In vitro and in vivo characterization of neural stem cells

Neural stem cells are defined as clonogenic cells with self-renewal capacity and the ability to generate all neural lineages (multipotentiality). Cells with these characteristics have been isolated from the embryonic and adult central nervous system. Under specific conditions, these cells can differentiate into neurons, glia, and non-neural cell types, or proliferate in long-term cultures as cell clusters termed "neurospheres". These cultures represent a useful model for neurodevelopmental studies and a potential cell source for cell replacement therapy. Because no specific markers are available to unequivocally identify neural stem cells, their functional characteristics (self-renewal and multipotentiality) provide the main features for their identification. Here, we review the experimental and ultrastructural studies aimed at identifying the morphological characteristics and the antigenic markers of neural stem cells for their in vitro and in vivo identification.

Intrathecal transplantation of neuroblastoma cells decreases heat hyperalgesia and cold allodynia in a rat model of neuropathic pain

Intrathecal grafting of cells as biological pumps to deliver monoamines, endorphins, and/or trophic factors, has been shown to be effective in treating chronic pain both in experimental animals and in clinical trials. We have tested whether intrathecal implantation of neuroblastoma cells reduces heat hyperalgesia and cold allodynia in a rat model of neuropathic pain induced by chronic constriction injury (CCI) of the sciatic nerve. Behavioral tests and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) collection were performed before CCI, 1 week later (after which, vehicle or NB69 cells were intrathecally injected) and at 4, 7, and 14 days post-injection. Both CSF sampling and injection of the cells were performed by direct lumbar puncture. Intrathecal grafting of 4 x 10(6) NB69 neuroblastoma cells reduced to basal levels the nociceptive response to heat in nerve-injured hindpaws, while the response of control limbs remained unchanged. Similarly, the allodynic response to cold elicited by acetone evaporation decreased in the animals implanted with NB69 cells. An increase in the concentrations of dopamine and serotonin metabolites of around 150% was observed in the CSF of animals that received grafts of NB69 cells. These data suggest that the monoamines released by NB69 cells in the intrathecal space produce analgesia to neuropathic pain in rats.

Functional implications of the noradrenergic-cholinergic switch induced by retinoic acid in NB69 neuroblastoma cells

Some neuroblastoma cell lines change their neurotransmitter phenotype from noradrenergic to cholinergic under retinoic acid treatment. Such "neurotransmitter switch" seems to be a consequence of changes in the expression and activity of the biosynthetic machinery for both neurotransmitters. In this study, we have characterized this "neurotransmitter switch" induced by retinoic acid in a human neuroblastoma cell line (NB69) showing catecholaminergic characteristics. Retinoic acid treatment reduced tyrosine hydroxylase activity and noradrenaline levels in NB69 cells but did not modify the expression of this enzyme. Moreover, the calcium-dependent release of [(3)H]noradrenaline in control cells was highly reduced by retinoic acid treatment. On the other hand, NB69 cells treated with retinoic acid enhanced the expression of choline acetyltransferase and acquired the capability to release [(3)H]acetylcholine in a calcium-dependent way. In addition, we found that the expression of the vesicular monoamine transporter 2 (VMAT2) and the vesicular acetylcholine transporter (VAChT) was increased in those cells treated with retinoic acid. Immunostaining revealed that retinoic acid treatment changed the cellular distribution of both vesicular monoamine transporter 2 and vesicular acetylcholine transporter. In conclusion, retinoic acid induces a noradrenergic to cholinergic switch in NB69 cells by acting at several levels of the neurotransmitter phenotypic expression.

Glia protect fetal midbrain dopamine neurons in culture from L-DOPA toxicity through multiple mechanisms

Mesencephalic glia produce soluble factors that protect dopamine neurons from L-DOPA toxicity. The chemical composition of these soluble factors is unknown. We investigated the protective effect against L-DOPA neurotoxicity in midbrain dopamine neurons of fractions of different molecular size of glia conditioned medium and candidate neuroprotective agents produced by glia including neurotrophic factors and antioxidants. Protective effects were evaluated according to the number of tyrosine hydroxylase immunoreactive cells, high affinity dopamine uptake and levels of quinones. Both fractions of glia conditioned medium, smaller and larger than 10kD, protected against L-DOPA, but the fraction of smaller molecular size, that contains small free radical scanvenger molecules, was more effective than the fraction of larger molecular size, that contains large neurotrophic peptides. Among the neurotrophic factors GDNF and BDNF totally prevented L-DOPA neurotoxicity, while NGF and bFGF were less effective. However, only NGF significantly reduced the elevation of quinones induced by L-DOPA. Ascorbic acid, at the concentration found in glia conditioned medium, provided partial protective effect against L-DOPA toxicity. Glutathione, had neurotrophic effects on untreated midbrain dopamine neurons and prevented the effect of L-DOPA. In conclusion, the protective effect against L-DOPA neurotoxicity by glia conditioned medium is mediated by several compounds including neurotrophic factors and small antioxidants.

Neuronal-enriched cultures from embryonic rat ventral mesencephalon for pharmacological studies of dopamine neurons

The method described herein provides a convenient and rapid procedure to obtain enriched neuronal cultures containing reproducible numbers of dopamine (DA) cells. These cultures allow experimental paradigms designed to study the effect of drugs on DA neurons without astroglial mediation. Neuronal-enriched cultures are prepared from the mesencephalon of rat embryos at the 14th day of gestation (E14). At that moment, DA cells of the developing substantia nigra are located ventrally at the level of the mesencephalic flexure. Because the neurons of the pars compacta are mostly born between E12 and E15, E14 corresponds to an optimal stage for obtaining a high survival of DA cells. A defined medium (EF12) allows the maturation of DA neurons and reduces drastically the number of astrocytes. After 7 days in vitro (DIV) in EF12, the cultures contain 2-5% astrocytes (GFAP+ cells) and DA neurons represent 0.5-2% of the cells, as assessed by immunostaining to tyrosine hydroxylase (TH). The function of DA neurons is assessed by [3H]DA uptake and of those non-DA neurons by the high affinity [3H]GABA uptake. Cell survival is assessed by Trypan blue dye exclusion.

Toxic effects of L-DOPA on mesencephalic cell cultures: protection with antioxidants

The toxicity of L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (L-DOPA) was studied in neuronal cultures from rat mesencephalon. The survival and function of DA neurons were assessed by the number of tyrosine hydroxylase-positive (TH+) cells and 3H-DA uptake and those non-DA neurons by the exclusion of Trypan blue and the high-affinity 3H-GABA uptake. L-DOPA was toxic for both DA and non-DA neurons. DA neurons were more severely affected than non-DA neurons after short periods of treatment and with exposure to a low dose of L-DOPA (25 vs. 100 microM) and less selectively affected after 1 or 2 days of treatment. After incubation with L-DOPA, a disruption of the neuritic network and an overall deterioration were observed, more evident for TH+ cells in the whole culture. Auto-oxidation to quinones is responsible in part for L-DOPA toxicity in non-DA neurons since the levels of quinones correlated well with the severity of cell death in the cultures. The damage of DA neurons took place before the rising of quinones, suggesting that quinones are not essential in L-DOPA toxicity for DA neurons. Antioxidants, such as ascorbic acid and sodium metabisulfite, completely prevented L-DOPA-induced quinone formation as well as the death of non-DA neurons. In contrast, they could only partially prevent the damage produced by L-DOPA in DA neurons. Mazindol, a selective inhibitor of DA uptake, protected TH+ cells from L-DOPA.

Regrowth of axons in lesioned adult rat spinal cord: promotion by implants of cultured Schwann cells

Highly purified populations of Schwann cells were grafted into lesioned adult rat spinal cord to determine if they promote axonal regeneration. Dorsal spinal cord lesions were created by a photochemical lesioning technique. Schwann cells derived from E16 rat dorsal root ganglia, either elongated and associated with their extracellular matrix or dissociated and without matrix, were rolled in polymerized collagen to form an implant 4-6 mm long which was grafted at 5 or 28 days after lesioning. No immunosuppression was used. Acellular collagen rolls served as controls. At 14, 28 and 90 days and 4 and 6 months after grafting, animals were analysed histologically with silver and Toluidine Blue stains and EM. The grafts often filled the lesion and the host borders they apposed exhibited only limited astrogliosis. By 14 days, bundles of unmyelinated and occasional thinly myelinated axons populated the periphery of Schwann cell implants. By 28 days and thereafter, numerous unmyelinated and myelinated axons were present in most grafts. Silver staining revealed sprouted axons at the implant border at 28 days and long bundles of axons within the implant at 90 days. Photographs of entire 1 micron plastic cross-sections of nine grafted areas were assembled into montages to count the number of myelinated axons at the graft midpoint; the number of myelinated axons ranged from 517-3214. Electron microscopy of implants showed typical Schwann cell ensheathment and myelination, increased myelin thickness by 90 days, and a preponderance of unmyelinated over myelinated axons. Random EM sampling of five Schwann cell grafts showed that the ratio of unmyelinated to myelinated axons was highest (20:1) at 28 days. These ratios implied that axons numbered in the thousands at the graft midpoint. Dissociated Schwann cells without matrix promoted axonal ingrowth and longitudinal orientation as effectively as did elongated Schwann cells accompanied by matrix. There was a suggestion that axonal ingrowth was at least as successful, if not more so, when the delay between lesioning and grafting was 28 rather than 5 days. Acellular collagen grafts did not contain axons at 28 days, the only interval assessed. In sum, grafts of Schwann cells in a rolled collagen layer filled the lesion and were well tolerated by the host. The Schwann cells stimulated rapid and abundant growth of axons into grafts and they ensheathed and myelinated these axons in the normal manner.