range of domestic and wildlife animals, as well as humans. This study aimed to determine the seroprevalence of ovine and caprine brucellosis and the associated risk factors in the Province of Bam in Burkina Faso.

Materials and Methods:

The individual serological status of 300 unvaccinated sheep and 300 unvaccinated goats was determined by Rose Bengal and indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (iELISA) serological tests used in parallel. The frequency of behaviors conferring risk of developing this zoonotic disease was determined through two epidemiological questionnaires, which identified known risk factors for the transmission of brucellosis between animals and humans.

Results:

Individual seroprevalence was estimated at 6.0% (18/300) in sheep and 4.3% (13/300) in goats. The “herd” prevalence of brucellosis was estimated at 60% in sheep while 40% in goats. Positivity in the iELISA serological test was significantly associated with age, sex, and husbandry system in sheep and goats.

Conclusion:

These results indicate that Brucella melitensis circulates in sheep and goat farms in the Province of Bam in Burkina Faso. As B. melitensis is highly pathogenic to humans, adequate measures must be taken to protect the population against this zoonotic disease.

Animal and Human Brucellosis in Pakistan

Brucellosis is a bacterial zoonotic disease that affects many animal species and can be transmitted to humans via direct contact or via contaminated food. Although brucellosis is a serious health hazard, its public health concern has been neglected in many countries. In some developing countries, such as Pakistan, where brucellosis is endemic, this disease continues to be of importance. A literature search for the past 11 years (2011–2021) provided a comprehensive insight into brucellosis in Pakistan. In this review, particular emphasis was placed on occurrence, diagnostic tests used, and prevention, treatment, and control in the context of the “One Health” approach.

Whole-Genome Sequencing for Tracing the Genetic Diversity of Brucella abortus and Brucella melitensis Isolated from Livestock in Egypt

Brucellosis is a highly contagious zoonosis that occurs worldwide. Whole-genome sequencing (WGS) has become a widely accepted molecular typing method for outbreak tracing and genomic epidemiology of brucellosis. Twenty-nine Brucella spp. (eight B. abortus biovar 1 and 21 B. melitensis biovar 3) were isolated from lymph nodes, milk, and fetal abomasal contents of infected cattle, buffaloes, sheep, and goats originating from nine districts in Egypt. The isolates were identified by microbiological methods and matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS). Differentiation and genotyping were confirmed using multiplex PCR. Illumina MiSeq^® was used to sequence the 29 Brucella isolates. Using MLST typing, ST11 and ST1 were identified among B. melitensis and B. abortus, respectively. Brucella abortus and B. melitensis isolates were divided into two main clusters (clusters 1 and 2) containing two and nine distinct genotypes by core-genome SNP analysis, respectively. The genotypes were irregularly distributed over time and space in the study area. Both Egyptian B. abortus and B. melitensis isolates proved to be genomically unique upon comparison with publicly available sequencing from strains of neighboring Mediterranean, African, and Asian countries. The antimicrobial resistance mechanism caused by mutations in rpoB, gyrA, and gyrB genes associated with rifampicin and ciprofloxacin resistance were identified. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study investigating the epidemiology of Brucella isolates from livestock belonging to different localities in Egypt based on whole genome analysis.

Seroprevalence and Associated Risk Factors of Bovine Brucellosis in District Gujranwala, Punjab, Pakistan

Simple Summary

Our study estimated the seroprevalence of brucellosis in bovine herds and identified the important risk factors associated with the occurrence of the disease at livestock farms. A total of 220 sera from 46 bovine herds of district Gujranwala, Punjab, Pakistan, was collected and subjected to brucellosis screening by serology. It resulted in 58.7% herd-based and 22.7% individual animal-based seroprevalence. Age, herd size and previous history of abortion came out as associated risk factors. Strict biosecurity, personal protection, quarantine measures and routine screening are recommended at livestock-holdings/farms, whereas disease awareness and pasteurization of milk are recommended for the general population to prevent zoonosis.

Abstract

Bovine brucellosis is a contagious zoonotic disease that causes economic losses through abortion and infertility. A cross-sectional study was designed to determine the seroprevalence and associated risk factors of bovine brucellosis in district Gujranwala of Punjab, Pakistan. A total of 220 bovine sera (112 from buffaloes, 108 from cattle) from 46 unvaccinated herds were collected. Parallel testing by the Rose Bengal Plate Test (RBPT) and Indirect Enzyme-linked Immunosorbent Assay (I-ELISA) showed a 58.7% (27/46) herd-level and 22.7% (50/220) animal-level seroprevalence. Seroprevalence was higher (p < 0.001, OR = 7.62) in adult animals (37.2%) compared to younger animals (4.9%). A herd size of >10 animals (p = 0.021, OR = 7.83), less housing space (p = 0.037, OR = 6.39) and history of abortion at the farm (p = 0.023, OR = 5.6) were found as risk factors associated with the seropositivity of brucellosis. There was a substantial agreement between the RBPT and I-ELISA results (Cohen’s kappa coefficient (κ) = 64.16, percent agreement = 89.5%). In conclusion, a relatively higher seroprevalence was found compared to the previous reports from the country. Standardization and validation of the advanced diagnostic tests would be needed. Biosecurity, personal protection, quarantine measures and routine screening of animals at the farm level and disease awareness programs and consumption of pasteurized milk in the human population will be helpful in preventing the transmission/zoonosis of the disease.

Seroprevalence of Brucellosis in Buffalo Worldwide and Associated Risk Factors: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Background: Brucellosis is an important zoonotic disease caused by Brucella spp. Brucellosis is widely distributed in more than 160 or 170 countries around the world, where it poses a huge threat to animal husbandry and human health. About 150 million head of water buffalo, distributed across more than 40 countries worldwide, are kept for the purposes of service, milk, and meat. High incidence of Brucella spp. in buffalo has negatively affected dairy products and meat products.

Results: We searched all research related to seroprevalence of brucellosis in water buffalo anywhere in the world in PubMed, Science Direct, SpringerLink, China National Knowledge Infrastructure, Wanfang Database, and VIP Chinese Journal Databases. A total of 26 articles published from 1985 to 2020 met the final selection criteria. The overall seroprevalence of buffalo brucellosis worldwide was 9.7%. The seroprevalence before 2010 (20.8%) (95% CI: 5.6–42.2) was much higher than the seroprevalence rate from 2010 to 2020 (4.2%) (95% CI: 1.8–7.5). Subgroup analysis by feeding mode found that the point estimate of seroprevalence in stock buffalo (11.5%) (95% CI: 3.6–23.0) was higher than that in captive buffalo (10.6%) (95% CI: 4.9–18.1). Subgroup analysis by farming mode found that the seroprevalence was higher in captive-bred buffalo (10.7%) (95% CI: 6.6–15.7) than in intensively farmed buffalo (8.5) (95% CI: 0.9–22.2). The seroprevalence in buffalo living in dry lands (6.4%) (95% CI: 2.0–12.9) is greater than that in buffalo living in wetlands (5.1%) (95% CI: 1.8–10.4) (P < 0.05). The seroprevalence in female buffalo (10.1%) (95% CI: 3.4–19.7) was higher than that in male buffalo (4.4%) (95% CI: 2.0–7.4). The seroprevalence in lactating buffalo was higher than that in buffalo of other ages (26.9%) (95% CI: 1.8–66.5). Subgroup analysis by detection method found that the seroprevalence detected by the complement fixation test (27.3%) (95% CI: 0.7–70.8) was much higher than that detected by other methods.

Conclusion: The results of this meta-analysis showed that buffalo brucellosis infection is very common in buffalo herds around the world. Although the seroprevalence of brucellosis in buffalo and humans is relatively low, serious effects upon animal husbandry and public health make it necessary to take effective control and preventive measures to control the spread of this disease.

Serosurvey and Risk Factors Associated with Brucella Infection in High Risk Occupations from District Lahore and Kasur of Punjab, Pakistan

Brucellosis is a neglected zoonotic disease, and occupations with a high risk of infection exist. Limited information is available on brucellosis for these employees at high risk in Pakistan. A total of 459 persons with high-risk occupations, i.e., 211 abattoir workers, 63 milkers, 52 dung cake makers, 44 veterinarians, 44 shepherds, and 45 veterinary students of the districts Kasur and Lahore, Pakistan, were tested in this study. Blood samples and information on place of residence, gender, age, urbanicity, type of occupation, socioeconomic status, contact with animals, consumption of raw milk, contact to women who had a miscarriage, contact to aborted animal fetus or abortion material, pregnancy, miscarriage history, or intrauterine fetal death were collected. Serum samples were examined using Rose Bengal tests for anti-Brucella antibodies and seropositive samples were subjected to genus-specific qPCR for the detection of DNA. Data were analyzed using chi-squared and binary regression. Twenty (4.35%) persons were seropositive for anti-Brucella antibodies. Out of these, 18 (90%) were tested positive by Brucella genus-specific qPCR. Positive sera were more often found in Lahore district (8.3%) than in Kasur district (3.1%). Persons older than 36 years were more often seropositive. Persons involved in the handing of milk and in contact with animals were more often seropositive. Contact with women who had had a miscarriage was also a significant factor for seropositivity for brucellosis. Place of residence, gender, age, urbanicity, and contact with animals were identified as potential risk factors in the present study. The present study confirmed that brucellosis is an occupation hazard for abattoir workers, milkers, dung cake makers, and veterinarians in the districts of Lahore and Kasur of Punjab, Pakistan. The study shows the need for strategies for safety at work to minimize the risk of infection. Raising awareness for the prevention and use of proper personal protection equipment during the slaughtering and treatment of animal is highly needed.

Validation of real-time polymerase chain reaction versus conventional polymerase chain reaction for diagnosis of brucellosis in cattle sera

Background and Aim:

Different polymerase chain reaction (PCR) techniques have and are still being used for the direct detection of Brucella DNA in serum samples of different animal species and humans without being validated or properly validated, resulting in discrepancies. Thus, this study aimed to evaluate the diagnostic performance of the TaqMan Real-Time-PCR (RT-PCR) targeting the bcsp31 gene versus conventional PCR for the accurate diagnosis of brucellosis at the genus level in cattle sera.

Materials and Methods:

One hundred and eighty-four serum samples were collected from bacteriologically positive and negative cows with ages ranging from 1 to 5 years old at some infected private farms in the Nile Delta under quarantine measures as well as brucellosis free farms. These samples were classified into four groups after serological diagnosis and investigated by TaqMan RT-PCR and conventional PCR targeting the IS711 gene for Brucella DNA detection. The diagnostic performance characteristics of both PCR techniques were estimated considering the bacteriological results as a gold standard.

Results:

TaqMan RT-PCR revealed superiority over conventional PCR; it was able to detect Brucella DNA in 95% (67/70) and 89% (25/28) of the cattle sera samples belonging to Group 1 (serologically and bacteriologically positive) and Group 2 (serologically negative but bacteriologically positive), respectively. On evaluating the diagnostic performance, TaqMan RT-PCR showed superior diagnostic sensitivity (93.9%), diagnostic specificity (88.4%), performance index (182.3), almost perfect kappa agreement (0.825±0.042), strong positive correlation (r=0.826), high accuracy based on the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve, and area under the ROC curve (0.911) at p<0.05 and CI of 95%.

Conclusion:

A cattle serum sample is not the metric of choice for targeting Brucella genomic DNA by conventional PCR. The time-saving and rapid TaqMan RT-PCR method revealed a better diagnostic performance in the detection of Brucella DNA in cattle sera. Such performance offered by TaqMan RT-PCR may be considered a step toward the possibility of using such technology in the direct differentiation between Brucella-infected and -vaccinated cattle immunized by smooth vaccines from cattle sera using primers specific for such vaccines.

Seroprevalence and Molecular Identification of Brucella spp. in Bovines in Pakistan-Investigating Association With Risk Factors Using Machine Learning

Bovine brucellosis is a global zoonosis of public health importance. It is an endemic disease in many developing countries including Pakistan. This study aimed to estimate the seroprevalence and molecular detection of bovine brucellosis and to assess the association of potential risk factors with test results. A total of 176 milk and 402 serum samples were collected from cattle and buffaloes in three districts of upper Punjab, Pakistan. Milk samples were investigated using milk ring test (MRT), while sera were tested by Rose–Bengal plate agglutination test (RBPT) and indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (i-ELISA). Real-time PCR was used for detection of Brucella DNA in investigated samples. Anti-Brucella antibodies were detected in 37 (21.02%) bovine milk samples using MRT and in 66 (16.4%) and 71 (17.7%) bovine sera using RBPT and i-ELISA, respectively. Real-time PCR detected Brucella DNA in 31 (7.71%) from a total of 402 bovine sera and identified as Brucella abortus. Seroprevalence and molecular identification of bovine brucellosis varied in some regions in Pakistan. With the use of machine learning, the association of test results with risk factors including age, animal species/type, herd size, history of abortion, pregnancy status, lactation status, and geographical location was analyzed. Machine learning confirmed a real observation that lactation status was found to be the highest significant factor, while abortion, age, and pregnancy came second in terms of significance. To the authors' best knowledge, this is the first time to use machine learning to assess brucellosis in Pakistan; this is a model that can be applied for other developing countries in the future. The development of control strategies for bovine brucellosis through the implementation of uninterrupted surveillance and interactive extension programs in Pakistan is highly recommended.

Prevalence and Spatial Distribution of Animal Brucellosis in Central Punjab, Pakistan

Brucellosis is an important zoonotic disease of animals and humans caused by bacteria of the genus Brucella. Brucellae are Gram-negative intracellular bacteria which infect a wide variety of animals including goats, sheep, buffaloes, cows, pigs, and wildlife. The objectives of this study were to determine the seroprevalence and spatial distribution of brucellosis in Central Punjab, Pakistan. A total of 1083 blood samples of goats, sheep, buffaloes, and cows were collected from 38 villages of four districts (Kasur, Faisalabad, Lahore, and Okara) of Punjab, Pakistan, and screened for brucellosis by Rose Bengal Plate test (RBPT) and PCR confirmed. Epidemiological, demographic data and GPS coordinates for every sample were collected. By using interpolation of the Aeronautical Reconnaissance Coverage Geographic Information System (Arc GIS), a surface plot was generated applying inverse distance weight (IDW). It was found that 35 (3.23%) serum samples were positive for brucellosis. In eight (61.5%), six (75%), seven (87.5%), and eight (89%) villages, positive goats, sheep, buffaloes, and cattle were detected, respectively. In general, older animals are more often positive for brucellosis. In goats bucks were more often RBPT positive than females while in sheep, buffaloes, and cattle more females were positive. The spatial distribution of brucellosis shows that it is widely distributed in the western region of the study area in goats and in the South-West region in sheep. Similarly, for buffaloes it is restricted to the south-east and north-west regions, and in cattle brucellosis is present in western region of study area only. Reflected by this study, brucellosis poses a risk for livestock in developing countries due to lack of awareness by officials, owners, and consumers, and control measures are missing. A risk map of brucellosis was generated to develop effective strategies for awareness rising and to improve the quality of control programs in Pakistan.

Epidemiology and Associated Risk Factors for Brucellosis in Small Ruminants Kept at Institutional Livestock Farms in Punjab, Pakistan

Brucellosis is reportedly endemic in ruminants in Pakistan. Both Brucella abortus and B. melitensis infections have been decumented in domestic animals and humans in the country. This study aimed to identify the burden of anti-Brucella antibodies in small ruminants as well as associated potential risk factors with its occurrence at nine institutional livestock farms in Punjab, Pakistan. The sera collected from equal number of sheep and goats (500 from each species) were screened by indirect-ELISA for anti-smooth-Brucella antibodies followed by a serial detection by real-time PCR. Overall, 5.1% (51/1000) seropositivity was registered corresponding to 5% (25/500) prevalence in goats and 5.2% (26/500) in sheep. Brucella-DNA could not be detected in any of the tested sera by real-time PCR. Multiple logistic regression model indicated that farm location (OR 34.05), >4 years of age (OR 2.88), with history of reproductive disorders (OR 2.69), and with BCS of ≤ 3 (OR 12.37) were more likely to test positive for brucellosis at these farms. A routine screening, stringent biosecurity, and quarantine measures are warranted for monitoring and eradication of the infection. Similarly, isolation and molecular investigation of the etiologic agent(s) are needed to understand the relationship of epidemiology and out-breaks of brucellosis in the country.

Serological and Molecular Investigation of Brucellosis in Breeding Equids in Pakistani Punjab

Brucellosis is an important zoonosis worldwide. Equines are susceptible to the infection when in close contact with infected animals. The objective of our study was to update the existing knowledge and detect and differentiate the causative agent of brucellosis in breeding equines in Punjab, Pakistan. A cross-sectional study was designed to evaluate the occurrence and etiology of the infection in the equine population in three districts. A total of 448 equine sera were collected from three prefectures viz. Sahiwal, Khanewal, and Okara of the Punjab Province of Pakistan. Ninety-six (21.4%) samples were found positive by RBPT, 3.56% (16/448) by iELISA, and 4.24% (19/448) by CFT. Real-time PCR demonstrated the presence of Brucella abortus-DNA in sero-positive samples. Age and location were found as risk factors. The study concludes equine brucellosis seroprevalence in the country where Brucella abortus as the main etiology. Fistulous withers and poll evil cases should be treated with care as they could be hazardous and a source of zoonotic transmission. Routine screening at an early age, vaccination in ruminants, and consumption of pasteurized dairy milk in humans is recommended for prevention of the infection. Specific tests need to be standardized and validated.

Occurrence of Toxoplasma gondii antibodies and associated risk factors in women in selected districts of Punjab province, Pakistan

Toxoplasmosis is a parasitic zoonotic disease caused by Toxoplasma (T.) gondii. Limited data are available on the occurrence of T. gondii in women especially pregnant women in Pakistan. The present study aimed to determine the occurrence and risk factors associated with T. gondii in pregnant and non-pregnant women in Punjab Province, Pakistan. A cross-sectional study was conducted and 593 samples were collected from pregnant (n = 293) and non-pregnant (n = 300) women of District Headquarter Hospitals of Chiniot, Faisalabad, Jhang and Okara, Pakistan. Data related to demographic parameters and risk factors were collected using a pretested questionnaire on blood sampling day. Serum samples were screened for antibodies (IgG) against T. gondii using ELISA. A univariant and binomial logistic regression was applied to estimate the association between seropositive and explanatory variables considering the 95% confidence interval. P value ⩽0.05 was considered statistically significant for all analysis. Out of 593, 44 (7.42%) women were seropositive for T. gondii IgG antibodies. Occupation, age, sampling location, socioeconomic status, contact with cat, pregnancy status and trimester of pregnancy were significantly associated with seropositivity for T. gondii antibodies. Location and trimester of pregnancy were identified as potential risk factors for T. gondii seropositivity based on binomial logistic regression. Toxoplasma gondii is prevalent in pregnant and non-pregnant women. Therefore, now a necessitated awareness is required to instruct the individuals about these infectious diseases (toxoplasmosis) and their control strategies to maintain the health of human population. Moreover, health awareness among public can help the minimization of T. gondii infection during pregnancy and subsequent risk of congenital toxoplasmosis.

Sentinel surveillance of selected veterinary and public health pathogens in camel population originating from Southern Punjab province, Pakistan

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Camels are susceptible to a wide range of infectious diseases with varying rate of morbidity and mortality.

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Blutongue, peste des petits ruminants and brucellosis are prevalent among camels in southern part of the Punjab provinvce, Pakistan.

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Genome corresponding to Brucella abortus and multiple serotypes of bluetongue were detected among camels.

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Camels should be included for disease control interventions reltaed to brucellosis, blutongue and PPR from their endemic setting worldwide.

An extended range of host susceptibility including camel has been evidenced for some of the important veterinary and public health pathogens, such as brucellosis, peste des petits ruminants (PPR) and bluetongue (BT). However, in disease endemic settings across many parts of the globe, most of the disease control interventions accounts for small and large ruminants, whereas unusual hosts and/or natural reservoirs, such as camels, remain neglected for disease control measures including routine vaccination. Such a policy drawback not only plays an important role in disease epizootiology particularly in settings where disease is endemic, but also serves an obstacle in disease control and subsequent eradication in future. With this background, using pre-validated ELISA and molecular assays [multiplex PCR, reverse transcriptase (RT)-PCR and real-time (rt)-PCR], we conducted a large-scale pathogen- and antibody-based surveillance for brucellosis, peste des petits ruminants and bluetongue in camel population (n = 992) originating from a wide geographical region in southern part of the Punjab province, Pakistan. Varying in each of the selected districts, the seroprevalence was found to be maximum for bluetongue [n = 697 (70.26%, 95% CI: 67.29–73.07)], followed by PPR [n = 193 (19.46%, 95% CI: 17.07–22.09)] and brucellosis [n = 66 (6.65%, 95% CI: 5.22–8.43)]. Odds of seroprevalence were more significantly associated with pregnancy status (non-pregnant, OR = 2.23, 95% CI: 1.86–5.63, p<0.01), farming system (mixed-animal, OR = 2.59, 95% CI: 1.56–4.29, p<0.01), breed (Desi, OR = 1.97, 95% CI: 1.28–4.03, p<0.01) and farmer education (illiterate, OR = 3.17, 95% CI: 1.45–6.93, p<0.01) for BTV, body condition (normal, OR = 3.54, 95% CI: 1.92–6.54, p<0.01) and breed (Desi, OR = 2.19, 95% CI: 1.09–4.40, p<0.01) for brucellosis, and feeding system for PPR (grazing, OR = 2.75, 95% CI: 1.79–4.22, p<0.01). Among the total herds included (n = 74), genome corresponding to BT virus (BTV) and brucellosis was detected in 14 (18.92%, 95 CI: 11.09–30.04) and 19 herds (25.68%, 95% CI: 16.54–37.38), respectively. None of the herds was detected with genome of PPR virus (PPRV). Among the positive herds, serotype 1, 8 and 11 were detected for BTV while all the herds were exclusively positive to B. abortus. Taken together, the study highlights the role of potential disease reservoirs in the persistence and transmission of selected diseases in their susceptible hosts and, therefore, urges necessary interventions (e.g., inclusion of camels for vaccine etc.) for the control of diseases from their endemic setting worldwide.

Serological and Molecular Detection of Bovine Brucellosis at Institutional Livestock Farms in Punjab, Pakistan

Bovine brucellosis remains a persistent infection in ruminants in Pakistan. A total of 828 (409 buffaloes and 419 cattle) sera were collected from 11 institutional-owned livestock farms in Punjab, Pakistan. The samples were tested by rose bengal plate agglutination test (RBPT) and indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (iELISA). The seroprevalence along with 95% confidence interval (CI) was determined. Univariable and multivariable analysis of the epidemiological background data was conducted and odds ratio (OR) was calculated to understand any association between the risk factors and the seroprevalence. An overall seroprevalence of 3.9% (Positive/Tested = 32/828) and 3.3% (27/828) was detected by RBPT and iELISA, respectively. The seroprevalence of 5.6% (CI 3.6-8.3) and 4.7%, (CI 2.8-7.2) and the odds ratio of 2.63 (CI 1.20-5.77) and 2.50 (CI 1.08-5.78) for testing positive by RBPT and iELISA, respectively were significantly higher (p < 0.05) in buffaloes than in cattle. Breed, sex, history of abortion and retention of fetal membranes (RFM) in the animals were not found statistically significantly associated with the infection. RBPT and iELISA based results agreed almost perfect (k = 0.877). In total, Brucella abortus-DNA (9/27) was amplified from seropositive samples by real-time polymerase chain reaction. This study identified for the first time the etiological agents of brucellosis at a molecular level at institutional-owned livestock farms in Pakistan.

Serological and Molecular Investigation of Brucella Species in Dogs in Pakistan

Brucellosis is an important bacterial zoonosis caused by B. abortus and B. melitensis in Pakistan. The status of canine brucellosis caused by B. canis remains obscure. In total, 181 serum samples were collected from stray and working dogs in two different prefectures viz. Faisalabad (n = 87) and Bahawalpur (n = 94). Presence of antibodies against B. canis and B. abortus/B. melitensis was determined using the slow agglutination test (SAT) and ELISA, respectively. Real-time PCR was performed to detect and differentiate Brucella DNA at the species level. In Faisalabad, the serological prevalence was found to be 9.2% (8/87) and 10.3% (9/87) by SAT and ELISA, respectively. Only one of the ELISA positive samples (1.15%) yielded amplification for B. abortus DNA. In Bahawalpur, 63.8% (60/94) samples were found positive by SAT; however, none of the samples was positive by ELISA or by real-time PCR. Location, age (≥1 year) and body condition (weak) were found to be associated with B. canis infection, whereas presence of wounds was found to be associated with B. abortus infection only. These findings point towards a risk of transmission from dog to livestock and humans and vice versa. The study expects to draw the attention of concerned authorities towards infection prevention and animal welfare. This study warrants further epidemiological investigation on brucellosis in pet dogs and their owners. To the best of our knowledge, this is first ever report on B. canis and B. abortus in dogs in Pakistan.