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Angala SK, Carreras-Gonzalez A, Huc-Claustre E, Anso I, Kaur D, Jones V, Palčeková Z, Belardinelli JM, de Sousa-d'Auria C, Shi L, Slama N, Houssin C, Quémard A, McNeil M, Guerin ME, Jackson M. Acylation of glycerolipids in mycobacteria. Nat Commun 2023; 14:6694. [PMID: 37872138 PMCID: PMC10593935 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-42478-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2023] [Accepted: 10/12/2023] [Indexed: 10/25/2023] Open
Abstract
We report on the existence of two phosphatidic acid biosynthetic pathways in mycobacteria, a classical one wherein the acylation of the sn-1 position of glycerol-3-phosphate (G3P) precedes that of sn-2 and another wherein acylations proceed in the reverse order. Two unique acyltransferases, PlsM and PlsB2, participate in both pathways and hold the key to the unusual positional distribution of acyl chains typifying mycobacterial glycerolipids wherein unsaturated substituents principally esterify position sn-1 and palmitoyl principally occupies position sn-2. While PlsM selectively transfers a palmitoyl chain to the sn-2 position of G3P and sn-1-lysophosphatidic acid (LPA), PlsB2 preferentially transfers a stearoyl or oleoyl chain to the sn-1 position of G3P and an oleyl chain to sn-2-LPA. PlsM is the first example of an sn-2 G3P acyltransferase outside the plant kingdom and PlsB2 the first example of a 2-acyl-G3P acyltransferase. Both enzymes are unique in their ability to catalyze acyl transfer to both G3P and LPA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shiva Kumar Angala
- Mycobacteria Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, 80523-1682, USA
| | - Ana Carreras-Gonzalez
- Unidad de Biofisica, Centro Mixto Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas - Universidad del País Vasco/Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea (CSIC-UPV/EHU), Barrio Sarriena s/n, Leioa, Bizkaia, 48940, Spain
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Universidad del País Vasco, Leioa, Spain
| | - Emilie Huc-Claustre
- Mycobacteria Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, 80523-1682, USA
| | - Itxaso Anso
- Structural Glycobiology Laboratory, Biocruces Bizkaia Health Research Institute, Cruces University Hospital, Barakaldo, Bizkaia, 48903, Spain
| | - Devinder Kaur
- Mycobacteria Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, 80523-1682, USA
- New England Newborn Screening Program, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA
| | - Victoria Jones
- Mycobacteria Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, 80523-1682, USA
| | - Zuzana Palčeková
- Mycobacteria Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, 80523-1682, USA
| | - Juan M Belardinelli
- Mycobacteria Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, 80523-1682, USA
| | - Célia de Sousa-d'Auria
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, CNRS, Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Libin Shi
- Mycobacteria Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, 80523-1682, USA
| | - Nawel Slama
- Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale (IPBS), CNRS, UPS, Université Toulouse III - Paul Sabatier, Toulouse, France
| | - Christine Houssin
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, CNRS, Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Annaïk Quémard
- Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale (IPBS), CNRS, UPS, Université Toulouse III - Paul Sabatier, Toulouse, France
| | - Michael McNeil
- Mycobacteria Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, 80523-1682, USA
| | - Marcelo E Guerin
- Unidad de Biofisica, Centro Mixto Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas - Universidad del País Vasco/Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea (CSIC-UPV/EHU), Barrio Sarriena s/n, Leioa, Bizkaia, 48940, Spain
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Universidad del País Vasco, Leioa, Spain
- Structural Glycobiology Laboratory, Biocruces Bizkaia Health Research Institute, Cruces University Hospital, Barakaldo, Bizkaia, 48903, Spain
- IKERBASQUE, Basque Foundation for Science, 48009, Bilbao, Spain
- Structural Glycobiology Laboratory, Department of Structural and Molecular Biology, Molecular Biology Institute of Barcelona (IBMB), Spanish National Research Council (CSIC), Barcelona Science Park, c/Baldiri Reixac 4-8, Tower R, 08028, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Mary Jackson
- Mycobacteria Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, 80523-1682, USA.
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de Sousa-d'Auria C, Constantinesco F, Bayan N, Constant P, Tropis M, Daffé M, Graille M, Houssin C. Cg1246, a new player in mycolic acid biosynthesis in Corynebacterium glutamicum. Microbiology (Reading) 2022; 168. [PMID: 35394419 DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.001171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Mycolic acids are key components of the complex cell envelope of Corynebacteriales. These fatty acids, conjugated to trehalose or to arabinogalactan form the backbone of the mycomembrane. While mycolic acids are essential to the survival of some species, such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis, their absence is not lethal for Corynebacterium glutamicum, which has been extensively used as a model to depict their biosynthesis. Mycolic acids are first synthesized on the cytoplasmic side of the inner membrane and transferred onto trehalose to give trehalose monomycolate (TMM). TMM is subsequently transported to the periplasm by dedicated transporters and used by mycoloyltransferase enzymes to synthesize all the other mycolate-containing compounds. Using a random transposition mutagenesis, we recently identified a new uncharacterized protein (Cg1246) involved in mycolic acid metabolism. Cg1246 belongs to the DUF402 protein family that contains some previously characterized nucleoside phosphatases. In this study, we performed a functional and structural characterization of Cg1246. We showed that absence of the protein led to a significant reduction in the pool of TMM in C. glutamicum, resulting in a decrease in all other mycolate-containing compounds. We found that, in vitro, Cg1246 has phosphatase activity on organic pyrophosphate substrates but is most likely not a nucleoside phosphatase. Using a computational approach, we identified important residues for phosphatase activity and constructed the corresponding variants in C. glutamicum. Surprisingly complementation with these non-functional proteins fully restored the defect in TMM of the Δcg1246 mutant strain, suggesting that in vivo, the phosphatase activity is not involved in mycolic acid biosynthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Célia de Sousa-d'Auria
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, CNRS, Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Florence Constantinesco
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, CNRS, Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Nicolas Bayan
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, CNRS, Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Patricia Constant
- Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale, IPBS, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPS, Toulouse, France
| | - Maryelle Tropis
- Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale, IPBS, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPS, Toulouse, France
| | - Mamadou Daffé
- Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale, IPBS, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPS, Toulouse, France
| | - Marc Graille
- Laboratoire de Biologie Structurale de la Cellule (BIOC), CNRS, Ecole polytechnique, IP Paris, F-91128 Palaiseau Cedex, Paris, France
| | - Christine Houssin
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, CNRS, Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), Gif-sur-Yvette, France
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Dautin N, Argentini M, Mohiman N, Labarre C, Cornu D, Sago L, Chami M, Dietrich C, de Sousa d'Auria C, Houssin C, Masi M, Salmeron C, Bayan N. Role of the unique, non-essential phosphatidylglycerol::prolipoprotein diacylglyceryl transferase (Lgt) in Corynebacterium glutamicum. Microbiology (Reading) 2020; 166:759-776. [PMID: 32490790 DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.000937] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Bacterial lipoproteins are secreted proteins that are post-translationally lipidated. Following synthesis, preprolipoproteins are transported through the cytoplasmic membrane via the Sec or Tat translocon. As they exit the transport machinery, they are recognized by a phosphatidylglycerol::prolipoprotein diacylglyceryl transferase (Lgt), which converts them to prolipoproteins by adding a diacylglyceryl group to the sulfhydryl side chain of the invariant Cys+1 residue. Lipoprotein signal peptidase (LspA or signal peptidase II) subsequently cleaves the signal peptide, liberating the α-amino group of Cys+1, which can eventually be further modified. Here, we identified the lgt and lspA genes from Corynebacterium glutamicum and found that they are unique but not essential. We found that Lgt is necessary for the acylation and membrane anchoring of two model lipoproteins expressed in this species: MusE, a C. glutamicum maltose-binding lipoprotein, and LppX, a Mycobacterium tuberculosis lipoprotein. However, Lgt is not required for these proteins' signal peptide cleavage, or for LppX glycosylation. Taken together, these data show that in C. glutamicum the association of some lipoproteins with membranes through the covalent attachment of a lipid moiety is not essential for further post-translational modification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathalie Dautin
- Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), CEA, CNRS, Univ. Paris-Sud, Université Paris-Saclay, 91198, Gif-sur-Yvette cedex, France.,Present address: Laboratoire de Biologie Physico-Chimique des Protéines Membranaires, CNRS, Institut de Biologie Physico-Chimique, F-75005 Paris, France
| | - Manuela Argentini
- Present address: Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Institut de la Vision, 17 rue Moreau, 75012 Paris, France.,Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), CEA, CNRS, Univ. Paris-Sud, Université Paris-Saclay, 91198, Gif-sur-Yvette cedex, France
| | - Niloofar Mohiman
- Present address: Curakliniken, Erikslustvägen 22, 217 73 Malmö, Sweden.,Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), CEA, CNRS, Univ. Paris-Sud, Université Paris-Saclay, 91198, Gif-sur-Yvette cedex, France
| | - Cécile Labarre
- Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), CEA, CNRS, Univ. Paris-Sud, Université Paris-Saclay, 91198, Gif-sur-Yvette cedex, France
| | - David Cornu
- Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), CEA, CNRS, Univ. Paris-Sud, Université Paris-Saclay, 91198, Gif-sur-Yvette cedex, France
| | - Laila Sago
- Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), CEA, CNRS, Univ. Paris-Sud, Université Paris-Saclay, 91198, Gif-sur-Yvette cedex, France
| | - Mohamed Chami
- CBioEM lab, Biozentrum, University of Basel, 4058 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Christiane Dietrich
- Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), CEA, CNRS, Univ. Paris-Sud, Université Paris-Saclay, 91198, Gif-sur-Yvette cedex, France
| | - Célia de Sousa d'Auria
- Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), CEA, CNRS, Univ. Paris-Sud, Université Paris-Saclay, 91198, Gif-sur-Yvette cedex, France
| | - Christine Houssin
- Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), CEA, CNRS, Univ. Paris-Sud, Université Paris-Saclay, 91198, Gif-sur-Yvette cedex, France
| | - Muriel Masi
- Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), CEA, CNRS, Univ. Paris-Sud, Université Paris-Saclay, 91198, Gif-sur-Yvette cedex, France
| | - Christophe Salmeron
- Present address: Observatoire Océanologique de Banyuls Sur Mer, FR 3724-Laboratoire Arago - Sorbonne Université / CNRS, France.,Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), CEA, CNRS, Univ. Paris-Sud, Université Paris-Saclay, 91198, Gif-sur-Yvette cedex, France
| | - Nicolas Bayan
- Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), CEA, CNRS, Univ. Paris-Sud, Université Paris-Saclay, 91198, Gif-sur-Yvette cedex, France
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Issa H, Huc-Claustre E, Reddad T, Bonadé Bottino N, Tropis M, Houssin C, Daffé M, Bayan N, Dautin N. Click-chemistry approach to study mycoloylated proteins: Evidence for PorB and PorC porins mycoloylation in Corynebacterium glutamicum. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0171955. [PMID: 28199365 PMCID: PMC5310785 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0171955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2016] [Accepted: 01/27/2017] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Protein mycoloylation is a recently identified, new form of protein acylation. This post-translational modification consists in the covalent attachment of mycolic acids residues to serine. Mycolic acids are long chain, α-branched, β-hydroxylated fatty acids that are exclusively found in the cell envelope of Corynebacteriales, a bacterial order that includes important genera such as Mycobacterium, Nocardia or Corynebacterium. So far, only 3 mycoloylated proteins have been identified: PorA, PorH and ProtX from C. glutamicum. Whereas the identity and function of ProtX is unknown, PorH and PorA associate to form a membrane channel, the activity of which is dependent upon PorA mycoloylation. However, the exact role of mycoloylation and the generality of this phenomenon are still unknown. In particular, the identity of other mycoloylated proteins, if any, needs to be determined together with establishing whether such modification occurs in Corynebacteriales genera other than Corynebacterium. Here, we tested whether a metabolic labeling and click-chemistry approach could be used to detect mycoloylated proteins. Using a fatty acid alkyne analogue, we could indeed label PorA, PorH and ProtX and determine ProtX mycoloylation site. Importantly, we also show that two other porins from C. glutamicum, PorB and PorC are mycoloylated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanane Issa
- Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), CEA, CNRS, Univ. Paris‐Sud, Université Paris‐Saclay, Gif‐sur‐Yvette Cedex, France
- Holy Spirit University of Kaslik (USEK), Jounieh, Mount Lebanon, Lebanon
| | | | - Thamila Reddad
- Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), CEA, CNRS, Univ. Paris‐Sud, Université Paris‐Saclay, Gif‐sur‐Yvette Cedex, France
| | - Nolwenn Bonadé Bottino
- Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), CEA, CNRS, Univ. Paris‐Sud, Université Paris‐Saclay, Gif‐sur‐Yvette Cedex, France
| | - Maryelle Tropis
- Institute of Pharmacology and Structural Biology (IPBS), UMR 5089, France
| | - Christine Houssin
- Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), CEA, CNRS, Univ. Paris‐Sud, Université Paris‐Saclay, Gif‐sur‐Yvette Cedex, France
| | - Mamadou Daffé
- Institute of Pharmacology and Structural Biology (IPBS), UMR 5089, France
| | - Nicolas Bayan
- Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), CEA, CNRS, Univ. Paris‐Sud, Université Paris‐Saclay, Gif‐sur‐Yvette Cedex, France
| | - Nathalie Dautin
- Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), CEA, CNRS, Univ. Paris‐Sud, Université Paris‐Saclay, Gif‐sur‐Yvette Cedex, France
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Grzegorzewicz AE, de Sousa-d'Auria C, McNeil MR, Huc-Claustre E, Jones V, Petit C, Angala SK, Zemanová J, Wang Q, Belardinelli JM, Gao Q, Ishizaki Y, Mikušová K, Brennan PJ, Ronning DR, Chami M, Houssin C, Jackson M. Assembling of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis Cell Wall Core. J Biol Chem 2016; 291:18867-79. [PMID: 27417139 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m116.739227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2016] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The unique cell wall of mycobacteria is essential to their viability and the target of many clinically used anti-tuberculosis drugs and inhibitors under development. Despite intensive efforts to identify the ligase(s) responsible for the covalent attachment of the two major heteropolysaccharides of the mycobacterial cell wall, arabinogalactan (AG) and peptidoglycan (PG), the enzyme or enzymes responsible have remained elusive. We here report on the identification of the two enzymes of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, CpsA1 (Rv3267) and CpsA2 (Rv3484), responsible for this function. CpsA1 and CpsA2 belong to the widespread LytR-Cps2A-Psr (LCP) family of enzymes that has been shown to catalyze a variety of glycopolymer transfer reactions in Gram-positive bacteria, including the attachment of wall teichoic acids to PG. Although individual cpsA1 and cpsA2 knock-outs of M. tuberculosis were readily obtained, the combined inactivation of both genes appears to be lethal. In the closely related microorganism Corynebacterium glutamicum, the ortholog of cpsA1 is the only gene involved in this function, and its conditional knockdown leads to dramatic changes in the cell wall composition and morphology of the bacteria due to extensive shedding of cell wall material in the culture medium as a result of defective attachment of AG to PG. This work marks an important step in our understanding of the biogenesis of the unique cell envelope of mycobacteria and opens new opportunities for drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna E Grzegorzewicz
- From the Mycobacteria Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523-1682
| | - Célia de Sousa-d'Auria
- the Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique (CEA), CNRS, Université Paris Sud, F-91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Michael R McNeil
- From the Mycobacteria Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523-1682
| | - Emilie Huc-Claustre
- From the Mycobacteria Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523-1682
| | - Victoria Jones
- From the Mycobacteria Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523-1682
| | - Cécile Petit
- the Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Toledo, Toledo, Ohio 43606-3390
| | - Shiva Kumar Angala
- From the Mycobacteria Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523-1682
| | - Júlia Zemanová
- the Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius University in Bratislava, Mlynská dolina CH-1, 84215 Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Qinglan Wang
- From the Mycobacteria Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523-1682, the Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Virology of MOE & MOH, Institutes of Biomedical Sciences and Institute of Medical Microbiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Juan Manuel Belardinelli
- From the Mycobacteria Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523-1682
| | - Qian Gao
- the Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Virology of MOE & MOH, Institutes of Biomedical Sciences and Institute of Medical Microbiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Yoshimasa Ishizaki
- From the Mycobacteria Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523-1682, the Institute of Microbial Chemistry (BIKAKEN), Kamiosaki, Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo 3-14-23, Japan, and
| | - Katarína Mikušová
- the Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius University in Bratislava, Mlynská dolina CH-1, 84215 Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Patrick J Brennan
- From the Mycobacteria Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523-1682
| | - Donald R Ronning
- the Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Toledo, Toledo, Ohio 43606-3390
| | - Mohamed Chami
- the C-CINA Center for Imaging and NanoAnalytics, Biozentrum, University of Basel, Mattenstrasse 26, CH-4058 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Christine Houssin
- the Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique (CEA), CNRS, Université Paris Sud, F-91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France,
| | - Mary Jackson
- From the Mycobacteria Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523-1682,
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Dautin N, de Sousa-d'Auria C, Constantinesco-Becker F, Labarre C, Oberto J, Li de la Sierra-Gallay I, Dietrich C, Issa H, Houssin C, Bayan N. Mycoloyltransferases: A large and major family of enzymes shaping the cell envelope of Corynebacteriales. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2016; 1861:3581-3592. [PMID: 27345499 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2016.06.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2016] [Revised: 06/15/2016] [Accepted: 06/16/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Mycobacterium and Corynebacterium are important genera of the Corynebacteriales order, the members of which are characterized by an atypical diderm cell envelope. Indeed the cytoplasmic membrane of these bacteria is surrounded by a thick mycolic acid-arabinogalactan-peptidoglycan (mAGP) covalent polymer. The mycolic acid-containing part of this complex associates with other lipids (mainly trehalose monomycolate (TMM) and trehalose dimycolate (TDM)) to form an outer membrane. The metabolism of mycolates in the cell envelope is governed by esterases called mycoloyltransferases that catalyze the transfer of mycoloyl chains from TMM to another TMM molecule or to other acceptors such as the terminal arabinoses of arabinogalactan or specific polypeptides. In this review we present an overview of this family of Corynebacteriales enzymes, starting with their expression, localization, structure and activity to finally discuss their putative functions in the cell. In addition, we show that Corynebacteriales possess multiple mycoloyltransferases encoding genes in their genome. The reason for this multiplicity is not known, as their function in mycolates biogenesis appear to be only partially redundant. It is thus possible that, in some species living in specific environments, some mycoloyltransferases have evolved to gain some new functions. In any case, the few characterized mycoloyltransferases are very important for the bacterial physiology and are also involved in adaptation in the host where they constitute major secreted antigens. Although not discussed in this review, all these functions make them interesting targets for the discovery of new antibiotics and promising vaccines candidates. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled "Science for Life" Guest Editor: Dr. Austen Angell, Dr. Salvatore Magazù and Dr. Federica Migliardo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathalie Dautin
- Molecular Biology of Corynebacteria and Mycobacteria, Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), CEA, CNRS, Univ. Paris-Sud, Université Paris-Saclay, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette Cedex, France
| | - Célia de Sousa-d'Auria
- Molecular Biology of Corynebacteria and Mycobacteria, Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), CEA, CNRS, Univ. Paris-Sud, Université Paris-Saclay, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette Cedex, France
| | - Florence Constantinesco-Becker
- Molecular Biology of Corynebacteria and Mycobacteria, Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), CEA, CNRS, Univ. Paris-Sud, Université Paris-Saclay, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette Cedex, France
| | - Cécile Labarre
- Molecular Biology of Corynebacteria and Mycobacteria, Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), CEA, CNRS, Univ. Paris-Sud, Université Paris-Saclay, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette Cedex, France
| | - Jacques Oberto
- Cell Biology of Archaea, Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), CEA, CNRS, Univ. Paris-Sud, Université Paris-Saclay, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette Cedex, France
| | - Ines Li de la Sierra-Gallay
- Function and Architecture of Macromolecular Assemblies, Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), CEA, CNRS, Univ. Paris-Sud, Université Paris-Saclay, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette Cedex, France
| | - Christiane Dietrich
- Molecular Biology of Corynebacteria and Mycobacteria, Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), CEA, CNRS, Univ. Paris-Sud, Université Paris-Saclay, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette Cedex, France
| | - Hanane Issa
- Molecular Biology of Corynebacteria and Mycobacteria, Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), CEA, CNRS, Univ. Paris-Sud, Université Paris-Saclay, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette Cedex, France; Faculty of Sciences, Department of Life and Earth Sciences, Holy Spirit University of Kaslik (USEK), Kaslik, B.P. 446, Jounieh, Lebanon
| | - Christine Houssin
- Molecular Biology of Corynebacteria and Mycobacteria, Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), CEA, CNRS, Univ. Paris-Sud, Université Paris-Saclay, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette Cedex, France.
| | - Nicolas Bayan
- Molecular Biology of Corynebacteria and Mycobacteria, Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), CEA, CNRS, Univ. Paris-Sud, Université Paris-Saclay, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette Cedex, France.
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7
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Levefaudes M, Patin D, de Sousa-d'Auria C, Chami M, Blanot D, Hervé M, Arthur M, Houssin C, Mengin-Lecreulx D. Diaminopimelic Acid Amidation in Corynebacteriales: NEW INSIGHTS INTO THE ROLE OF LtsA IN PEPTIDOGLYCAN MODIFICATION. J Biol Chem 2015; 290:13079-94. [PMID: 25847251 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m115.642843] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2015] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
A gene named ltsA was earlier identified in Rhodococcus and Corynebacterium species while screening for mutations leading to increased cell susceptibility to lysozyme. The encoded protein belonged to a huge family of glutamine amidotransferases whose members catalyze amide nitrogen transfer from glutamine to various specific acceptor substrates. We here describe detailed physiological and biochemical investigations demonstrating the specific role of LtsA protein from Corynebacterium glutamicum (LtsACg) in the modification by amidation of cell wall peptidoglycan diaminopimelic acid (DAP) residues. A morphologically altered but viable ΔltsA mutant was generated, which displays a high susceptibility to lysozyme and β-lactam antibiotics. Analysis of its peptidoglycan structure revealed a total loss of DAP amidation, a modification that was found in 80% of DAP residues in the wild-type polymer. The cell peptidoglycan content and cross-linking were otherwise not modified in the mutant. Heterologous expression of LtsACg in Escherichia coli yielded a massive and toxic incorporation of amidated DAP into the peptidoglycan that ultimately led to cell lysis. In vitro assays confirmed the amidotransferase activity of LtsACg and showed that this enzyme used the peptidoglycan lipid intermediates I and II but not, or only marginally, the UDP-MurNAc pentapeptide nucleotide precursor as acceptor substrates. As is generally the case for glutamine amidotransferases, either glutamine or NH4(+) could serve as the donor substrate for LtsACg. The enzyme did not amidate tripeptide- and tetrapeptide-truncated versions of lipid I, indicating a strict specificity for a pentapeptide chain length.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marjorie Levefaudes
- From the Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), CEA, CNRS, Université Paris Sud, F-91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Delphine Patin
- From the Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), CEA, CNRS, Université Paris Sud, F-91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Célia de Sousa-d'Auria
- From the Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), CEA, CNRS, Université Paris Sud, F-91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Mohamed Chami
- the Center for Cellular Imaging and NanoAnalytics (C-CINA), Biozentrum, University of Basel, CH-4058 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Didier Blanot
- From the Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), CEA, CNRS, Université Paris Sud, F-91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Mireille Hervé
- From the Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), CEA, CNRS, Université Paris Sud, F-91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Michel Arthur
- INSERM, UMR S1138, Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers, Equipe 12, F-75006 Paris, France, the Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Université Paris 06, UMR S1138, Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers, F-75006 Paris, France, and the Université Paris-Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, UMR S1138, Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers, F-75006, Paris, France
| | - Christine Houssin
- From the Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), CEA, CNRS, Université Paris Sud, F-91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France,
| | - Dominique Mengin-Lecreulx
- From the Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), CEA, CNRS, Université Paris Sud, F-91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France,
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Desoubeaux G, Leperlier M, Chaussade H, Schneider C, Roriz M, Houssin C, Rogez C, De Muret A, García-Hermoso D, Bailly É, Le Fourn É, Machet L, Chandenier J, Bernard L. [Cutaneous mucormycosis caused by Rhizopus microsporus]. Ann Dermatol Venereol 2013; 141:201-5. [PMID: 24635954 DOI: 10.1016/j.annder.2013.10.044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2013] [Revised: 09/13/2013] [Accepted: 10/29/2013] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Mucormycosis are rare fungal infections occurring chiefly in the lung or the rhinocerebral compartment, particularly in patients with immunodeficiency or mellitus diabetes. We report the case of an elderly patient with cutaneous mucormycosis caused by Rhizopus microsporus. PATIENTS AND METHODS An 89-year-old man presented a skin lesion of the forearm rapidly becoming inflammatory and necrotic. The patient had been treated for 2months with oral corticosteroids for idiopathic thrombocytopenia. Histological and mycological examination of the skin biopsy revealed the presence of a filamentous fungus, R. microsporus. The outcome was unfavorable, despite prescription of high-dose liposomal amphotericin B. DISCUSSION Mucormycosis are infrequent opportunistic infections caused by angio-invasive fungi belonging to the Mucorales order. Cutaneous presentations are rare, and in rare cases the species R. microsporus is isolated in clinical samples. Diagnosis is based on histological examination highlighting the characteristic mycelium within infected tissue, together with ex vivo mycological identification using morphological and molecular methods. Treatment consists of liposomal amphotericin B combined with debridement surgery. CONCLUSION R. microsporus is a marginal fungal species rarely isolated in clinical practice, and even less in dermatology departments. This clinical case report highlights the severity of infection with this fungus, particularly in the absence of early surgery.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Desoubeaux
- Service de parasitologie - mycologie - médecine tropicale, CHU de Tours, 2, boulevard Tonnellé, 37044 Tours cedex 09, France; CEPR, Inserm U1100, EA 6305, faculté de médecine, université François-Rabelais, 10, boulevard Tonnellé, BP 3223, 37032 Tours, France.
| | - M Leperlier
- Service de parasitologie - mycologie - médecine tropicale, CHU de Tours, 2, boulevard Tonnellé, 37044 Tours cedex 09, France
| | - H Chaussade
- Service de médecine interne et maladies infectieuses, CHU de Tours, 2, boulevard Tonnellé, 37044 Tours cedex 09, France
| | - C Schneider
- Service de médecine interne et maladies infectieuses, CHU de Tours, 2, boulevard Tonnellé, 37044 Tours cedex 09, France
| | - M Roriz
- Service de dermatologie, CHU de Tours, avenue de la République, 37170 Tours cedex 09, France
| | - C Houssin
- Service de parasitologie - mycologie - médecine tropicale, CHU de Tours, 2, boulevard Tonnellé, 37044 Tours cedex 09, France
| | - C Rogez
- Service d'anatomie et cytologie pathologiques, CHU de Tours, avenue de la République, 37170 Tours cedex 09, France
| | - A De Muret
- Service d'anatomie et cytologie pathologiques, CHU de Tours, avenue de la République, 37170 Tours cedex 09, France
| | - D García-Hermoso
- Centre national de référence des mycoses invasives et antifongiques, Institut Pasteur, 25-28, rue du Docteur-Roux, 75015 Paris, France; CNRS URA3012, Institut Pasteur, 25, rue du Docteur-Roux, 75724 Paris cedex 15, France
| | - É Bailly
- Service de parasitologie - mycologie - médecine tropicale, CHU de Tours, 2, boulevard Tonnellé, 37044 Tours cedex 09, France
| | - É Le Fourn
- Service de dermatologie, CHU de Tours, avenue de la République, 37170 Tours cedex 09, France
| | - L Machet
- Service de dermatologie, CHU de Tours, avenue de la République, 37170 Tours cedex 09, France; Inserm U930, faculté de médecine, université François-Rabelais, 2, boulevard Tonnellé, 37044 Tours cedex 09, France
| | - J Chandenier
- Service de parasitologie - mycologie - médecine tropicale, CHU de Tours, 2, boulevard Tonnellé, 37044 Tours cedex 09, France; CEPR, Inserm U1100, EA 6305, faculté de médecine, université François-Rabelais, 10, boulevard Tonnellé, BP 3223, 37032 Tours, France
| | - L Bernard
- CEPR, Inserm U1100, EA 6305, faculté de médecine, université François-Rabelais, 10, boulevard Tonnellé, BP 3223, 37032 Tours, France; Service de médecine interne et maladies infectieuses, CHU de Tours, 2, boulevard Tonnellé, 37044 Tours cedex 09, France
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Didier D, Cointe P, Houssin C, Esteves N, Belhadji C. Place des équipes santé travail dans l’accompagnement des entreprises à l’information sur les dangers et les risques en milieu professionnel. ARCH MAL PROF ENVIRO 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.admp.2012.03.612] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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10
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Meniche X, de Sousa-d'Auria C, Van-der-Rest B, Bhamidi S, Huc E, Huang H, De Paepe D, Tropis M, McNeil M, Daffé M, Houssin C. Partial redundancy in the synthesis of the D-arabinose incorporated in the cell wall arabinan of Corynebacterineae. Microbiology (Reading) 2008; 154:2315-2326. [PMID: 18667564 DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.2008/016378-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The major cell wall carbohydrate of Corynebacterineae is arabinogalactan (AG), a branched polysaccharide that is essential for the physiology of these bacteria. Decaprenylphosphoryl-D-arabinose (DPA), the lipid donor of D-arabinofuranosyl residues of AG, is synthesized through a series of unique biosynthetic steps, the last one being the epimerization of decaprenylphosphoryl-beta-D-ribose (DPR) into DPA, which is believed to proceed via a sequential oxidation-reduction mechanism. Two proteins from Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Rv3790 and Rv3791) have been shown to catalyse this epimerization in an in vitro system. The present study addressed the exact function of these proteins through the inactivation of the corresponding orthologues in Corynebacterium glutamicum (NCgl0187 and NCgl0186, respectively) and the analysis of their in vivo effects on AG biosynthesis. We showed that NCgl0187 is essential, whereas NCgl0186 is not. Deletion of NCgl0186 led to a mutant possessing an AG that contained half the arabinose and rhamnose, and less corynomycolates linked to AG but more trehalose mycolates, compared with the parental strain. A candidate gene that may encode a protein functionally similar to NCgl0186 was identified in both C. glutamicum (NCgl1429) and M. tuberculosis (Rv2073c). While the deletion of NCgl1429 had no effect on AG biosynthesis of the mutant, the gene could complement the mycolate defect of the AG of the NCgl0186 mutant, strongly supporting the concept that the two proteins play a similar function in vivo. Consistent with this, the NCgl1429 gene appeared to be essential in the NCgl0186-inactivated mutant. A detailed bioinformatics analysis showed that NCgl1429, NCgl0186, Rv3791 and Rv2073c could constitute, with 52 other proteins belonging to the actinomycetales, a group of closely related short-chain reductases/dehydrogenases (SDRs) with atypical motifs. We propose that the epimerization of DPR to DPA involves three enzymes that catalyse two distinct steps, each being essential for the viability of the bacterial cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xavier Meniche
- Université Toulouse III (Université Paul Sabatier) et Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Institut de Pharmacologie et Biologie Structurale (UMR 5089), Département "Mécanismes Moléculaires des Infections Mycobactériennes", 205 route de Narbonne, F-31077 Toulouse cedex 04, France
| | - Célia de Sousa-d'Auria
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, F-91405 Orsay, France
- Institut de Génétique et Microbiologie, Université Paris-Sud, F-91405 Orsay, France
| | - Bénoit Van-der-Rest
- Université Toulouse III (Université Paul Sabatier) et Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Institut de Pharmacologie et Biologie Structurale (UMR 5089), Département "Mécanismes Moléculaires des Infections Mycobactériennes", 205 route de Narbonne, F-31077 Toulouse cedex 04, France
| | - Suresh Bhamidi
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523-1682, USA
| | - Emilie Huc
- Université Toulouse III (Université Paul Sabatier) et Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Institut de Pharmacologie et Biologie Structurale (UMR 5089), Département "Mécanismes Moléculaires des Infections Mycobactériennes", 205 route de Narbonne, F-31077 Toulouse cedex 04, France
| | - Hairong Huang
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523-1682, USA
| | - Diane De Paepe
- Université Toulouse III (Université Paul Sabatier) et Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Institut de Pharmacologie et Biologie Structurale (UMR 5089), Département "Mécanismes Moléculaires des Infections Mycobactériennes", 205 route de Narbonne, F-31077 Toulouse cedex 04, France
| | - Marielle Tropis
- Université Toulouse III (Université Paul Sabatier) et Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Institut de Pharmacologie et Biologie Structurale (UMR 5089), Département "Mécanismes Moléculaires des Infections Mycobactériennes", 205 route de Narbonne, F-31077 Toulouse cedex 04, France
| | - Mike McNeil
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523-1682, USA
| | - Mamadou Daffé
- Université Toulouse III (Université Paul Sabatier) et Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Institut de Pharmacologie et Biologie Structurale (UMR 5089), Département "Mécanismes Moléculaires des Infections Mycobactériennes", 205 route de Narbonne, F-31077 Toulouse cedex 04, France
| | - Christine Houssin
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, F-91405 Orsay, France
- Institut de Génétique et Microbiologie, Université Paris-Sud, F-91405 Orsay, France
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11
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Gonçalves RP, Agnus G, Sens P, Houssin C, Bartenlian B, Scheuring S. Two-chamber AFM: probing membrane proteins separating two aqueous compartments. Nat Methods 2006; 3:1007-12. [PMID: 17060909 DOI: 10.1038/nmeth965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2006] [Accepted: 09/20/2006] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Biological membranes compartmentalize and define physical borders of cells. They are crowded with membrane proteins that fulfill diverse crucial functions. About one-third of all genes in organisms code for, and the majority of drugs target, membrane proteins. To combine structure and function analysis of membrane proteins, we designed a two-chamber atomic force microscopy (AFM) setup that allows investigation of membranes spanned over nanowells, therefore separating two aqueous chambers. We imaged nonsupported surface layers (S layers) of Corynebacterium glutamicum at sufficient resolution to delineate a 15 A-wide protein pore. We probed the elastic and yield moduli of nonsupported membranes, giving access to the lateral interaction energy between proteins. We combined AFM and fluorescence microscopy to demonstrate the functionality of proteins in the setup by documenting proton pumping by Halobacterium salinarium purple membranes.
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Chalut C, Botella L, de Sousa-D'Auria C, Houssin C, Guilhot C. The nonredundant roles of two 4'-phosphopantetheinyl transferases in vital processes of Mycobacteria. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2006; 103:8511-6. [PMID: 16709676 PMCID: PMC1570105 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0511129103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycobacterium tuberculosis contains >20 enzymes that require activation by transfer of the 4'-phosphopantetheine moiety of CoA onto a conserved serine residue, a posttranslational modification catalyzed by 4'-phosphopantetheinyl transferases (PPTases). The modified proteins are involved in key metabolic processes such as cell envelope biogenesis and the production of virulence factors. We show that two PPTases conserved in all Mycobacterium spp. and in related genera activate two different subsets of proteins and are not functionally redundant. One enzyme, AcpS, activates the two fatty acid synthase systems of mycobacteria, whereas the other PPTase, PptT, acts on type-I polyketide synthases and nonribosomal peptide synthases, both of which are involved in the biosynthesis of virulence factors. We demonstrate that both PPTases are essential for Mycobacterium smegmatis viability and that PptT is required for the survival of Mycobacterium bovis bacillus Calmette-Guérin. These enzymes are thus central to the biology of mycobacteria and for mycobacterial pathogenesis and represent promising targets for new antituberculosis drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Chalut
- Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique and Université P. Sabatier (Unité Mixte de Recherche 5089), 205 Route de Narbonne, 31077 Toulouse Cedex, France.
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13
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Peters T, van der Tuin J, Houssin C, Vorstman M, Benes N, Vroon Z, Holmen A, Keurentjes J. Preparation of zeolite-coated pervaporation membranes for the integration of reaction and separation. Catal Today 2005. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cattod.2005.03.065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Portevin D, de Sousa-D'Auria C, Montrozier H, Houssin C, Stella A, Lanéelle MA, Bardou F, Guilhot C, Daffé M. The acyl-AMP ligase FadD32 and AccD4-containing acyl-CoA carboxylase are required for the synthesis of mycolic acids and essential for mycobacterial growth: identification of the carboxylation product and determination of the acyl-CoA carboxylase components. J Biol Chem 2005; 280:8862-74. [PMID: 15632194 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m408578200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 134] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycolic acids are major and specific long-chain fatty acids of the cell envelope of several important human pathogens such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis, M. leprae, and Corynebacterium diphtheriae. Their biosynthesis is essential for mycobacterial growth and represents an attractive target for developing new antituberculous drugs. We have previously shown that the pks13 gene encodes condensase, the enzyme that performs the final condensation step of mycolic acid biosynthesis and is flanked by two genes, fadD32 and accD4. To determine the functions of the gene products we generated two mutants of C. glutamicum with an insertion/deletion within either fadD32 or accD4. The two mutant strains were deficient in mycolic acid production and exhibited the colony morphology that typifies the mycolate-less mutants of corynebacteria. Application of multiple analytical approaches to the analysis of the mutants demonstrated the accumulation of a tetradecylmalonic acid in the DeltafadD32::km mutant and its absence from the DeltaaccD4::km strain. The parental corynebacterial phenotype was restored upon the transfer of the wild-type fadD32 and accD4 genes in the mutants. These data demonstrated that both FadD32 and AccD4-containing acyl-CoA carboxylase are required for the production of mycolic acids. They also prove that the proteins catalyze, respectively, the activation of one fatty acid substrate and the carboxylation of the other substrate, solving the long-debated question of the mechanism involved in the condensation reaction. We used comparative genomics and applied a combination of molecular biology and proteomic technologies to the analysis of proteins that co-immunoprecipitated with AccD4. This resulted in the identification of AccA3 and AccD5 as subunits of the acyl-CoA carboxylase. Finally, we used conditionally replicative plasmids to show that both the fadD32 and accD4 genes are essential for the survival of M. smegmatis. Thus, in addition to Pks13, FadD32 and AccD4 are promising targets for the development of new antimicrobial drugs against pathogenic species of mycobacteria and related microorganisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Damien Portevin
- Département Mécanismes Moléculaires des Infections Mycobactériennes, Institut de Pharmacologie et Biologie Structurale, CNRS and Université Paul Sabatier (Unité Mixte de Recherche 5089), 205 route de Narbonne, 31077 Toulouse Cedex, France
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Kacem R, De Sousa-D'Auria C, Tropis M, Chami M, Gounon P, Leblon G, Houssin C, Daffé M. Importance of mycoloyltransferases on the physiology of Corynebacterium glutamicum. Microbiology (Reading) 2004; 150:73-84. [PMID: 14702399 DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.26583-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycoloyltransferases (Myts) play an essential role in the biogenesis of the cell envelope of members of the Corynebacterineae, a group of bacteria that includes the mycobacteria and corynebacteria. While the existence of several functional myt genes has been demonstrated in both mycobacteria and corynebacteria (cmyt), the disruption of any of these genes has at best generated cell-wall-defective but always viable strains. To investigate the importance of Myts on the physiology of members of the Corynebacterineae, a double mutant of Corynebacterium glutamicum was constructed by deleting cmytA and cmytB, and the consequences of the deletion on the viability of the mutant, the transfer of corynomycoloyl residues onto its cell-wall arabinogalactan and trehalose derivatives, and on its cell envelope ultrastructure were determined. The double mutant strain failed to grow at 34 degrees C and exhibited a growth defect and formed segmentation-defective cells at 30 degrees C. Biochemical analyses showed that the double mutant elaborated 60 % less cell-wall-bound corynomycolates and produced less crystalline surface layer proteins associated with the cell surface than the parent and cmytA-inactivated mutant strains. Freeze-fracture electron microscopy showed that the DeltacmytA DeltacmytB double mutant, unlike the wild-type and cmytA-inactivated single mutant strains, frequently exhibited an additional fracture plane that propagated within the plasma membrane and rarely exposed the S-layer protein. Ultra-thin sectioning of the double mutant cells showed that they were totally devoid of the outermost layer. Complementation of the double mutant with the wild-type cmytA or cmytB gene restored completely or partially this phenotype. The data indicate that Myts are important for the physiology of C. glutamicum and reinforce the concept that these enzymes would represent good targets for the discovery of new drugs against the pathogenic members of the Corynebacterineae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raoudha Kacem
- Département des Mécanismes Moléculaires des Infections Mycobactériennes, Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale, CNRS and Université Paul Sabatier (Unité Mixte de Recherche 5089), 205 route de Narbonne, 31077 Toulouse Cedex 04, France
| | - Célia De Sousa-D'Auria
- Laboratoire de Biotechnologie des Micro-organismes d'Intérêt Industriel, Institut de Génétique et Microbiologie, UMR 8621 du CNRS et de l'Université Paris-Sud, 91405 Orsay Cedex, France
| | - Marielle Tropis
- Département des Mécanismes Moléculaires des Infections Mycobactériennes, Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale, CNRS and Université Paul Sabatier (Unité Mixte de Recherche 5089), 205 route de Narbonne, 31077 Toulouse Cedex 04, France
| | - Mohamed Chami
- M.E. Müller Institute (MSB) Biozentrum, University of Basel, Klingelbergstr. 70, CH-4056 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Pierre Gounon
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM U 452), UFR de Médecine, 28 Avenue de Valombrose, 06107 Nice Cedex 02, France
- Institut Pasteur, Service de Microscopie électronique, 25 rue du Docteur Roux, 75724 Paris Cedex 15, France
| | - Gérard Leblon
- Laboratoire de Biotechnologie des Micro-organismes d'Intérêt Industriel, Institut de Génétique et Microbiologie, UMR 8621 du CNRS et de l'Université Paris-Sud, 91405 Orsay Cedex, France
| | - Christine Houssin
- Laboratoire de Biotechnologie des Micro-organismes d'Intérêt Industriel, Institut de Génétique et Microbiologie, UMR 8621 du CNRS et de l'Université Paris-Sud, 91405 Orsay Cedex, France
| | - Mamadou Daffé
- Département des Mécanismes Moléculaires des Infections Mycobactériennes, Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale, CNRS and Université Paul Sabatier (Unité Mixte de Recherche 5089), 205 route de Narbonne, 31077 Toulouse Cedex 04, France
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Portevin D, De Sousa-D'Auria C, Houssin C, Grimaldi C, Chami M, Daffé M, Guilhot C. A polyketide synthase catalyzes the last condensation step of mycolic acid biosynthesis in mycobacteria and related organisms. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2003; 101:314-9. [PMID: 14695899 PMCID: PMC314182 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0305439101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 272] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycolic acids are major and specific constituents of the cell envelope of Corynebacterineae, a suborder of bacterial species including several important human pathogens such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Mycobacterium leprae, or Corynebacterium diphtheriae. These long-chain fatty acids are involved in the unusual architecture and impermeability of the cell envelope of these bacteria. The condensase, the enzyme responsible for the final condensation step in mycolic acid biosynthesis, has remained an enigma for decades. By in silico analysis of various mycobacterial genomes, we identified a candidate enzyme, Pks13, that contains the four catalytic domains required for the condensation reaction. Orthologs of this enzyme were found in other Corynebacterineae species. A Corynebacterium glutamicum strain with a deletion in the pks13 gene was shown to be deficient in mycolic acid production whereas it was able to produce the fatty acids precursors. This mutant strain displayed an altered cell envelope structure. We showed that the pks13 gene was essential for the survival of Mycobacterium smegmatis. A conditional M. smegmatis mutant carrying its only copy of pks13 on a thermosensitive plasmid exhibited mycolic acid biosynthesis defect if grown at nonpermissive temperature. These results indicate that Pks13 is the condensase, a promising target for the development of new antimicrobial drugs against Corynebacterineae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Damien Portevin
- Département"Mécanismes Moléculaires des Infections Mycobactériennes," Institut de Pharmacologie et Biologie Structurale, Université Paul Sabatier (Unité Mixte de Recherche 5089), 205 Route de Narbonne, 31077 Toulouse Cedex, France
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Bayan N, Houssin C, Chami M, Leblon G. Mycomembrane and S-layer: two important structures of Corynebacterium glutamicum cell envelope with promising biotechnology applications. J Biotechnol 2003; 104:55-67. [PMID: 12948629 DOI: 10.1016/s0168-1656(03)00163-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Corynebacteria belong to a distinct Gram-positive group of bacteria including mycobacteria and nocardia, which are characterized by the presence of mycolic acids in their cell wall. These bacteria share the property of having an unusual cell envelope structural organization close to Gram-negative bacteria. In addition to the inner membrane, the cell envelope is constituted of a thick arabinogalactan-peptidoglycan polymer covalently linked to an outer lipid layer, which is mainly composed of mycolic acids and probably organized in an outer membrane like structure. In some species, the cell is covered by a crystalline surface layer composed of a single protein species, which is anchored in the outer membrane like barrier. An increasing number of reports have led to a better understanding of the structure of the cell wall of Corynebacterium glutamicum. These works included the characterization of several cell wall proteins like S-layer protein and porins, genetic and biochemical characterization of mycolic acids biosynthesis, ultrastructural description of the cell envelope, and chemical analysis of its constituents. All these data address new aspects regarding cell wall permeability towards macromolecules and amino acids but also open new opportunities for biotechnology applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Bayan
- Unité de Génétique Moléculaire, Institut Pasteur, 25-28 Rue du Docteur Roux, 75724 Paris Cedex 15, France
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De Sousa-D'Auria C, Kacem R, Puech V, Tropis M, Leblon G, Houssin C, Daffé M. New insights into the biogenesis of the cell envelope of corynebacteria: identification and functional characterization of five new mycoloyltransferase genes in Corynebacterium glutamicum. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2003; 224:35-44. [PMID: 12855165 DOI: 10.1016/s0378-1097(03)00396-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycolic acids, the major lipid constituents of Corynebacterineae, play an essential role in maintaining the integrity of the bacterial cell envelope. We have previously characterized a corynebacterial mycoloyltransferase (PS1) homologous in its N-terminal part to the three known mycobacterial mycoloyltransferases, the so-called fibronectin-binding proteins A, B and C. The genomes of Corynebacterium glutamicum (ATCC13032 and CGL2005) and Corynebacterium diphtheriae were explored for the occurrence of other putative corynebacterial mycoloyltransferase-encoding genes (cmyt). In addition to csp1 (renamed cmytA), five new cmyt genes (cmytB-F) were identified in the two strains of C. glutamicum and three cmyt genes in C. diphtheriae. In silico analysis showed that each of the putative cMyts contains the esterase domain, including the three key amino acids necessary for the catalysis. In C. glutamicum CGL2005 cmytE is a pseudogene. The four new cmyt genes were disrupted in this strain and overexpressed in the inactivated strains. Quantitative analyses of the mycolate content of all these mutants demonstrated that each of the new cMyt-defective strains, except cMytC, accumulated trehalose monocorynomycolate and exhibited a lower content of covalently bound corynomycolate than did the parent strain. For each mutant, the mycolate content was fully restored by complementation with the corresponding wild-type gene. Finally, complementation of the cmytA-inactivated mutant by the individual new cmyt genes established the existence of two classes of mycoloyltransferases in corynebacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Célia De Sousa-D'Auria
- Laboratoire de Biotechnologie des Microorganismes d'Intérêt Industriel, Institut de Génétique et Microbiologie, UMR 8621 du CNRS et de l'Université Paris-Sud, 91405 Orsay, France
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Houssin C, Leblond P, Mazingue F, Lambilliotte A, Nelken B. P26 Hémato - Oncologie Aplasie prolongee au cours de l'association methotrexate a haute dose (HD-MTX) et voriconazole. Arch Pediatr 2003. [DOI: 10.1016/s0929-693x(03)90540-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Houssin C, Nguyen DT, Leblon G, Bayan N. S-layer protein transport across the cell wall of Corynebacterium glutamicum: in vivo kinetics and energy requirements. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2002; 217:71-9. [PMID: 12445648 DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6968.2002.tb11458.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Corynebacteria are Gram-positive bacteria with a very peculiar cell envelope structure as it is constituted of an inner membrane and an outer membrane-like structure. Protein secretion in Corynebacterium glutamicum was studied in vivo, using the S-layer protein PS2 as a model. We show that different variants of PS2 protein are exported through the whole cell envelope with a half-life ranging between 2 and 4 min, by a two-step mechanism. The first step, which is over after about 1.5 min, is ATP- and proton motive force-dependent and may correspond to translocation across the inner membrane via the 'Sec' machinery. The second step, across the cell wall and the outer mycolate layer, is rapid but independent of energy sources. This very efficient secretion process across the mycolate layer raises the question of the existence in this layer of a specific machinery.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Houssin
- Laboratoire de Biotechnologie des Microorganismes d'Intérêt Industriel, Institut de Génétique et Microbiologie, CNRS UMR 8621, Université Paris XI, 91405 Cedex, Orsay, France
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Scheuring S, Stahlberg H, Chami M, Houssin C, Rigaud JL, Engel A. Charting and unzipping the surface layer of Corynebacterium glutamicum with the atomic force microscope. Mol Microbiol 2002; 44:675-84. [PMID: 11994150 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2958.2002.02864.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Bacterial surface layers (S-layers) are extracellular protein networks that act as molecular sieves and protect a large variety of archaea and bacteria from hostile environments. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) was used to asses the S-layer of Coryne-bacterium glutamicum formed of PS2 proteins that assemble into hexameric complexes within a hexagonal lattice. Native and trypsin-treated S-layers were studied. Using the AFM stylus as a nanodissector, native arrays that adsorbed to mica as double layers were separated. All surfaces of native and protease-digested S-layers were imaged at better than 1 nm lateral resolution. Difference maps of the topographies of native and proteolysed samples revealed the location of the cleaved C-terminal fragment and the sidedness of the S-layer. Because the corrugation depths determined from images of both sides span the total thickness of the S-layer, a three-dimensional reconstruction of the S-layer could be calculated. Lattice defects visualized at 1 nm resolution revealed the molecular boundaries of PS2 proteins. The combination of AFM imaging and single molecule force spectroscopy allowed the mechanical properties of the Corynebacterium glutamicum S-layer to be examined. The results provide a basis for understanding the amazing stability of this protective bacterial surface coat.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Scheuring
- M. E. Müller Institute for Microscopy at the Biozentrum, University of Basel, Klingelbergstrasse 70, CH-4056, Switzerland
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Chami M, Andréau K, Lemassu A, Petit JF, Houssin C, Puech V, Bayan N, Chaby R, Daffé M. Priming and activation of mouse macrophages by trehalose 6,6'-dicorynomycolate vesicles from Corynebacterium glutamicum. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol 2002; 32:141-7. [PMID: 11821236 DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-695x.2002.tb00546.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Vesicles consisting of pure trehalose dicorynomycolate (TDCM), the corynebacterial analog of the most studied mycobacterial glycolipid 'cord factor', were isolated from Corynebacterium glutamicum cells by mild detergent treatment; these induced in vivo a macrophage priming similar to that obtained with mycobacterial-derived trehalose dimycolate. In vitro, both TDCM and bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) induced in macrophages the production of nitric oxide (NO) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), endotoxin tolerance, and were primed for an enhanced secondary NO response to LPS. Interferon-gamma pretreatment did not influence the LPS-induced TNF-alpha response, but considerably increased the TDCM-induced response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed Chami
- Laboratoire des Biomembranes, Institute de Biophysique et Biochimie Moléculaire et cellulaire, Centre de La Recherche Scientifique, Orsay, France
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Abstract
PS1 is a major exported protein of Corynebacterium glutamicum homologous to mycobacterial antigen 85. It is largely associated with the mycolic acid-containing cell wall and acts as a mycoloyl transferase. The transport of PS1 to the cell wall is slow and occurs through two energetically distinct steps: the first one, which includes processing by signal peptidase, is rapid and inhibited by sodium azide or carbonyl cyanide m-chlorophenylhydrazone. This step is probably associated with translocation across the cytoplasmic membrane. The kinetics of the second step depend on the size of the polypeptide chain to be transported but neither ATP nor proton motive force is required. This step may correspond to the diffusion of PS1 across the cell wall to its final location.
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Affiliation(s)
- D T Nguyen
- Laboratoire des Biomembranes, Bât. 430, CNRS UMR 8619, Université de Paris XI, 15 rue Georges Clémenceau, 91405 Cedex, Orsay, France
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Abstract
A fraction highly enriched with inner membranes of E. coli was fused with liposomes, using the dehydration-rehydration technique, to produce giant liposomes amenable to patch-clamp recordings. Among the several channels present in this type of preparation, one was further characterized. The channel has a conductance of some 200 pS (in 0.1 M KCl) and is weakly selective for cations (PK/PCl = 4). The channel stays open at negative and low positive membrane potentials and shows an increasing probability of closure with increasing voltage. High positive membrane potentials favor transitions to a long-lived inactivated state, following slow kinetics. Voltage-dependent rapid flickerings of the same amplitude, between open state and other short-lived closed states, are superposed on these kinetics. The channel is presumed to be localized in the inner membrane, but its characteristics are also compatible with those of porins of the outer membrane. However, the major porins OmpF and OmpC, purified and reconstituted into giant liposomes, exhibited a marked different behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Berrier
- Laboratoire des Biomembranes, URA CNRS 1116, Université Paris-Sud, Orsay, France
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Berrier C, Coulombe A, Houssin C, Ghazi A. Fast and slow kinetics of porin channels from Escherichia coli reconstituted into giant liposomes and studied by patch-clamp. FEBS Lett 1992; 306:251-6. [PMID: 1633882 DOI: 10.1016/0014-5793(92)81011-a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
E. coli porins (OmpF and OmpC) were purified and reconstituted into liposomes which were enlarged to giant proteoliposomes by dehydration-rehydration and studied by patch-clamp. The porins could be closed by voltage pulses under -100 mV. The kinetics of closure was slow, with closure events of about 200 pS in 0.1 M KCl. Rapid fluctuations (in the millisecond range) of about one third (60-70 pS) of the large closure steps were also observed. The data are interpreted as follows: an increase in membrane potential favours the cooperation transition of multimers towards an inactivated state, while monomers which have not been inactivated can flicker rapidly between an open and a short-lived closed state.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Berrier
- Laboratoire des Biomembranes, URA CNRS 1116, Université Paris-Sud, Orsay, France
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Abstract
Osmotic upshock of E. coli cells in NaCl or sucrose medium resulted in a large decrease in the cytoplasmic volume and the inhibition of growth, of the electron transfer chain and of four different types of sugar transport system: the lactose proton symport, the glucose phosphotransferase system, the binding-protein dependent maltose transport system and the glycerol facilitator. In contrast to NaCl and sucrose, the permeant solute glycerol had no marked effect. These inhibitions could be partially relieved by glycine betaine. Despite these inhibitions, the internal pH, the protonmotive force and the ATP pool were maintained. It is concluded that inhibition of electron transfer and of sugar transport is the consequence of conformational changes caused by the deformation of the membrane. It is also concluded that the arrest of growth observed upon osmotic upshock is not due to energy limitations and that it cannot be explained by the inhibition of carbohydrate transport.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Houssin
- Laboratoire des Biomembranes, CNRS, URA. 1116, Université Paris-Sud, Orsay, France
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Berrier C, Coulombe A, Houssin C, Ghazi A. A patch-clamp study of ion channels of inner and outer membranes and of contact zones of E. coli, fused into giant liposomes. Pressure-activated channels are localized in the inner membrane. FEBS Lett 1989; 259:27-32. [PMID: 2480919 DOI: 10.1016/0014-5793(89)81486-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Inner and outer membranes of Escherichia coli and contact zones were isolated and fused separately with giant liposomes amenable to patch-clamp recording. Different types of large pressure-activated channels were localized in the inner membrane fraction which also contained smaller, pressure-insensitive channels. The outer membrane contained pressure-insensitive channels with large conductances and long opening and closing times which are likely to be porins. Large channels were also observed in contact zones.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Berrier
- Laboratoire des Biomembranes, URA CNRS 1116, Orsay, France
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Abstract
Lactose permease from Escherichia coli T 206 was purified in octyl-beta-D-glucopyranoside (octyl-glucoside) according to Newman et al. [J. Biol. Chem. (1981) 256, 11804-11808]. In this detergent the protein has a very high tendency to aggregate nonspecifically. Therefore, exchange of octyl-glucoside was performed for another nonionic detergent, dodecyl octaethylene glycol monoether (C12E8), in which the protein is more stable. The amounts of bound C12E8 and phospholipids were measured using radioactive detergent and gas chromatography, respectively, and were found to be respectively 0.2 and 0.15 g/g protein. Analytical ultracentrifugation (sedimentation velocity and sedimentation equilibrium) and gel filtration (conventional and high performance liquid chromatography) experiments indicated that in this detergent the lactose permease existed mainly as a dimer. This result is at variance with the monomeric state of the protein reported by Wright et al. [FEBS Lett. (1983) 162, 11-15] in another nonionic detergent (dodecyl-o-beta-maltoside). We discuss the possible reason for this discrepancy and suggest that the dimeric state of association may well reflect the situation that prevails in the membrane.
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Therisod H, Ghazi A, Houssin C, Shechter E. Lactose transport in Escherichia coli cells. Evidence in favor of a permease-catalyzed efflux of lactose without protons. FEBS Lett 1982; 140:181-4. [PMID: 6282632 DOI: 10.1016/0014-5793(82)80889-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
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