Antitumor effect of matrine in human hepatoma G2 cells by inducing apoptosis and autophagy

Compound Kushen injection combined with transarterial chemoembolization for hepatocellular carcinoma: An evidence map and overview of systematic reviews

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

For the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), compound Kushen injection (CKi) is commonly used in combination with transarterial chemoembolization (TACE).

AIMS OF THE STUDY

Our objective was to evaluate the reporting quality, methodological quality, risk of bias, and certainty of evidence for CKi combined with TACE for the treatment of patients with HCC by conducting systematic reviews (SRs). The purpose of this study was to improve the clinical application of CKis, strengthen clinical decision-making regarding CKis, and inform future research.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We used eight databases to systematically search SRs of CKi combined with TACE for HCC through February 21, 2023. The quality of reporting of SRs was evaluated using the 2009 Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines, methodological quality using A MeaSurement Tool to Assess systematic Reviews 2, risk of bias using the Risk of Bias in Systematic Review, and certainty of evidence using the Grading of Recommendations Assessment. Finally, the assessment results were visualized by the evidence mapping method. This overview has been registered on PROSPERO with the registration title "Compound Kushen injection for hepatocellular carcinoma: An overview of systematic reviews" and registration number CRD42022369120.

RESULTS

A total of 12 SRs meeting the inclusion criteria were included. In terms of reporting quality, 42% of SRs reported relatively complete reports and 58% had certain deficiencies. The methodological quality of all SRs was " critically low". The risk of bias was evaluated as low in 33% of SRs and high in 67% of SRs. The results of the evidence synthesis showed that, in the "moderate" level of evidence, CKi combined with TACE resulted in a 12.7%-21.5% benefit for one-year survival rate, 11.7%-17.2% benefit for objective response rate (ORR), 20.5%-27.1% benefit for quality of life, 22.2% benefit for nausea and vomiting, and 24.7%-27.4% benefit for leukopenia in HCC patients.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, CKi combined with TACE improved survival, ORR and quality of life in patients with HCC, and reduced adverse events. The results should be interpreted with caution due to the low methodological quality of the included SRs. The clinical efficacy of CKis must be confirmed in a large number of randomized controlled trials.

Unraveling the Janus-Faced Role of Autophagy in Hepatocellular Carcinoma: Implications for Therapeutic Interventions

This review aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying autophagy and mitophagy in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Autophagy is an essential cellular process in maintaining cell homeostasis. Still, its dysregulation is associated with the development of liver diseases, including HCC, which is one of leading causes of cancer-related death worldwide. We focus on elucidating the dual role of autophagy in HCC, both in tumor initiation and progression, and highlighting the complex nature involved in the disease. In addition, we present a detailed analysis of a small subset of autophagy- and mitophagy-related molecules, revealing their specific functions during tumorigenesis and the progression of HCC cells. By understanding these mechanisms, we aim to provide valuable insights into potential therapeutic strategies to manipulate autophagy effectively. The goal is to improve the therapeutic response of liver cancer cells and overcome drug resistance, providing new avenues for improved treatment options for HCC patients. Overall, this review serves as a valuable resource for researchers and clinicians interested in the complex role of autophagy in HCC and its potential as a target for innovative therapies aimed to combat this devastating disease.

Cytotoxicity and apoptosis induction of the marine Conus flavidus venom in HepG2 cancer cell line

Cancer is still an area of continuous research for finding more effective and selective agents, so our study aimed to explore new anticancer medicines from Cone snails' venoms as marine natural products with promising biological activities. Venoms from seven cone snails collected from two locations on the Red Sea coast (Marsa Alam (Ma) and Hurghada (Hu)) were extracted and subjected to SDS for protein concentrations. The venoms of C. vexillum (Ma), C. vexillum (Hu), and C. flavidus were found to have the highest protein concentrations (2.66, 2.618, and 2.611 mg/mL, respectively). The venom of C. vexillum (Ma) was found to be cytotoxic against the lung cancer cell line A549 (IC50 = 4.511 ± 0.03 µg/mL). On the other hand, the venom of C. flavidus showed a strong cytotoxic effect on both liver and lung cancer cell lines (IC50 = 1.593 ± 0.05 and 7.836 ± 0.4 µg/mL, respectively) when compared to their normal cell lines. Investigating the apoptotic cell death of C. flavidus venom on HepG2 cell lines, it showed total apoptotic cell death by 22.42-fold compared to untreated control and arresting the cell cycle at G2/M phase. Furthermore, its apoptotic cell death in HepG2 cells was confirmed through the upregulation of pro-apoptotic markers and down-regulation of Bcl-2 in both gene and protein expression levels. These findings confirmed the cytotoxic activity of C. flavidus venom through apoptotic cell death in HepG2 cells. So, a detailed study highlighting its structure and molecular target for developing new anticancer agents from natural sources is required.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Sub-Cellular Dynamic Analysis of BGC823 Cells after Treatment with the Multi-Component Drug CKI Using Raman Spectroscopy

Multi-component drugs (MCDs) can induce various cellular changes covering multiple levels, from molecular and subcellular structure to cell morphology. A "non-invasive" method for comprehensively detecting the dynamic changes of cellular fine structure and chemical components on the subcellular level is highly desirable for MCD studies. In this study, the subcellular dynamic processes of gastric cancer BGC823 cells after treatment with a multi-component drug, Compound Kushen Injection (CKI), were investigated using a homemade, high-resolution, confocal Raman spectroscopy (RS) device combined with bright-field imaging. The Raman spectra of the nucleus, cytoplasm and intracellular vesicles (0.4-1 μm) were collected simultaneously for each cell treated with CKI at different times and doses. The RS measurements showed that CKI decreased the DNA signatures, which the drug is known to inhibit. Meanwhile, the CKI-induced subcellular dynamic changes in the appearance of numerous intracellular vesicles and the deconstruction of cytoplasm components were observed and discussed. The results demonstrated that high-resolution subcellular micro-Raman spectroscopy has potential for detecting fine cellular dynamic variation induced by drugs and the screening of MCDs in cancer therapy.

Natural-Product-Derived Adjunctive Treatments to Conventional Therapy and Their Immunoregulatory Activities in Triple-Negative Breast Cancer

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is an invasive and persistent subtype of breast cancer that is likely to be resistant to conventional treatments. The rise in immunotherapy has created new modalities to treat cancer, but due to high costs and unreliable efficacy, adjunctive and complementary treatments have sparked interest in enhancing the efficacy of currently available treatments. Natural products, which are bioactive compounds derived from natural sources, have historically been used to treat or ameliorate inflammatory diseases and symptoms. As TNBC patients have shown little to no response to immunotherapy, the potential of natural products as candidates for adjuvant immunotherapy is being explored, as well as their immunomodulatory effects on cancer. Due to the complexity of TNBC and the ever-changing tumor microenvironment, there are challenges in determining the feasibility of using natural products to enhance the efficacy or counteract the toxicity of conventional treatments. In view of technological advances in molecular docking, pharmaceutical networking, and new drug delivery systems, natural products show promise as potential candidates in adjunctive therapy. In this article, we summarize the mechanisms of action of selected natural-product-based bioactive compounds and analyze their roles and applications in combination treatments and immune regulation.

MAT as a promising therapeutic strategy against triple-negative breast cancer via inhibiting PI3K/AKT pathway

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC), a highly aggressive and heterogeneous subtype of breast cancer, lacks effective treatment options. Sophora flavescens Aiton, a Chinese medicinal plant, is often used in traditional Chinese medicine to treat cancer. Matrine (MAT) is an alkaloid extracted from Sophora flavescens. It has good anticancer effects, and thus can be explored as a new therapeutic agent in TNBC research. We performed bioinformatics analysis to analyze the differentially expressed genes between normal breast tissues and TNBC tissues, and comprehensive network pharmacology analyses. The activity and invasion ability of TNBC cells treated with MAT were analyzed. Apoptosis and cell cycle progression were determined using cytometry. We used Monodansylcadaverine (MDC) staining to determine the condition of autophagosomes. Finally, the expression levels of the key target proteins of the PI3K/AKT pathway were determined using western blotting. The proliferation and invasion ability of MDA-MB-231 and MDA-MB-468 can be effectively inhibited by MAT. The results of flow cytometry indicated that MAT arrested the TNBC cell cycle and induced apoptosis. In addition, we confirmed that MAT inhibited the expression of BCL-2 while up-regulating the expression of cleaved caspase-3. Moreover, enhanced intensity of MDC staining and high LC3-II expression were observed, which confirmed that MAT induced autophagy in TNBC cells. Western blotting showed that MAT inhibited the PI3K/AKT pathway and downregulated the expressions of PI3K, AKT, p-AKT, and PGK1. This study provides feasible methods, which include bioinformatics analysis and in vitro experiments, for the identification of compounds with anti-TNBC properties. MAT inhibited the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway, arrested cell cycle, as well as promoted cell apoptosis and autophagy. These experiments provide evidence for the anti-TNBC effect of MAT and identified potential targets against TNBC.

Matrine Targets Intestinal Lactobacillus acidophilus to Inhibit Porcine Circovirus Type 2 Infection in Mice

Porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) has caused huge economic losses to the pig industry across the world. Matrine is a natural compound that has been shown to regulate intestinal flora and has anti-PCV2 activity in mouse models. PCV2 infection can lead to changes in intestinal flora. The intestinal flora has proved to be one of the important pharmacological targets of the active components of Traditional Chinese Medicine. This study aimed to determine whether matrine exerts anti-PCV2 effects by regulating intestinal flora. In this study, fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) was used to evaluate the effect of matrine on the intestinal flora of PCV2-infected Kunming (KM) mice. The expression of the Cap gene in the liver and the ileum, the relative expression of IL-1β mRNA, and the Lactobacillus acidophilus (L. acidophilus) gene in the ileum of mice were determined by real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). ELISA was used to analyze the content of secretory immunoglobulin A (SIgA) in small intestinal fluid. L. acidophilus was isolated and identified from the feces of KM mice in order to study its anti-PCV2 effect in vivo. The expression of the Cap gene in the liver and the ileum and the relative expression of L. acidophilus and IL-1β mRNA in the ileum were determined by qPCR. The results showed that matrine could reduce the relative expression of IL-1β mRNA by regulating intestinal flora, and that its pharmacological anti-PCV2 and effect may be related to L. acidophilus. L. acidophilus was successfully isolated and identified from the feces of KM mice. The in vivo experiment revealed that administration of L. acidophilus also reduced the relative expression of IL-1β mRNA, and that it had anti-PCV2 effects in PCV2-infected mice. It was found that matrine could regulate the abundance of L. acidophilus in the gut of mice to exert an anti-PCV2 effect and inhibit PCV2-induced inflammatory response.

Synthesis, In Vitro Evaluation and Molecular Docking Studies of Novel Thiophenyl Thiazolyl-Pyridine Hybrids as Potential Anticancer Agents

Many literature reports revealed the anticancer activity of pyridine and thiazole derivatives, especially in lung cancer. Therefore, a new series of thiazolyl pyridines linked with thiophene moiety via hydrazone group was prepared by one-pot multi-component reaction of (E)-1-(4-methyl-2-(2-(1-(thiophen-2-yl)ethylidene)hydrazinyl)thiazol-5-yl)ethanone with benzaldehyde derivatives and malononitrile in a good yield. Then, compound 5 and the thiazolyl pyridines were investigated for their in vitro anticancer activity against lung cancer (A549) cell line using MTT assay compared to doxorubicin as a reference drug. The structure of all the newly synthesized compounds was established based on spectroscopic data and elemental analyses. For better insight to investigate their mechanism of action on A549 cell line, docking studies were performed, targeting epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) tyrosine kinase. The results obtained revealed that the tested compounds displayed excellent anticancer activities against lung cancer cell line except 8c and 8f compared to reference drug. Based on the data obtained, it can be inferred that the novel compounds, as well as their key intermediate, compound 5, demonstrated potent anticancer activity against lung carcinoma by inhibiting EGFR.

Effect of pentavalent inorganic arsenic salt on erythropoietin production and autophagy induction

Arsenic is abundant in the environment and takes the form of trivalent and pentavalent arsenic compounds. Arsenite has been reported to both promote and suppress erythropoietin (EPO) production and autophagy induction. EPO production is involved in hematopoiesis, and autophagy induction is involved in cytoprotection, both of which are thought to be cellular responses to arsenic stress. While there are reports that show the effects of EPO on autophagy induction, the relationship between EPO production and autophagy induction is unclear. Therefore, this study analyzed the effect of the pentavalent inorganic arsenic salt arsenate on EPO production in vitro and in vivo and EPO-induced autophagy in HepG2 cells. Exposure of HepG2 cells to low-concentration arsenate was observed to increase EPO production and induced autophagy. Moreover, a ROS scavenger suppressed the arsenate-induced increase in autophagy and EPO mRNA levels. Both EPO production and autophagy induction contributed to protection from arsenate-induced cytotoxic stress. HepG2 cells expressed the EPO receptor and production of EPO by HepG2 cells acted in an autoregulatory manner to suppress autophagy induction. In vivo administration of low-concentration arsenate to rats increased EPO mRNA levels in the liver and kidney. These results suggested that low-concentration arsenate promotes EPO production and autophagy induction in HepG2 cells, and the resultant EPO production contributes to cytoprotection of cultured cells via EPO receptor activation.

The design and synthesis of benzylpiperazine-based edaravone derivatives and their neuroprotective activities

New edaravone derivatives containing a benzylpiperazine moiety are designed and synthesized. The structures are characterized by 1H NMR, 13C NMR, and high-resolution mass spectrometry. The potential neuroprotective activities of the target compounds are evaluated in differentiated rat pheochromocytoma cells (PC12 cells) and in mice subjected to acute cerebral ischemia. Most of the target compounds showed neuroprotective activities both in vivo and in vitro, especially 1-(4-(4-fluorobenzyl) piperazin-1-yl)-2-(4-(5-hydroxy-3-methyl-1 H-pyrazol-1-yl)phenoxy)ethanone and 1-(4-(4-nitrobenzyl)piperazin-1-yl)-2-(4-(5-hydroxy-3-methyl-1 H-pyrazol-1-yl)phenoxy)ethanone, which displayed significant protective effects on cell viability against damage caused by H2O2, and remarkably prolonged the survival time of mice subjected to acute cerebral ischemia and decreased the mortality rate at all doses. These compounds represent lead compounds for the further discovery of neuroprotective agents for treating cerebral ischemic stroke. Molecular docking studies and basic structure–activity relationships are also presented.

Matrine induces autophagy in human neuroblastoma cells via blocking the AKT-mTOR pathway

Neuroblastoma (NB) is one of the most common malignant solid tumors in children. Despite significant advances in the treatment strategy, the long-term survival rate of NB patients is only 50%. Developing new agents for NB patients deserves attention. Recent research indicates that matrine, a natural quinolizidine alkaloid component extracted from the traditional Chinese medicine Sophora root, is widely used for various diseases, including antitumor effects against a variety of cancers. However, the effect of matrine on NB is unknown. Herein, we found that matrine exerted antiproliferative activity in human NB cells in dose- and time-dependent manner. Matrine triggered autophagy in NB cells by blocking the AKT-mTOR signaling pathway and suppressing the phosphorylation of AKT and mTOR. 3-Methyladenine (3-MA), a PI3K inhibitor, protected against matrine-induced inhibition of cell proliferation, further supporting that the antitumor activity of matrine was at least partly autophagy-dependent. In vivo, matrine reduced tumor growth of SK-N-DZ cells in a dose-dependent manner. Matrine treatment significantly declined the phosphorylation of AKT and mTOR and enhanced the LC3 II/GAPDH ratio in NB xenografts. Altogether, our work uncovered the molecular mechanism underlying matrine-induced autophagy in NB and provided implications for matrine as a potential therapeutic agent against NB.

Computational Metabolomics Reveals the Potential Mechanism of Matrine Mediated Metabolic Network Against Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a complex issue in cancer treatment in the world at present. Matrine is the main active ingredient isolated from Sophora flavescens air and possesses excellent antitumor effects in HCC. However, the specific underlying mechanisms, especially the possible relationships between the anti-HCC effect of matrine and the related metabolic network of HCC, are not yet clear and need further clarification. In this study, an integrative metabolomic-based bioinformatics algorithm was designed to explore the underlying mechanism of matrine on HCC by regulating the metabolic network. Cell clone formation, invasion, and adhesion assay were utilized in HCC cells to evaluate the anti-HCC effect of matrine. A cell metabolomics approach based on LC-MS was used to obtain the differential metabolites and metabolic pathways regulated by matrine. The maximum activity contribution score model was developed and applied to calculate high contribution target genes of matrine, which could regulate a metabolic network based on the coexpression matrix of matrine-regulated metabolic genes and targets. Matrine significantly repressed the clone formation and invasion, enhanced cell–cell adhesion, and hampered cell matrix adhesion in SMMC-7721 cells. Metabolomics results suggested that matrine markedly regulated the abnormal metabolic network of HCC by regulating the level of choline, creatine, valine, spermidine, 4-oxoproline, D-(+)-maltose, L-(−)-methionine, L-phenylalanine, L-pyroglutamic acid, and pyridoxine, which are involved in D-glutamine and D-glutamate metabolism, glycine, serine and threonine metabolism, arginine and proline metabolism, etc. Our proposed metabolomic-based bioinformatics algorithm showed that the regulating metabolic networks of matrine exhibit anti-HCC effects through acting on MMP7, ABCC1, PTGS1, etc. At last, MMP7 and its related target β-catenin were validated. Together, the metabolomic-based bioinformatics algorithm reveals the effects of the regulating metabolic networks of matrine in treating HCC relying on the unique characteristics of the multitargets and multipathways of traditional Chinese medicine.

Natural compounds: A new perspective on targeting polarization and infiltration of tumor-associated macrophages in lung cancer

With the development in tumor immunology, people are gradually understanding the complexity and diversity of the tumor microenvironment immune status and its important effect on tumors. Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs), an important part of the tumor immune microenvironment, have a double effect on tumor growth and metastasis. Many studies have focused on lung cancer, especially non-small cell lung cancer and other "hot tumors" with typical inflammatory characteristics. The polarization and infiltration of TAMs is an important mechanism in the occurrence and development of malignant tumors, such as lung cancer, and in the tumor immune microenvironment. Therapeutic drugs designed for these reasons are key to targeting TAMs in the treatment of lung cancer. A large number of reports have suggested that natural compounds have a strong potential of affecting immunity by targeting the polarization and infiltration of TAMs to improve the immune microenvironment of lung cancer and exert a natural antitumor effect. This paper discusses the infiltration and polarization effects of natural compounds on lung cancer TAMs, provides a detailed classification and systematic review of natural compounds, and summarizes the bias of different kinds of natural compounds by affecting their antitumor mechanism of TAMs, with the aim of providing new perspectives and potential therapeutic drugs for targeted macrophages in the treatment of lung cancer.

Long non-coding RNA NUT family member 2A-antisense RNA 1 sponges microRNA-613 to increase the resistance of gastric cancer cells to matrine through regulating oxidative stress and vascular endothelial growth factor A

Matrine has been shown to play a role in the suppression of gastric cancer (GC) tumorigenesis. However, whether long non-coding RNA NUT family member 2A-antisense RNA 1 (NUTM2A-AS1) is involved in matrine-induced inhibition of GC remains unknown. 3-(4,5-Dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide, cell colony formation, and terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick-end labeling assays were employed to determine the proliferation, viability, and apoptosis of GC cells, respectively. The Cancer Genome Atlas database suggested an association between NUTM2A-AS1 and GC. The reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction was used to quantify relative levels of NUTM2A-AS1, miR-613, and vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGFA). Reactive oxygen species generation, glutathione content, and superoxide dismutase activity were determined by corresponding reagents or assay kits. NUTM2A-AS1 knockdown led to attenuated cell viability and proliferation, as well as to enhanced apoptosis of N87 and AGS cells treated with matrine. These changes were prevented by an inhibitor of microRNA (miR)-613. Importantly, NUTM2A-AS1 expression was positively associated with tumor progression in patients with GC. NUTM2A-AS1 and miR-613 regulated the generation of reactive oxygen species, the content of glutathione, and the activity of superoxide dismutase. VEGFA served as an important effector for the NUTM2A-AS1/miR-613-regulated resistance of GC cells to matrine. These results reveal a novel mechanism of matrine resistance in GC.

The Chloroform Extracts of Vietnamese Sophora flavescens Ait. Inhibit the Proliferation of HepG2 Cells through Apoptosis Induction

The present study evaluated the effects of Sophora flavescens Ait. root extract on the proliferation of human hepatoma cell line HepG2. HPLC-UV analysis showed that the highest matrine and oxymatrine contents were obtained in the chloroform extract, compared to ethanol extract and ethyl acetate extract. The morphological analysis revealed that the chloroform extract of Sophora flavescens Ait. (SFA-CHCl3 extract) induced alterations of HepG2 cell morphology, resulting in the shrinkage of cells, the formation of debris, and cell detachment. The proliferation of HepG2 cells was inhibited by SFA-CHCl3 extract treatment. Cell cycle analysis exhibited that the cell proportion of the G0/G1 phase of HepG2 cells with SFA-CHCl3 extract treatment was decreased, while the cell proportion of the G2/M phase was increased. Flow cytometry analysis indicated a dramatic increase in the apoptotic percentage of HepG2 cells over the time of SFA-CHCl3 extract treatment. The SFA-CHCl3 extract also caused morphological changes in HepG2 nuclear, including chromatin condensation and DNA fragmentation. SFA-CHCl3 extract treatment induced the bax up-regulation and the bcl-2 down-regulation in HepG2 cells. These results revealed that SFA-CHCl3 extract could be a potential apoptosis inducer in HepG2 cells.

Src acts as the target of matrine to inhibit the proliferation of cancer cells by regulating phosphorylation signaling pathways

Studies have shown that matrine has antitumor activity against many types of cancers. However, the direct target in cancer cells of its anticancer effect has not been identified. The purpose of this study was to find the molecular target of matrine to inhibit the proliferation of cancer cells and explore its mechanism of action. Herein we showed that matrine inhibited the proliferation of cancer in vitro and in vivo. Pull-down assay with matrine-amino coupling resins and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry/mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) identified Src as the target of matrine. Cellular thermal shift assay (CETSA) and drug affinity responsive target stability (DARTS) provided solid evidences that matrine directly bound to Src. Bioinformatics prediction and pull-down experiment demonstrated that Src kinase domain was required for its interaction with matrine and Ala392 in the kinase domain participated in matrine-Src interaction. Intriguingly, matrine was proven to inhibit Src kinase activity in a non-ATP-competitive manner by blocking the autophosphorylation of Tyr419 in Src kinase domain. Matrine down-regulated the phosphorylation levels of MAPK/ERK, JAK2/STAT3, and PI3K/Akt signaling pathways via targeting Src. Collectively, matrine targeted Src, inhibited its kinase activity, and down-regulated its downstream MAPK/ERK, JAK2/STAT3, and PI3K/Akt phosphorylation signaling pathways to inhibit the proliferation of cancer cells.

Autophagy Modulators From Chinese Herbal Medicines: Mechanisms and Therapeutic Potentials for Asthma

Asthma has become a global health issue, suffering more than 300 million people in the world, which is a heterogeneous disease, usually characterized by chronic airway inflammation and airway hyperreactivity. Combination of inhaled corticosteroids (ICS) and long acting β-agonists (LABA) can relieve asthma symptoms and reduce the frequency of exacerbations, especially for patients with refractory asthma, but there are limited treatment options for people who do not gain control on combination ICS/LABA. The increase in ICS dose generally provides little additional benefit, and there is an increased risk of side effects. Therefore, therapeutic interventions integrating the use of different agents that focus on different targets are needed to overcome this set of diseases. Some findings suggest autophagy is closely correlated with the severity of asthma through eosinophilic inflammation, and its modulation may provide novel therapeutic approaches for severe allergic asthma. The chinese herbal medicine (CHM) have been demonstrated clinically as potent therapeutic interventions for asthma. Moreover some reports have found that the bioactive components isolated from CHM could modulate autophagy, and exhibit potent Anti-inflammatory activity. These findings have implied the potential for CHMs in asthma or allergic inflammation therapy via the modulation of autophagy. In this review, we discuss the basic pathomechanisms underpinning asthma, and the potential role of CHMs in treating asthma with modulating autophagy.

In vitro and in vivo anti-metastatic effect of the alkaliod matrine from Sophora flavecens on hepatocellular carcinoma and its mechanisms

BACKGROUNDS

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the most prevalent and lethal cancer with high metastasis and recurrence rates. Hypoxia-induced miRNAs and HIF-1α are demonstrated to play essential roles in tumor metastasis. Matrine (C15H24N2O), an alkaloid extracted from Sophora flavescens Aiton, has been used as adjuvant therapy for liver cancer in China. The anti-metastasis effects of matrine on HCC and the underlying mechanisms remain poorly understood.

PURPOSE

We aimed to investigate the effects of matrine on metastasis of HCC both in vitro and in vivo, and explored whether miR-199a-5p and HIF-1α are involved in the action of matrine.

METHODS

MTT method, colony formation, wound healing and matrigel transwell assays were performed to evaluate the effects of matrine on cell proliferation, migration and invasion. Nude mice xenograft model and immunohistochemistry (IHC) assay were employed to investigate the anti-metastatic action of matrine in vivo. Quantitative real-time PCR, western blot and dual luciferase reporter assay were conducted to determine the underlying mechanisms of matrine.

RESULTS

Matrine exerted stronger anti-proliferative action on Bel7402 and SMMC-7721 cells under hypoxia than that in normoxia. Both matrine and miR-199a-5p exhibited significant inhibitory effects on migration, invasion and EMT in Bel7402 and SMMC-7721 cells under hypoxia. Further study showed that miR-199a-5p was downregulated in HCC cell lines, and this microRNA was identified to directly target HIF-1α, resulting in decreased HIF-1α expression. Matrine induced miR-199a-5p expression, decreased HIF-1α expression and inhibited metastasis of Bel7402 and SMMC-7721 cells, while miR-199a-5p knockdown reversed the inhibitory effects of matrine on cell migration, invasion, EMT and HIF-1α expression. In vivo, matrine showed significant anti-metastatic activity in the nude mouse xenograft model. H&E and IHC analysis indicated that lung and liver metastasis nodules were reduced, and the protein expression of HIF-1α and Vimentin were significantly decreased by i.p injection of matrine.

CONCLUSIONS

Matrine exhibits significant anti-metastatic effect on HCC, which is attributed to enhanced miR-199a-5p expression and subsequently impaired HIF-1α signaling and EMT. These findings suggest that miR-199a-5p is a potential therapeutic target of HCC, and matrine may represent a promising anti-metastatic medication for HCC therapy.

Lactonic sophorolipid-induced apoptosis in human HepG2 cells through the Caspase-3 pathway

Liver cancer, one of the most common types of cancer in the world, is the second leading cause of death for cancer patients. For liver cancer, there is an urgent need for an effective treatment with no or less toxic side effects. Lactonic sophorolipids (LSL), as a potential anticancer drug, has attracted wide attention of pharmaceutical researchers with its good biological activities. The effects of LSL and cell death inhibitors were measured by MTT test on HepG2 cells. Meanwhile, the morphology of the cells was observed under a microscope. The apoptosis rate was detected by flow cytometry, and the expression levels of enzyme activity of Caspase-3 and Caspase-9 were measured by detection kits. Meanwhile, mRNA levels of Apaf-1, Caspase-3, Bax, and Bcl-2 were measured by quantitative real-time RT-PCR; protein levels of Caspase-3, Cleaved Caspase-3, Bax, and Bcl-2 were measured by western blot. LSL can inhibit the proliferation of cells, and it is possible to induce apoptosis in cells. The HepG2 cells with LSL co-culture exhibited typical apoptotic morphology, and the expression levels of enzyme activity of Caspase-3 and Caspase-9 increased (P< 0.05). We also found that LSL increases cell apoptosis rate and regulates the expression of genes and proteins associated with apoptosis through the Caspase-3 pathway. These results indicate that LSL may be one of the potential drug candidates to inhibit the proliferation and induce apoptosis in HepG2 cells.Key points• LSL, which is of good biological activities such as anti-bacterium, virus elimination, and inflammatory response elimination, has been firstly used to intervene in vitro to investigate its effect on HepG2 cell proliferation.• LSL can inhibit the proliferation of cells, and it is possible to induce apoptosis in HepG2 cells through the Caspase-3 pathway.• The mechanism of LSL action on HepG2 cell proliferation was firstly also discussed, which provides a certain experimental reference for the clinical treatment of liver cancer.

TFEB Biology and Agonists at a Glance

Autophagy is a critical regulator of cellular survival, differentiation, development, and homeostasis, dysregulation of which is associated with diverse diseases including cancer and neurodegenerative diseases. Transcription factor EB (TFEB), a master transcriptional regulator of autophagy and lysosome, can enhance autophagic and lysosomal biogenesis and function. TFEB has attracted a lot of attention owing to its ability to induce the intracellular clearance of pathogenic factors in a variety of disease models, suggesting that novel therapeutic strategies could be based on the modulation of TFEB activity. Therefore, TFEB agonists are a promising strategy to ameliorate diseases implicated with autophagy dysfunction. Recently, several TFEB agonists have been identified and preclinical or clinical trials are applied. In this review, we present an overview of the latest research on TFEB biology and TFEB agonists.

Autophagy in liver diseases

Autophagy is the liver cell energy recycling system regulating a variety of homeostatic mechanisms. Damaged organelles, lipids and proteins are degraded in the lysosomes and their elements are re-used by the cell. Investigations on autophagy have led to the award of two Nobel Prizes and a health of important reports. In this review we describe the fundamental functions of autophagy in the liver including new data on the regulation of autophagy. Moreover we emphasize the fact that autophagy acts like a two edge sword in many occasions with the most prominent paradigm being its involvement in the initiation and progress of hepatocellular carcinoma. We also focused to the implication of autophagy and its specialized forms of lipophagy and mitophagy in the pathogenesis of various liver diseases. We analyzed autophagy not only in well studied diseases, like alcoholic and nonalcoholic fatty liver and liver fibrosis but also in viral hepatitis, biliary diseases, autoimmune hepatitis and rare diseases including inherited metabolic diseases and also acetaminophene hepatotoxicity. We also stressed the different consequences that activation or impairment of autophagy may have in hepatocytes as opposed to Kupffer cells, sinusoidal endothelial cells or hepatic stellate cells. Finally, we analyzed the limited clinical data compared to the extensive experimental evidence and the possible future therapeutic interventions based on autophagy manipulation.

Matrine-Family Alkaloids: Versatile Precursors for Bioactive Modifications

Matrine-family alkaloids as tetracycloquinolizindine analogues from Traditional Chinese Medicine Sophora flavescens Ait, Sophora subprostrata and Sophora alopecuroides L possess various pharmacological activities and have aroused great interests over the past decades. Especially, a lot of matrine derivatives have been designed and synthesized and their biological activities investigated, and encouraging results have continuously been achieved in recent several years. These studies are helpful to develop more potent candidates or therapeutic agents and disclose their molecular targets and mechanisms. This paper reviews recent advances in the bioactive modifications of matrine-family alkaloids from derivatization of the C-13, C-14 or C-15 position, opening D ring, fusing D ring and structural simplification.

Effect of Calomelanone, a Dihydrochalcone Analogue, on Human Cancer Apoptosis/Regulated Cell Death in an In Vitro Model

Calomelanone, 2',6'-dihydroxy-4,4'-dimethoxydihydrochalcone, possesses anticancer activities. This study was conducted to investigate the cytotoxic effect of calomelanone, a dihydrochalcone analogue, on human cancer cells and its associated mechanisms. The cytotoxic effect of calomelanone was measured by MTT assay. Annexin V-FITC/propidium iodide and DiOC6 staining that employed flow cytometry were used to determine the mode of cell death and reduction of mitochondrial transmembrane potential (MTP), respectively. Caspase activities were measured using specific substrates and colorimetric analysis. The expression levels of Bcl-2 family proteins were determined by immunoblotting. Reactive oxygen species were also measured using 2',7'-dihydrodichlorofluorescein diacetate and dihydroethidium (fluorescence dyes). Calomelanone was found to be toxic towards various human cancer cells, including acute promyelocytic HL-60 and monocytic leukemic U937 cells, in a dose-dependent manner at 24 h and human hepatocellular HepG2 cells at 48 h. However, the proliferation of HepG2 cells increased at 24 h. Calomelanone was found to induce apoptosis in HL-60 and U937 at 24 h and HepG2 apoptosis at 48 h via the intrinsic pathway by inducing MTP disruption. This compound also induced caspase-3, caspase-8, and caspase-9 activities. Calomelanone upregulated proapoptotic Bax and Bak and downregulated antiapoptotic Bcl-xL proteins in HepG2 cells. Moreover, signaling was also associated with oxidative stress in HepG2 cells. Calomelanone induced autophagy at 24 h of treatment, which was evidenced by staining with monodansylcadaverine (MDC) to represent autophagic flux. This was associated with a decrease of Akt (survival pathway) and an upregulation of Atg5 (the marker of autophagy). Thus, calomelanone induced apoptosis/regulated cell death in HL-60, U937, and HepG2 cells. However, it also induced autophagy in HepG2 depending on duration, dose, and type of cells. Thus, calomelanone could be used as a potential anticancer agent for cancer treatment. Nevertheless, acute and chronic toxicity should be further investigated in animals before conducting investigations in human patients.

A Systematic Review of the Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmacokinetics of Matrine

Matrine (MT) is a naturally occurring alkaloid and an bioactive component of Chinese herbs, such as Sophora flavescens and Radix Sophorae tonkinensis. Emerging evidence suggests that MT possesses anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, antiviral, antimicrobial, anti-fibrotic, anti-allergic, antinociceptive, hepatoprotective, cardioprotective, and neuroprotective properties. These pharmacological properties form the foundation for its application in the treatment of various diseases, such as multiple types of cancers, hepatitis, skin diseases, allergic asthma, diabetic cardiomyopathy, pain, Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), and central nervous system (CNS) inflammation. However, an increasing number of published studies indicate that MT has serious adverse effects, the most obvious being liver toxicity and neurotoxicity, which are major factors limiting its clinical use. Pharmacokinetic studies have shown that MT has low oral bioavailability and short half-life in vivo. This review summarizes the latest advances in research on the pharmacology, toxicology, and pharmacokinetics of MT, with a focus on its biological properties and mechanism of action. The review provides insight into the future of research on traditional Chinese medicine.

The effect of compound kushen injection on cancer cells: Integrated identification of candidate molecular mechanisms

Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) preparations are often extracts of single or multiple herbs containing hundreds of compounds, and hence it has been difficult to study their mechanisms of action. Compound Kushen Injection (CKI) is a complex mixture of compounds extracted from two medicinal plants and has been used in Chinese hospitals to treat cancer for over twenty years. To demonstrate that a systematic analysis of molecular changes resulting from complex mixtures of bioactives from TCM can identify a core set of differentially expressed (DE) genes and a reproducible set of candidate pathways. We used in vitro cancer models to measure the effect of CKI on cell cycle phases and apoptosis, and correlated those phenotypes with CKI induced changes in gene expression. We treated two cancer cell lines with or without CKI and assessed the resulting phenotypes by employing cell viability and proliferation assays. Based on these results, we carried out high-throughput transcriptome data analysis to identify genes and candidate pathways perturbed by CKI. We integrated these differential gene expression results with previously reported results and carried out validation of selected differentially expressed genes. CKI induced cell-cycle arrest and apoptosis in the cancer cell lines tested. In these cells CKI also altered the expression of 363 core candidate genes associated with cell cycle, apoptosis, DNA replication/repair, and various cancer pathways. Of these, 7 are clinically relevant to cancer diagnosis or therapy, 14 are cell cycle regulators, and most of these 21 candidates are downregulated by CKI. Comparison of our core candidate genes to a database of plant medicinal compounds and their effects on gene expression identified one-to-one, one-to-many and many-to-many regulatory relationships between compounds in CKI and DE genes. By identifying genes and promising candidate pathways associated with CKI treatment based on our transcriptome-based analysis, we have shown that this approach is useful for the systematic analysis of molecular changes resulting from complex mixtures of bioactives.

Discovery of 3-(benzofuran-2-ylmethyl)-1H-indole derivatives as potential autophagy inducers in cervical cancer cells

In this manuscript we have documented the identification of a novel anticancer scaffold 3-(benzofuran-2-ylmethyl)-1H-indole. This scaffold has been designed by tweaking the known bisindolylmethane scaffold of natural products that display a wide range of biological activities. A series of 24 new conjugates have been synthesized and among them 5 derivatives exhibited IC₅₀ values less than 40 µM against two cervical cancer cell lines SiHa and C33a. Further mechanistic studies of two compounds 3eb and 3ec revealed that the toxicity of these compounds was due to the effective induction of autophagy mediated cell death. The autophagy induction was confirmed by the progressive conversion of LC3I to LC3II and downregulation of p62 in cervical cancer cells.

Hellebrigenin anti-pancreatic cancer effects based on apoptosis and autophage

Hellebrigenin is a natural product found in the toad skin secretions and plants of Urginea, including Hellebores and Kalanchoe genera. It has been shown to be active against Leishmania chagasi promastigotes and Trypanosoma cruzi trypomastigotes and also reported to play an anti-tumor effect on several cancer cell lines in vitro, including pancreatic cancer. This study is aimed to investigate the effects of Hellebrigenin on pancreatic carcinoma cells, SW1990 and BxPC-3 in vitro and its molecular mechanism involved in antitumor activities. Our results showed that Hellebrigenin effectively inhibited the proliferation of SW1990 and BxPC-3 cells in dose- and time-dependent manner. Flow cytometry results showed that Hellebrigenin induced the G0/G1 arrest in both of SW1990 and BxPC-3 cells and promoted cell early apoptosis and autophagy according to morphological observation. Immunofluorescence staining results further confirmed that cell apoptosis and autophagy also increased upon the Hellebrigenin treatment. Moreover, higher dose of Hellebrigenin further increased the cell apoptosis rate while decrease the mitochondrial membrane potential 24 h after treatment. The autophagy rate increased 48 h after treatment with significant difference (P < 0.05). Western blot analysis showed that the expression of caspase 3, 7, cleaved caspase 7, Atg 12, LC3 proteins were increased in SW1990 cell after treatment with Hellebrigenin. In addition, increasing expression of caspase 3, 7, 9, PARP, cleaved caspase 3, 7, 9, PARP, the sub basic protein of the PI3K family, Beclin-1, LC 3, Atg 3, 5, 12, 16 L were also observed after BxPC-3 cells treated with Hellebrigenin. In summary, this study reported for the first time that Hellebrigenin effectively induced autophagy and apoptosis especially the early apoptosis in SW1990 and BxPC-3 cells.

Matrine: A Promising Natural Product With Various Pharmacological Activities

Matrine is an alkaloid isolated from the traditional Chinese medicine Sophora flavescens Aiton. At present, a large number of studies have proved that matrine has an anticancer effect can inhibit cancer cell proliferation, arrest cell cycle, induce apoptosis, and inhibit cancer cell metastasis. It also has the effect of reversing anticancer drug resistance and reducing the toxicity of anticancer drugs. In addition, studies have reported that matrine has a therapeutic effect on Alzheimer's syndrome, encephalomyelitis, asthma, myocardial ischemia, rheumatoid arthritis, osteoporosis, and the like, and its mechanism is mainly related to the inhibition of inflammatory response and apoptosis. Its treatable disease spectrum spans multiple systems such as the nervous system, circulatory system, and immune system. The antidisease effect and mechanism of matrine are diverse, so it has high research value. This review summarizes recent studies on the pharmacological mechanism of matrine, with a view to providing reference for subsequent research.

Modulation of the Autophagy-lysosomal Pathway in Hepatocellular Carcinoma Using Small Molecules

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) accounts for approximately 90% of all cases of primary liver cancer; it is the third most frequent cause of cancer-related death worldwide. In early-stage disease, surgical resection and liver transplantation are considered curative treatments. However, the majority of HCC patients present with advanced-stage disease that is treated using palliative systemic therapy. Since HCC is heterogeneous owing to its multiple etiologies, various risk factors, and inherent resistance to chemotherapy, the development of an effective systemic treatment strategy for HCC remains a considerable challenge. Autophagy is a lysosome-dependent catabolic degradation pathway that is essential for maintaining cellular energy homeostasis. Autophagy dysfunction is closely linked with the pathogenesis of various cancers; therefore, the discovery of small molecules that can modulate autophagy has attracted considerable interest in the development of a systemic treatment strategy for advanced HCC. Here, we reviewed the roles of autophagy in HCC and the recent advances regarding small molecules that target autophagy regulatory mechanisms.

Nobiletin Triggers Reactive Oxygen Species-Mediated Pyroptosis through Regulating Autophagy in Ovarian Cancer Cells

Ovarian cancer is one of the most serious female malignancies worldwide. Despite intensive efforts being made to overcome ovarian cancer, there still remain limited optional treatments for this disease. Nobiletin, a prospective food-derived phytochemical extracted from citrus fruits, has recently been reported to suppress ovarian cancer cells, but the role of pyroptosis in ovarian carcinoma with nobiletin still remains unknown. In this study, we aim to explore the effect of nobiletin on ovarian carcinoma and further expound the underlying mechanisms of nobiletin-induced ovarian cancer cell death. Our results showed that nobiletin could significantly inhibit cell proliferation, induce DNA damage, and also lead to apoptosis by increasing the cleaved poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) level of human ovarian cancer cells (HOCCs) in a dose-dependent manner. Moreover, we revealed that nobiletin decreased mitochondrial membrane potential and induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation and autophagy of HOCCs, contributing to gasdermin D-/gasdermin E-mediated pyroptosis. Taken together, nobiletin as a functional food ingredient represents a promising new anti-ovarian cancer candidate that could induce apoptosis and trigger ROS-mediated pyroptosis through regulating autophagy in ovarian cancer cells.

Arenobufagin Inhibits the Phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/Protein Kinase B/Mammalian Target of Rapamycin Pathway and Induces Apoptosis and Autophagy in Pancreatic Cancer Cells

OBJECTIVE

The aim of the study was to investigate the effects of arenobufagin on pancreatic carcinoma in vitro and in vivo and its molecular mechanism.

METHODS

The proliferation of pancreatic cancer cells was detected by the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide assay. Transmission electron microscopy was used to observe the formation of autophagic vacuoles after arenobufagin treatment. Hoechst 33258 and monodansylcadaverine fluorescence staining were performed to evaluate cell apoptosis and autophagy. Annexin V-fluorescein isothiocyanate/propidium iodide double-staining and JC-1 staining assays were used to evaluate apoptosis-related changes. Reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction and western blotting were carried out to examine the expression of apoptosis- and autophagy-related markers after arenobufagin treatment. A tumor xenograft nude mouse model was established to evaluate arenobufagin efficacy in vivo.

RESULTS

Arenobufagin effectively inhibited the proliferation of SW1990 and BxPC3 cells and induced cell arrest, apoptosis, and autophagy. Arenobufagin upregulated the expression of apoptotic- and autophagy-related proteins while downregulated the expression of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase family proteins. Furthermore, arenobufagin also exerted inhibitory effects on tumor growth in xenograft nude mice.

CONCLUSIONS

Arenobufagin inhibits tumor growth in vivo and in vitro. The mechanism underlying arenobufagin action may involve induction of autophagy and apoptosis through the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/protein kinase B/mammalian target of rapamycin pathway.

Natural Product Regulates Autophagy in Cancer

Anti-cancer effect of natural products has been widely known. As a sort of multi-target anti-cancer agents, natural compound's regulation on autophagy in cancer cells has been studied as a promising research to reveal the mechanism in oncogenesis, as well as a potential short way to anti-cancer drug discovery. In this chapter, we reviewed the cancer-autophagic-related studies on several natural product compounds. It was concluded that natural product compounds directly or indirectly regulated most of the target proteins on the autophagic signal pathways. Considering we have not seen the whole clear atlas of autophagy in oncogenesis yet, it is hard to raise up any conclusion that autophagy is always playing a positive role in oncogenesis and cancer progression.

Autophagy-regulating N-heterocycles derivatives as potential anticancer agents

As a double-edged sword, autophagy in cancer cells could either suppress or promote tumorigenesis. Nowadays, more and more natural compounds with autophagy-regulating activities exhibit therapeutic effects against various cancers. N-Heterocycle derivatives plays an important role for discovery new drugs. In this review, we summarize and classify 116 N-heterocycle derivatives with autophagy-regulating activities in the past decade into 12 classes according to structure characteristics. The structural features, bioactivities, mechanism and problems faced in this field are discussed and reported for the first time. Some of these even exhibited outstanding in vivo antitumor activities, including bisaminoquinoline (3), pancratistatin (8), 10-hydroxyevodiamine (18), lycorine (28), piperine (31) and iridium (III) complex (57), which are potential drug candidates for antitumor therapy.

Matrine Reverses the Warburg Effect and Suppresses Colon Cancer Cell Growth via Negatively Regulating HIF-1α

The Warburg effect is a peculiar feature of cancer’s metabolism, which is an attractive therapeutic target that could aim tumor cells while sparing normal tissue. Matrine is an alkaloid extracted from the herb root of a traditional Chinese medicine, Sophora flavescens Ait. Matrine has been reported to have selective cytotoxicity toward cancer cells but with elusive mechanisms. Here, we reported that matrine was able to reverse the Warburg effect (inhibiting glucose uptake and lactate production) and suppress the growth of human colon cancer cells in vitro and in vivo. Mechanistically, we revealed that matrine significantly decreased the messenger RNA (mRNA) and protein expression of HIF-1α, a critical transcription factor in reprogramming cancer metabolism toward the Warburg effect. As a result, the expression levels of GLUT1, HK2, and LDHA, the downstream targets of HIF-1α in regulating glucose metabolism, were dramatically inhibited by matrine. Moreover, this inhibitory effect of matrine was significantly attenuated when HIF-1α was knocked down or exogenous overexpressed in colon cancer cells. Together, our results revealed that matrine inhibits colon cancer cell growth via suppression of HIF-1α expression and its downstream regulation of Warburg effect. Matrine could be further developed as an antitumor agent targeting the HIF-1α-mediated Warburg effect for colon cancer treatment.

Insight Into the Role of Autophagy in Osteosarcoma and Its Therapeutic Implication

Osteosarcoma is an aggressive bone cancer that frequently metastasizes to the lungs. The cytotoxicity of most chemotherapeutics and targeted drugs in the treatment of osteosarcoma is partially lessened. Furthermore, there is a poor response to current chemo- and radiotherapy for both primary lesions and pulmonary metastases of osteosarcoma. There is a clear need to explore promising drug candidates that could improve the efficacy of osteosarcoma treatment. Autophagy, a dynamic and highly conserved catabolic process, has dual roles in promoting cell survival as well as cell death. The role of autophagy has been investigated extensively in different tumor types, and a growing body of research has highlighted the potential value of using autophagy in clinical therapy. Here, we address significant aspects of autophagy in osteosarcoma, including its functions, modulation, and possible therapeutic applications.

Matrine inhibits the development and progression of ovarian cancer by repressing cancer associated phosphorylation signaling pathways

Ovarian cancer remains the most lethal gynecologic malignancy with late detection and acquired chemoresistance. Advanced understanding of the pathophysiology and novel treatment strategies are urgently required. A growing body of proteomic investigations suggest that phosphorylation has a pivotal role in the regulation of ovarian cancer associated signaling pathways. Matrine has been extensively studied for its potent anti-tumor activities. However, its effect on ovarian cancer cells and underlying molecular mechanisms remain unclear. Herein we showed that matrine treatment inhibited the development and progression of ovarian cancer cells by regulating proliferation, apoptosis, autophagy, invasion and angiogenesis. Matrine treatment retarded the cancer associated signaling transduction by decreasing the phosphorylation levels of ERK1/2, MEK1/2, PI3K, Akt, mTOR, FAK, RhoA, VEGFR2, and Tie2 in vitro and in vivo. Moreover, matrine showed excellent antitumor effect on chemoresistant ovarian cancer cells. No obvious toxic side effects were observed in matrine-administrated mice. As the natural agent, matrine has the potential to be the targeting drug against ovarian cancer cells with the advantages of overcoming the chemotherapy resistance and decreasing the toxic side effects.

Molecular mechanism of Helicobacter pylori-induced autophagy in gastric cancer

Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) is a gram-negative pathogen that colonizes gastric epithelial cells. The drug resistance rates of H. pylori have dramatically increased, causing persistent infections. Chronic infection by H. pylori is a critical cause of gastritis, peptic ulcers and even gastric cancer. In host cells, autophagy is stimulated to maintain cellular homeostasis following intracellular pathogen recognition by the innate immune defense system. However, H. pylori-induced autophagy is not consistent during acute and chronic infection. Therefore, a deeper understanding of the association between H. pylori infection and autophagy in gastric epithelial cells could aid the understanding of the mechanisms of persistent infection and the identification of autophagy-associated therapeutic targets for H. pylori infection. The present review describes the role of H. pylori and associated virulence factors in the induction of autophagy by different signaling pathways during acute infection. Additionally, the inhibition of autophagy in gastric epithelial cells during chronic infection was discussed. The present review summarized H. pylori-mediated autophagy and provided insights into its mechanism of action, suggesting the induction of autophagy as a novel therapeutic target for persistent H. pylori infection.

Traditional Chinese medicine combined with hepatic targeted drug delivery systems: A new strategy for the treatment of liver diseases

Liver diseases are clinically common and present a substantial public health issue. Many of the currently available drugs for the treatment of liver diseases suffer from limitations that include low hepatic distribution, lack of target effects, poor in vivo stability and adverse effects on other organs. Consequently, conventional treatment of hepatic diseases is ineffective. TCM is commonly used in the treatment of liver diseases worldwide, particularly in China, and has advantages over conventional therapy. HTDDS can be designed to enhance clinical efficacy in the treatment of liver diseases. We have conducted an extensive review of 335 studies reported since 1964. These included about 166 references involving the treatment of liver diseases with TCM (covering active components of TCM, single TCM and Chinese medicine formulas), 169 reports on HTDDS and background studies on liver-related diseases. Here we review the long history of TCM in the treatment of liver diseases.We have also reviewed the status of studies on active components of TCM using nanotechnology-based targeted delivery systems to provide support for further research and development of TCM-based targeted preparations for the treatment of liver disease.

Matrine alleviates Staphylococcus aureus lipoteichoic acid-induced endometritis via suppression of TLR2-mediated NF-κB activation

Endometritis is one of the main diseases that causes great economic losses in the dairy industry. Recent studies have shown that matrine extracted from the traditional Chinese herb Sophora flavescens is an alkaloid with a broad range of bioactivities. Here, we aimed to investigate the protective effects of matrine on Staphylococcus aureus lipoteichoic acid (LTA)-induced endometritis in mice and elucidate the possible molecular mechanisms in vitro. Histopathological changes showed that matrine remarkably attenuated the uterus injury in a mouse model of LTA-induced endometritis. qPCR and ELISA results showed that matrine dose-dependently reduced the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α and IL-1β). To further elucidate the underlying mechanisms of this protective effect of matrine, LTA-stimulated bovine endometrial epithelial cells (bEECs) were employed in this study. The results demonstrated that TLR2 expression and its downstream nuclear factor (NF)-κB activation were both suppressed by matrine treatment. Furthermore, a small interference RNA targeting TLR2 gene mimicked matrine in its inhibition on LTA-induced activation of TLR2 and NF-κB. In conclusion, these findings suggest the protective effect of matrine against LTA-induced endometritis through negative regulation of TLR2-mediated NF-κB pathway.

Diverse Functions of Autophagy in Liver Physiology and Liver Diseases

Autophagy is a catabolic process by which eukaryotic cells eliminate cytosolic materials through vacuole-mediated sequestration and subsequent delivery to lysosomes for degradation, thus maintaining cellular homeostasis and the integrity of organelles. Autophagy has emerged as playing a critical role in the regulation of liver physiology and the balancing of liver metabolism. Conversely, numerous recent studies have indicated that autophagy may disease-dependently participate in the pathogenesis of liver diseases, such as liver hepatitis, steatosis, fibrosis, cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma. This review summarizes the current knowledge on the functions of autophagy in hepatic metabolism and the contribution of autophagy to the pathophysiology of liver-related diseases. Moreover, the impacts of autophagy modulation on the amelioration of the development and progression of liver diseases are also discussed.

Research advances on anticancer activities of matrine and its derivatives: An updated overview

Cancer is the second leading cause of mortality, only overcome by cardiovascular diseases, and has caused more than 8.7 million deaths in 2015 all over the world. This figure is expected to rise to about 13.1 million by 2030. In order to prevent or cure this fatal illness, substantial efforts have been devoted to develop and discover new anticancer drugs with same or better antitumor activity but lesser toxicity. Matrine is an alkaloid isolated from Sophora flavescens Ait. For decades, matrine and its derivatives have been studied as antineoplastic agents which predominantly work by inhibiting proliferation and inducing apoptosis of cancer cells. The mechanism responsible for the anticancer activity of matrine can be recognized via up-regulating or down-regulating expression of the cancer related molecules, eventually causing tumor cell death. This review summarizes research developments of matrine and its derivatives as anticancer agents. A few possible research directions, suggestions and clues for future work on the development of novel matrine-based anticancer agents with improved expected activities and lesser toxicity have also been provided.

Matrine suppresses KRAS-driven pancreatic cancer growth by inhibiting autophagy-mediated energy metabolism

Matrine is a natural compound extracted from the herb Sophora flavescens Ait which is widely used in traditional Chinese medicine for treating various diseases. Recently, matrine was reported to have antitumor effects against a variety of cancers without any obvious side effects; however, the molecular mechanisms of its antiproliferative effects on cancer are unclear. Here, we report that matrine inhibits autophagy-mediated energy metabolism, which is necessary for pancreatic cancer growth. We found that matrine significantly reduces pancreatic cancer growth in vitro and in vivo by insufficiently maintaining mitochondrial metabolic function and energy level. We also found that either pyruvate or α-ketoglutarate supplementation markedly rescues pancreatic cancer cell growth following matrine treatment. Inhibition of mitochondrial energy production results from matrine-mediated autophagy inhibition by impairing the function of lysosomal protease. Matrine-mediated autophagy inhibition requires stat3 downregulation. Furthermore, we found that the antitumor effect of matrine on pancreatic cancer growth depends on the mutation of the KRAS oncogene. Together, our data suggest that matrine can suppress the growth of KRAS-mutant pancreatic cancer by inhibiting autophagy-mediated energy metabolism.

Discovery of 6-chloro-2-(propylthio)-8,9-dihydro-7H-purines containing a carboxamide moiety as potential selective anti-lung cancer agents

A new series of 6-chloro-2-(propylthio)-8,9-dihydro-7H-purine-8-caboxamide derivatives were designed, synthesized, and further evaluated for their antiproliferative activities on four human cancer cell lines (A549, MGC803, PC-3 and TE-1). The structure-activity relationships (SARs) studies were conducted through the variation in the two regions, which including position 8 and 9, of purine core. One of the compounds, 8, containing a terminal piperazine appendage with a carboxamide moiety at position 8 and phenyl group at position 9 of 6-chloro-8,9-dihydro-7H-purine core, showed the most potent antiproliferative activity and good selectivity between cancer and normal cells (IC₅₀ values of 2.80 μM against A549 and 303.03 μM against GES-1, respectively). In addition, compound 8 could inhibit the colony formation and migration of A549 cells in a concentration-dependent manner, as well as induce the apoptosis possibly through the intrinsic pathway.

Chinese herb medicine matrine induce apoptosis in human esophageal squamous cancer KYSE-150 cells through increasing reactive oxygen species and inhibiting mitochondrial function

Matrine, as a natural alkaloid isolated from the traditional herb medicine sophora flavescens, has been proved to possess excellent biological activities, including anticancer effects. Now, this research aims to assess the anticancer activities and the mechanism of matrine against esophageal cancer cells, we investigated the proliferative inhibition, apoptosis induction, as well as the underlying mechanism of matrine on esophageal cancer KYSE-150 cells. It was found that matrine could suppress KYSE-150 cell proliferation and significantly mediate cell apoptosis in a dose-dependent relation by increasing intracellular reactive oxygen species level and triggering mitochondrial membrane potential disruption. More precise mechanism studies demonstrated that matrine could up-regulate the expression of Bax proteins and down-regulate the expression of Bcl-2 proteins, as well as the activation about caspase-3, 8 and 9 in KYSE-150 cells. The morphological analysis of KYSE-150 cells exhibited that matrine could destroy the F-actin and nuclei structures and induce morphological damage with increased surface height distribution and roughness of cell membrane. These results not only demonstrated the potential anticancer activity mechanism of matrine at nanoscale, but also provide preliminary guidance for the treatment of esophageal cancer using matrine.

Matrine Is Identified as a Novel Macropinocytosis Inducer by a Network Target Approach

Comprehensively understanding pharmacological functions of natural products is a key issue to be addressed for the discovery of new drugs. Unlike some single-target drugs, natural products always exert diverse therapeutic effects through acting on a "network" that consists of multiple targets, making it necessary to develop a systematic approach, e.g., network pharmacology, to reveal pharmacological functions of natural products and infer their mechanisms of action. In this work, to identify the "network target" of a natural product, we perform a functional analysis of matrine, a marketed drug in China extracted from a medical herb Ku-Shen (Radix Sophorae Flavescentis). Here, the network target of matrine was firstly predicted by drugCIPHER, a genome-wide target prediction method. Based on the network target of matrine, we performed a functional gene set enrichment analysis to computationally identify the potential pharmacological functions of matrine, most of which are supported by the literature evidence, including neurotoxicity and neuropharmacological activities of matrine. Furthermore, computational results demonstrated that matrine has the potential for the induction of macropinocytosis and the regulation of ATP metabolism. Our experimental data revealed that the large vesicles induced by matrine are consistent with the typical characteristics of macropinosome. Our verification results also suggested that matrine could decrease cellular ATP level. These findings demonstrated the availability and effectiveness of the network target strategy for identifying the comprehensive pharmacological functions of natural products.

Natural autophagy blockers, dauricine (DAC) and daurisoline (DAS), sensitize cancer cells to camptothecin-induced toxicity

Autophagy is a cellular bulk degradation pathway implicated in various diseases. Inhibition of autophagy has been regarded as a new therapeutic strategy for cancer treatment, especially in combination with chemotherapy. In our study, we identified two natural compounds, dauricine (DAC) and daurisoline (DAS), as two potent autophagy blockers through a high-content screening. DAC and DAS are alkaloids isolated from traditional Chinese medicine Rhizoma Menispermi. We systematically examined the effects of DAC and DAS on autophagy function in HeLa cells and found that DAC and DAS induced massive formation of autophagic vacuoles and lipidation of LC3. The accumulation of autophagic vacuoles and LC3 lipidation are due to blockage of autophagosome maturation as evidenced by interrupted colocalization of autophagsosome and lysosome, increased GFP-LC3/RFP-LC3 ratio and accumulation of autophagic substrate p62. Moreover, DAC and DAS impaired lysosomal function, as indicated by reduced lysosomal protease activity and increased lysosomal pH values. Importantly, we showed that DAC and DAS strongly inhibited the lysosome V-type ATPase activity. For the therapeutic potential, we found that DAC and DAS blocked the campothecin (CPT)-induced protective autophagy in HeLa cells, and dramatically sensitized the multiple cancer cells to CPT-induced cell death. In conclusion, our result shows that DAC and DAS are autophagy inhibitors which inhibit the lysosomal degradation of auophagic vacuoles, and sensitize the CPT-induced cancer cell death. The study implies the therapeutic potential of DAC and DAS in the treatment of cancers in combination of chemotherapy by inhibiting autophagy.

Aloin promotes A549 cell apoptosis via the reactive oxygen species‑mitogen activated protein kinase signaling pathway and p53 phosphorylation

Aloin has the potential to be a novel anticancer agent in cancer therapies. However, the detailed anticancer effect of Aloin remains to be fully elucidated. The present study analyzed the p53‑dependent mechanisms in response to Aloin treatment. Using the p53‑proficient A549 cells, an Aloin‑induced apoptotic cell model was established, which was used to evaluate the potential underlying molecular mechanisms. The results demonstrated that 200, 300 and 400 µM Aloin induced intrinsic cell apoptosis, which was further confirmed by disruption of the mitochondrial membrane potential, elevation of cytosolic Ca2+ levels, and activation of B‑cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl‑2) homologous antagonist killer, Bcl‑2 X‑associated protein, p53 upregulated modulator of apoptosis and phorbol‑12‑myristate‑13‑acetate‑induced protein 1. Aloin‑induced apoptosis was also accompanied by the induction of p53 phosphorylation on Serine (Ser)15, Threonine 18, Ser20 and Ser392; however, there were no significant differences in the expression of p53 and mouse double minute 2 homolog. Aloin‑induced apoptosis was reactive oxygen species (ROS)‑ and c‑Jun/p38‑dependent, as specific inhibitors for ROS, phosphorylated (p)‑c‑Jun and p‑p38 may attenuate Aloin‑induced A549 cell proliferating inhibition. In conclusion, these results suggested that Aloin may induce apoptosis in A549 cells via the ROS‑mitogen activated protein kinase signaling pathway, with p53 phosphorylation. These results implicate Aloin as a potential therapeutic agent for the treatment of lung cancer.

Anticancer activities and mechanisms of heat-clearing and detoxicating traditional Chinese herbal medicine

In traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) theory, pathogenic heat and toxins, which are akin to the inflammatory factors, are the causes of cancer and could promote its virulent development. Therefore, heat-clearing and detoxicating (HCD) herbs are essential components of TCM formulas for cancer treatment. An increasing interest has been focused on the study of HCD herbs and accumulated evidences have shown that HCD herbs or HCD herbs-based formulas exhibited remarkable anticancer effects when used alone or combined with other therapeutic approaches. Some of the HCD herb-derived products have been tested in clinical trials. Studies revealed that extracts or pure compounds of the HCD herbs showed a broad anticancer spectrum against both solid and hematologic malignancies without significant toxic effects. Notably, some HCD herbs or formulas could strongly enhance the anticancer activities of chemo- or radio-therapy and alleviate their side effects. The anticancer activities of HCD herb exacts or the pure compounds were reported to be through multiple cellular or molecular mechanisms, such as induction of cancer cell apoptosis, differentiation and cell cycle arrest, inhibition of cancer cell growth, invasion and metastasis, and inhibition of tumor angiogenesis. In this review, we provide comprehensive analysis and summary of research progress and future prospects in this field to facilitate the further study and application of HCD herbs.