Cuticular Wax Variability of Abies alba, A.×borisii-regis and A. cephalonica from the Balkans: Chemophenetic and Ecological Aspects

This is the first study on cuticular wax variability of Abies alba, A.×borisii-regis and A. cephalonica, using 18 native populations from the assumed hybrid zone in the Balkan Peninsula. Presence of 13 n-alkanes with chain-lengths ranging from C21 to C33 , one primary alcohol, two diterpenes, one triterpene and one sterol was determined in hexane extracts of 269 needle samples. The multivariate statistical analyses at the population level entirely failed in supporting circumscription of Balkan Abies taxa and therefore, in identifying hybrid populations. However, performed at the species level, these analyses revealed a certain tendency of differentiation between A. alba and A. cephalonica, while individuals of A.×borisii-regis were largely overlapped by the clouds of both parent species. Finally, the correlation analysis suggested that the observed variation of wax compounds was probably genetically conditioned and that it does not represent an adaptive response to various environmental factors.

Chemometric Approach to the Composition of Flavonoid Compounds and Phenolic Acids and Antioxidant Potential of Artemisia Species from Different Habitats

Four Artemisia species from Serbia were selected for the study: A. annua L., A. absinthium L., A. vulgaris L. and A. scoparia Waldst. et Kit. because of the proven excellent action in treating certain medical conditions and diseases. A. absinthium L., A. vulgaris L., A. annua L. and A. scoparia Waldst. et Kit. collected from different habitats across Serbia (48 samples in total) were studied from the statistical aspect considering the phenolic and flavonoid contents, compositions, and antioxidant activities of methanol extracts in correlation with the soil type. The components were identified using HPLC (High Performance Liquid Chromatography), while antioxidant activities were determined by seven assays (TP (Total phenolic content), TF (Total flavonoid content), DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) radical-based, ABTS (2,2'-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid)) radical cation-based, FRAP (Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Power), TRP (Total Reducing Power), and CUPRAC (Cupric Reducing Antioxidant Capacity). The results were processed using five statistical methods (PCA (Principal Component Analysis), ANOVA (Analysis of Variance), MANOVA (Multivariate analysis of variance), DA (Discriminant analysis), and AHC (Agglomerative Hierarchical Clustering)). Principal component analysis enabled very well separation of the analyzed Artemisia species based on the content of total phenolics, total flavonoids, and the values obtained from antioxidant tests, but not on the individual compounds identified and quantified by HPLC. The MANOVA analyses showed that for A. scoparia and A. annua there was a significant effect of soil type on the total phenolics, total flavonoids, and antioxidant tests. In contrast, for A. vulgaris and A. absinthium, that effect was not significant. Additional MANOVA analyses showed a significant effect of soil type on phenolic and flavonoid compounds in the case of A. vulgaris, A. annua, and A. absinthium. The overall correct classification rate of all samples of four investigated Artemisia species by the discriminant analysis was 81.25 % using the training sample and 72.92 % the cross-validation results based on TP, TF, and antioxidant tests, but a much lower based on selected compounds identified and quantified by HPLC. MANOVA analyses based on particular Artemisia species show that soil is a significant factor affecting the measurable variables.

The effects of Artemisia methanol extracts and ferulic acid, rutin, rosmarinic acid, and quercetin on micronucleus distribution on human lymphocytes

Methanol extracts of A. absinthium, A. annua, A vulgaris, A. scoparia, and A. alba from Serbia at concentrations of 1.00; 2.00 and 4.00 μg/ml, and as pure compounds identified in examined extracts (ferulic acid, rutin, rosmarinic acid, and quercetin) were examined for their effects on micronucleus distribution in human lymphocytes in vitro. All extracts greatly reduced the number of micronuclei in the concentration of 2.00 μg/ml comparing to the control, whereby A. alba extract exhibited the most prominent effect on decreasing frequency of micronucleus (45.2%), followed by extracts of A. vulgaris, A. absinthium, A. scoparia and A. annua. The same declining trend was observed for the extracts at concentrations of 4.00 µg/ml, and 1.00 µg/ml, respectively. Among pure compounds (concentration 2.00 μg/ml), rutin showed the most pronounced effect on decreasing frequency of micronucleus (41.7%), higher than ferulic acid, quercetin, and rosmarinic acid comparing to the control.

Essential Oils of Three Balkan Abies Species: Chemical Profiles, Antimicrobial Activity and Toxicity toward Artemia salina and Drosophila melanogaster

This study focused on the essential oils (EOs) isolated from needles with twigs of three indigenous Balkan Abies species (A. alba, A. × borisii-regis and A. cephalonica) regarding their chemical composition, antimicrobial activity and toxicity toward crustaceans and insects. Even though distinct phytochemical profiles of dominant volatiles were revealed for each species, β-pinene and α-pinene represented the first two major volatiles in all three EOs. Antimicrobial activity of EOs has shown inhibitory effect against all 17 studied strains (ATCC and respiratory isolates) in the range of 0.62-20.00 mg/mL (MICs). Further, all three EOs exhibited strong toxicity (LC₅₀ <100 μg/mL) in Artemia salina lethality bioassay, but with significant differences that depended on the EO type. Additionally, tested EOs have shown a certain level of toxicity against Drosophila melanogaster, mostly at the highest tested concentration (3 %) which caused significant prolongation of developmental time, larvicidal effect and pupal mortality. In the three biological assays performed, there was no observed inhibitory effect or weakest activity for A. alba EO. Further, A. cephalonica EO has shown the highest levels of antimicrobial activity and toxicity toward A. salina, while in relation to the insecticidal potential, A. cephalonica and A. × borisii-regis EOs exhibited similar level of toxicity against D. melanogaster.

Essential Oils of Six Achillea Species: Chemical Profiles, Antimicrobial Potential and Toxicity toward Crustaceans

This is the first comparative study on antimicrobial activity of essential oils (EOs) of six Achillea species ( A. crithmifolia , A. distans , A. grandifolia , A. millefolium , A. nobilis , and A. lingulata ) against ATCC and clinical microbial strains isolated from human swabs and on their toxicological potential on crustaceans. Oxygenated monoterpenes represented the major compound class in all six EOs, ranging from around 50% ( A. millefolium , A. nobilis , and A. lingulata ) up to over 80% ( A . crithmifolia and A. grandifolia ). Specific phytochemical profiles of the major volatiles were determined for each species. Still, borneol was the dominant compound in EOs of three yarrow species: A. distans , A. lingulata , and A. millefolium . Other major compounds were 1,8-cineole in A. crithmifolia, camphor in A. grandifolia , and artemisia ketone in A. nobilis EO. Antimicrobial activities of EOs were examined by a microdilution method revealing inhibitory action against all 15 studied strains in the range of 0.07-20.00 mg/mL (MICs). High toxicity (LC 50 <100 µg/mL) in Artemia salina acute toxicity bioassay was a shared characteristic, appearing in five out of six tested EOs, i.e. those isolated from A. lingulata , A. millefolium , A. distans , A. nobilis , and A. grandifolia . In both types of biological tests, A. lingulata EO has shown the highest and A . crithmifolia EO the lowest potential. The strongest activities, recorded for EO of A. lingulata , which was the only studied species from the section Anthemoideae , may be explained by its somewhat unusual chemical composition. According to the obtained results, the second dominant compound of this EO is γ-palmitolactone, which may be a significant agent regarding the antimicrobial activity and toxicity to crustaceans, either on its own or in union with other components, and it may be a suitable topic for further research.

Mineral Composition of Herbaceous Species Seseli rigidum and Seseli pallasii: a Chemometric Approach

Nutrients play an essential role in many metabolic processes whose deficiency or excess can be harmful to the plant itself and through the food chain to both animals and humans. Medicinal plants used in the food and pharmaceutical industries can be contaminated with increased concentrations of heavy metals. The plant species Seseli rigidum and Seseli pallasii from the Balkan Peninsula are used in traditional medicine and spices in the diet, so it was necessary to determine the mineral composition to ensure their safe application. In this work, the mineral composition was determined in medicinal species of the genus Seseli using inductively coupled plasma with optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES). Two multivariate statistic methods –principal component analysis (PCA) and hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) were applied to distinguish samples regarding their mineral composition. The mineral composition of both studied species is following the literature data. The results obtained using multivariate statistics methods agree and distinguish certain parts of the tested plants based on the highest content of micro, macro, or trace elements.

Mineral Composition of Herbaceous Species Seseli rigidum and Seseli pallasii: a Chemometric Approach

Nutrients play an essential role in many metabolic processes whose deficiency or excess can be harmful to the plant itself and through the food chain to both animals and humans. Medicinal plants used in the food and pharmaceutical industries can be contaminated with increased concentrations of heavy metals. The plant species Seseli rigidum and Seseli pallasii from the Balkan Peninsula are used in traditional medicine and spices in the diet, so it was necessary to determine the mineral composition to ensure their safe application. In this work, the mineral composition was determined in medicinal species of the genus Seseli using inductively coupled plasma with optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES). Two multivariate statistic methods -principal component analysis (PCA) and hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) were applied to distinguish samples regarding their mineral composition. The mineral composition of both studied species is following the literature data. The results obtained using multivariate statistics methods agree and distinguish certain parts of the tested plants based on the highest content of micro, macro, or trace elements.

Pseudotsuga menziesii (Pinaceae): Volatile Profiles, Antimicrobial Activity and Toxicological Evaluation of Its Essential Oil

The present article investigates the chemical composition of volatiles of essential oil (EO) and headspace (HS) fraction, as well as biological activities of EO obtained from needles with twigs of Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii cultivated in Serbia. The major class of compounds was monoterpene hydrocarbons with α-terpinolene, sabinene and β-pinene (EO), and sabinene, α-terpinolene and β-pinene (HS) as the dominant volatiles. Tested EO exhibited mostly low antimicrobial potential against investigated strains (ATCC and respiratory isolates), where MICs ranged 1.25-20.00 mg/mL. Nevertheless, based on presented results, where antimicrobial testing was done for the first time on human respiratory system isolates, there is a potential of this EO to be used as an adjuvant in the treatment of human respiratory infections, especially those caused by Pseudomonas aeruginosa or Candida albicans strains. Regarding toxicological evaluation, EO showed moderate toxicity in Artemia salina toxicity bioassay (LC₅₀ =347.41, after 24 h) as well as week toxicity against Drosophila melanogaster with the ability only to moderately delay larval and pupal development.

Needle volatiles as chemophenetic markers in differentiation of natural populations of Abies alba, A. x borisii-regis, and A. cephalonica

Seventeen native fir populations from the presumed zones of natural hybridization in the Balkan Peninsula were analyzed using headspace needle volatiles and GC-MS/FID analyses. The multivariate statistical analyses revealed clear differentiation between populations of Abies alba and A. cephalonica, suggesting that Silver and Greek Fir are characterized by distinct volatile profiles. Three populations from northern and central Greece identified as A. x borisii-regis shared the volatile profiles with both of the supposed parent species, whereby profile frequencies changed clinally along the latitudinal gradient connecting the ranges of parent species. Therefore, observed geographical distribution of volatile entities support the hypothesis that studied A. x borisii-regis populations are of secondary origin, formed by hybridization between A. alba and A. cephalonica. All three populations should be included in conservation projects, as the genetic constitution of these polymorphic fir populations may contain useful genetic variation necessary for survival regarding the future environmental challenges in this area.

Volatiles composition and antioxidant activity Inula oculus-christi L. from Serbia

The chemical composition of the essential oil and the volatiles obtained by static headspace (HS) of Inula oculus-christi L. is presented. The GC-MS analysis of the hydrodistilled oil resulted in the identification of 90 components, representing 92.7% of the oil. The most abundant compounds were: caryophyllene oxide (9.8%), trans-longipinocarveol (9.2%), eucalyptol (7.3%) and intermedeol (6.2%). The major constituent of I. oculus-christi L. HS volatiles was eucalyptol (87.4%). The antioxidant activity was evaluated by four different methods: 2,2-diphenyl-1-picryl-hydrazylhydrate free radical assay (DPPH), 2,2-azino-bis-3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS) method, total reducing power (TRP), ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), and cupric reducing antioxidant capacity (CUPRAC). Total phenolic content in (TPC) examined oil was 177.95 µg GAE/mg oil. Radical scavenging potential of the oil was promising RSC-DPPH was 57.4% and RSC-ABTS was 82.7%.[Formula: see text].

The First Report on Chemical Composition and Antimicrobial Activity of Artemisia scoparia Waldst. et Kit. Extracts

Volatiles of diethyl ether extract (DE), ethyl acetate extract (EE), and hexane extract (HE) of Artemisia scoparia Waldst. et Kit. were analyzed by gas chromatography with flame ionization detector and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. In both DE and EE, the main compound was scoparone (24.0% and 86.1%, respectively) while in the HE, alkanes were dominant with nonacosane as the most represented (19.4%). Antimicrobial activity was tested against 4 bacterial strains and 1 fungal strain using disc-diffusion method. Tested samples were inactive against Gram-negative bacteria and they exhibited activity against Gram-positive bacteria and yeast Candida albicans. This is the first report on the chemical composition of volatile components and antimicrobial activity of DE, EE, and HE of A. scoparia Waldst. et Kit.

Essential Oil Composition of Xanthium italicum From Serbia

The essential oil isolated from stem, fresh and mature fruits of Xanthium italicum Moretti by hydrodistillation was analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. In the oil of stem, fresh and mature fruits, 121 components were identified, representing 94.6%, 92.1%, and 91.3% of the total oil, respectively. The most abundant compounds in stem oil were limonene (23.0%), methyl eugenol (5.4%), β-cubebene (5.0%),and δ-cadinene (3.3%). The oil of fresh fruits contained germacrene B (28.7%), shyobunol (16.7%), and α-humulene (8.4%) as major components. There were 4 major constituents in X. italicum oil from mature fruits: germacrene B (31.3%),α-humulene (11.8%), δ-cadinene (3.2%),and γ-muurolene (2.9%). Percentages of sesquiterpenes in oils from fresh and mature fruits were very high, 85.8% and 73.8 %.

Chemical Compositions of the Essential Oils and Headspace Volatiles of Seseli peucedanoides Plant Parts

The chemical compositions of the essential oils of Seseli peucedanoides (M.Bieb.) Koso-Pol. inflorescences and leaves, isolated by hydrodistillation, and headspace volatiles, obtained by the static headspace method, were analyzed in detail by gas chromatography (GC) and GC/mass spectrometry (MS). In total, 74 constituents were identified, representing more than 98% of the observed GC peaks. The number of identified essential oil components obtained from the inflorescences was 63 while for the leaf essential oil it was 46. A much smaller number of compounds, 26 for inflorescences and 21 for leaves, were detected in the headspace samples. In both essential oils the most abundant compounds were the same, ( E)-caryophyllene and germacrene D, only in different proportions. The main components in the headspace specimens were α-pinene and ( E)-β-ocimene with ( E)-caryophyllene and ( Z)-3-hexen-1-ol also determined in significant percentages. The major class of compounds identified in the investigated essential oils was hydrocarbon sesquiterpenes with a share of over 80%, while the most dominant class of the headspace volatiles was hydrocarbon monoterpenes, which contribute slightly less than 80% of the total.

Chemical Composition and Antioxidant Activity of the Athamanta turbith ssp. haynaldii Volatiles

The fresh aerial parts of essential oils and headspace volatiles of two populations of Athamanta turbith ssp. haynaldii were analyzed in detail by GC and GC/MS analyses. In headspace samples, 32 compounds were identified, representing 98.4% and 98.8% of the total volatiles and were dominated by hydrocarbon sesquiterpenes, representing over 60% of both. Germacrene D was the major component, followed by terpinolene and myristicin. The essential oils of A. turbith consisted mainly of phenylpropene compounds with myristicin being the major compound. Fifty two compounds were identified in the oil isolated from Perućac and 57 from Kremna, accounting for 99.0% and 99.6% of total detectable components, with myristicin (52.3% and 50.8%, respectively) being the major component. In both samples, myristicin, germacrene D and δ-cadinene make up over 78% of the total oil composition. Antioxidant activity was measured using four different assays: DPPH, ABTS, CUPRAC and TRP method. It was found that the essential oil showed low antioxidant capacities compared with standard antioxidant compounds.

Chemical Profile of Essential Oils and Headspace Volatiles of Chaerophyllum hirsutum from Serbia

The present study reports the chemical composition on the headspace volatiles and essential oils obtained from fresh roots, shoots and inflorescences of Chaerophyllum hirsutum. In headspace samples, the most dominant class was monoterpene hydrocarbons, but the main compounds were different. The root had β-phellandrene as the major compound. Sabinene was the main component in the shoots volatiles, while the inflorescence was dominated by endo-fenchyl acetate. The composition of the essential oils of the aerial parts and the oil obtained from root was found to be quite different. The root essential oil showed the presence of phenolic compounds (13.2%), while in the oils from the aerial parts these compounds were present in very small amounts (0.1% in the shoots and 0.2% in the inflorescences oil). In total, 70 compounds were identified in the oil isolated from the root, with γ-terpinene (15.8%) as the major compound of the oil. In the oils isolated from the shoots and the inflorescences, for which 55 and 69 compounds were identified, respectively, the main class was represented by oxygenated sesquiterpenes with acorenone B as the main component, representing 57.0% of the shoots and 44.6% of the inflorescences.

The effect of multiple contamination of soil on LMW and MMW PAHs accumulation in the roots of Rubus fruticosus L. naturally growing near The Copper Mining and Smelting Complex Bor (East Serbia)

Samples of roots and spatial soils of native Rubus fruticosus L. were collected from the spots positioned at different distances from the copper smelter and city heating plants in the industrial zone of the town of Bor (Serbia) and subjected to chemical analyses in order to determine the content of several heavy metals, and 15 priority polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). In this study, the results for 9 low and medium molecular weight PAHs (LMW and MMW PAHs) are represented and processed using the calculation of bio-concentration factors and statistical methods such as hierarchical cluster analysis and Pearson's correlation study with the aim of investigating the plant capabilities for their uptake from the soil and later accumulation into the root tissue, under the hostile circumstances of multiple contamination. The obtained data revealed different accumulation rates for the investigated PAHs and showed that in several cases, the contents of root PAHs were under the strong influence of present contaminants such as soil copper and some soil PAHs, indicating at the same time that R. fruticosus can regulate the processes of LMW and MMW PAHs extraction/accumulation using different mechanisms, depending on the existing environmental circumstances. The used mechanisms could be exploited in phytoremediation methods based not only on the extraction and concentration of PAHs in plant roots but also on PAH degradation or stabilization in the soil. Also, the results of this study confirmed that, except in the case of naphthalene and fluoranthene, there was no PAH pollution, which originated solely from the industrial zone.

Chemical Composition and Antibacterial Activity of the Bulgarian Endemic Species Achillea thracica from its Natural Habitat, and in vitro Propagated and ex vitro Established Plants

The present study reports the chemical composition of headspace volatiles (HS) and acetone extracts of the endemic Bulgarian species Achillea thracica Velen. from its natural habitat (N), in vitro propagated (IN) and ex vitro established (EX) plants. Additionally, acetone extracts were tested by a disk diffusion method for antibacterial activity. Irregular monoterpenes were the most abundant HS volatile constituents, while 0,0-dimethyl quercetin was the most abundant flavonoid in the acetone extracts. The secondary metabolites of A. thracica grown in its natural habitat (N), propagated in vitro (IN) and ex vitro established (EX) showed that the qualitative composition is mutually similar, but there are differences in the quantitative composition. Considering antibacterial activity, IN and EX samples showed moderate activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Escherichia coli.

Chemical Composition and Antibacterial Activity of the Bulgarian Endemic Species Achillea thracica from its Natural Habitat, and in vitro Propagated and ex vitro Established Plants

The present study reports the chemical composition of headspace volatiles (HS) and acetone extracts of the endemic Bulgarian species Achillea thracica Velen. from its natural habitat (N), in vitro propagated (IN) and ex vitro established (EX) plants. Additionally, acetone extracts were tested by a disk diffusion method for antibacterial activity. Irregular monoterpenes were the most abundant HS volatile constituents, while O,O-dimethyl quercetin was the most abundant flavonoid in the acetone extracts. The secondary metabolites of A. thracica grown in its natural habitat (N), propagated in vitro (IN) and ex vitro established (EX) showed that the qualitative composition is mutually similar, but there are differences in the quantitative composition. Considering antibacterial activity, IN and EX samples showed moderate activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Escherichia coli.

Bioaccumulation of HMW PAHs in the roots of wild blackberry from the Bor region (Serbia): Phytoremediation and biomonitoring aspects

In this work, the samples of roots and soils from the rooting zone of wild blackberry were collected from the urban-industrial and rural locations near "The Copper Mining and Smelting Complex Bor" (Serbia); they were analyzed by gas chromatographic-mass spectrometric method to determine the content of high-molecular weight polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (HMW PAHs). The obtained results were further processed using bio-concentration factor, Pearson's correlation study and hierarchical cluster analysis with the aim of investigating if they may be in favor of wild blackberry as a suitable plant for biomonitoring or phytoremediation purposes. In spite of the fact that numerous complex factors can affect the assimilation and accumulation of PAHs in plants, the obtained data expressed clearly many interesting specifics related to HMW PAH accumulation in roots of wild blackberry that naturally grows in an area, which is heavily polluted by heavy metals. The accumulation of individual PAH compounds in plant roots was at different level. The most abundant compound in all plant samples was benzo[a]pyrene and based on the results obtained for this environmental indicator of carcinogenic PAHs, it was possible to make several central conclusions: wild blackberry showed an excellent potential for its extraction from the soil and further accumulation in root tissues which indicate that this plant species may be applied in phytoremediation procedures based on mechanisms such as phytoextraction/phytoaccumulation in roots; phytostabilization and rhizodegradation are also possible as remediation mechanisms; utilization of plant roots in soil monitoring is possible but in this case, only the combination with soil data can provide correct information.

Geographically Related Variation in Epicuticular Wax Traits of Pinus nigra Populations from Southern Carpathians and Central Balkans - Taxonomic Considerations

The chemical composition of epicuticular waxes of nine populations from three Pinus nigra J. F. Arnold subspecies (namely subsp. nigra, subsp. banatica (Borbás) Novák, and subsp. pallasiana (Lamb.) Holmboe) from Southern Carpathians and central Balkan Peninsula were analyzed using GC/MS and GC/FID chromatography, and multivariate statistical techniques with respect to biogeography and taxonomy. In the needle waxes, four primary alcohols and 14 n-alkanes ranging from C21 to C33 were identified, and the most abundant compounds were the four odd-numbered n-alkanes C27 , C25 , C23 , and C29. Multivariate statistical analyses (CDA and CA) have shown existence of three P. nigra groups and suggested clinal differentiation as a mechanism of genetic variation across a geographic area: the first group consisted of the southernmost populations of subsp. pallasiana from Macedonia, the second consisted of the northernmost subsp. banatica populations from Romania, while all populations in Serbia described as three different subspecies (nigra, banatica, and pallasiana) formed the third group together with subsp. nigra population from Bosnia and Herzegovina. According to simple linear regression, geographic latitude and four bioclimatic parameters were moderately correlated with the contents of epicuticular wax compounds that are important in population discrimination, while stepwise multiple regression showed that latitude participated in most of the regression models for predicting the composition of the epicuticular waxes. These results agree with CDA and CA analysis, and confirmed the possibility of recognition of fine geographic differentiation of the analyzed P. nigra populations.

Chemical Composition of Ballota macedonica Vandas and Ballota nigra L. ssp. foetida (Vis.) Hayek Essential Oils - The Chemotaxonomic Approach

The essential oils isolated from fresh aerial parts of Ballota macedonica (two populations) and Ballota nigra ssp. foetida were analyzed by GC and GC/MS. Eighty five components were identified in total; 60 components in B. macedonica oil (population from the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia), 34 components in B. macedonica oil (population from the Republic of Serbia), and 33 components in the oil of B. nigra ssp. foetida accounting for 93.9%, 98.4%, and 95.8% of the total oils, respectively. The most abundant components in B. macedonica oils were carotol (13.7 - 52.1%), germacrene D (8.6 - 24.6%), and (E)-caryophyllene (6.5 - 16.5%), while B. nigra ssp. foetida oil was dominated by (E)-phytol (56.9%), germacrene D (10.0%), and (E)-caryophyllene (4.7%). Multivariate statistical analyses (agglomerative hierarchical cluster analysis and principal component analysis) were used to compare and discuss relationships among Ballota species examined so far based on their volatile profiles. The chemical compositions of B. macedonica essential oils are reported for the first time.

Essential Oil Chemical Composition and Headspace Volatiles Profile of Achillea coarctata from Serbia

This study reports the essential oil composition and headspace volatiles profile of Achillea coarctata Poir. from Serbia. The inflorescences, stems and leaves, and the aerial parts of A. coarctata were analyzed separately. Germacrene D, α-terpineol and 1,8-cineole were the main constituents of the aerial parts essential oil; 1,8-cineole, cis-cadin-4-en-7-ol and α-terpineol were the most dominant compounds in the inflorescence essential oil, while the most abundant components in the stem and leaf oil were germacrene D, cis-cadin-4-en-7-ol and ledol. The percentages of monoterpenoids and sesquiterpenoids in the aerial parts were the same, while there were differences in distribution of these compound classes in inflorescence and stem and leaf essential oils. The major components of the headspace volatiles were the same for aerial parts, inflorescence and stem and leaves: 1,8-cineole, β-pinene and α-pinene.

Essential Oil Chemical Composition and Headspace Volatiles Profile of Achillea coarctata from Serbia

This study reports the essential oil composition and headspace volatiles profile of Achillea coarctata Poir. from Serbia. The inflorescences, stems and leaves, and the aerial parts of A. coarctata were analyzed separately. Germacrene D, α-terpineol and 1,8-cineole were the main constituents of the aerial parts essential oil; 1,8-cineole, cis-cadin-4-en-7-ol and α-terpineol were the most dominant compounds in the inflorescence essential oil, while the most abundant components in the stem and leaf oil were germacrene D, cis-cadin-4-en-7-ol and ledol. The percentages of monoterpenoids and sesquiterpenoids in the aerial parts were the same, while there were differences in distribution of these compound classes in inflorescence and stem and leaf essential oils. The major components of the headspace volatiles were the same for aerial parts, inflorescence and stem and leaves: 1,8-cineole, β-pinene and α-pinene.

Chemotaxonomic Approach to the Central Balkan Sedum Species Based on Distribution of Triterpenoids in Their Epicuticular Waxes

Triterpenoid distribution in epicuticular waxes of 20 central Balkan Sedum L. species and four out-groups of genera: Hylotelephium H. Ohba, Crassula L., Echeveria DC., and Kalanchoe Adans. were investigated for chemotaxonomic purposes. Identification and quantification of wax triterpenoids were performed by GC/MS and GC-FID analyses. Distribution of identified triterpenoids (oleanane, lupane, and taraxerane series), as a pattern in statistical analysis, indicated very good agreement with phylogeny and systematics, except members of series Rupestria Berger, in which case the distribution of triterpenoids did not support known classification in a satisfactory manner. According to the obtained clustering, Kalanchoe is shown as similar to Sedum samples, while the other out-groups were clearly separated.

Elemental composition of edible nuts: fast optimization and validation procedure of an ICP-OES method

BACKGROUND

An inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry method for the speedy simultaneous detection of 19 elements in edible nuts (walnuts: Juglans nigra; almonds: Prunus dulcis; hazelnuts: Corylus avellana; Brazil nuts: Bertholletia excelsa; cashews: Anacardium occidentalle; pistachios: Pistacia vera; and peanuts: Arachis hypogaea) available on the Serbian markets, was optimized and validated through the selection of instrumental parameters and analytical lines free from spectral interference and with the lowest matrix effects.

RESULTS

The analysed macro-elements were present in the following descending order: Na > Mg > Ca > K. Of all the trace elements, the tested samples showed the highest content of Fe. The micro-element Se was detected in all the samples of nuts. The toxic elements As, Cd and Pb were either not detected or the contents were below the limit of detection. One-way analysis of variance, Student's t-test, Tukey's HSD post hoc test and hierarchical agglomerative cluster analysis were applied in the statistical analysis of the results.

CONCLUSION

Based on the detected content of analysed elements it can be concluded that nuts may be a good additional source of minerals as micronutrients.

Chemical Composition of the Essential Oil from Chaerophyllum temulum (Apiaceae)

The present study reports the chemical composition on the essential oil obtained from fresh roots, stems, inflorescences and fruits of Chaerophyllum temulum. In all samples, except the roots, the most dominant components were sesquiterpene hydrocarbons. (Z)-Falcarinol was the principal constituent of the root essential oils (61.7% at the flowering stage and 62.3% at the fruiting stage). The blossom oil was dominated by (Z,E)-α-famesene (23.4%), (E)-β-farnesene (9.0%) and germacrene D-4-ol (9%), whereas the oil from the fruit had germacrene D-4-ol (27.6%) as its main compound, accompanied by (Z,E)-α-famesene (13.4%). Germacrene D was the most abundant component of the stem essential oil (38.4% at the flowering stage and 32.5% at the fruiting stage). The obtained results show that the qualitative composition of the oil depends on the part of the plant which is analyzed, while the quantitative composition of the main components depends on the growing stage of the plant.

Chemical Composition of the Essential Oil from Chaerophyllum Temulum (Apiaceae)

The present study reports the chemical composition on the essential oil obtained from fresh roots, stems, inflorescences and fruits of Chaerophyllum temulum. In all samples, except the roots, the most dominant components were sesquiterpene hydrocarbons. ( Z)-Falcarinol was the principal constituent of the root essential oils (61.7% at the flowering stage and 62.3% at the fruiting stage). The blossom oil was dominated by ( Z,E)-α-farnesene (23.4%), ( E)-β-farnesene (9.0%) and germacrene D-4-ol (9%), whereas the oil from the fruit had germacrene D-4-ol (27.6%) as its main compound, accompanied by ( Z,E)-α-farnesene (13.4%). Germacrene D was the most abundant component of the stem essential oil (38.4% at the flowering stage and 32.5% at the fruiting stage). The obtained results show that the qualitative composition of the oil depends on the part of the plant which is analyzed, while the quantitative composition of the main components depends on the growing stage of the plant.

Distribution and Taxonomic Significance of Secondary Metabolites Occurring in the Methanol Extracts of the Stonecrops (Sedum L., Crassulaceae) from the Central Balkan Peninsula

The present study is engaged in the chemical composition of methanol extracts of Sedum taxa from the central part of the Balkan Peninsula, and representatives from other genera of Crassulaceae ( Crassula, Echeveria and Kalanchoe) considered as out-groups. The chemical composition of extracts was determined by HPLC analysis, according to retention time of standards and characteristic absorption spectra of components. Identified components were considered as original variables with possible chemotaxonomic significance. Relationships of examined plant samples were investigated by agglomerative hierarchical cluster analysis (AHC). The obtained results showed how the distribution of methanol extract components (mostly phenolics) affected grouping of the examined samples. The obtained clustering showed satisfactory grouping of the examined samples, among which some representatives of the Sedum series, Rupestria and Magellensia, are the most remote. The out-group samples were not clearly singled out with regard to Sedum samples as expected; this especially applies to samples of Crassula ovata and Echeveria lilacina, while Kalanchoe daigremontiana was more separated from most of the Sedum samples.

Distribution and variability of n-alkanes in epicuticular waxes of sedum species from the central Balkan Peninsula: chemotaxonomic importance

For the first time, the n-alkane distribution and variability of the epicuticular waxes within 22 Sedum taxa was reported with focus on the chemotaxonomy of native Sedum representatives from the central Balkan Peninsula, compared to their relations with four other species of the Crassulaceae family. By GC/MS and GC-FID identification and quantification, it was established that n-alkanes C27 , C29 , C31 , C33 , and C35 were the dominant constituents of the examined epicuticular wax samples. Applying multivariate statistical analyses including agglomerative hierarchical clustering (AHC) and principal component analysis (PCA), the relation according to the n-alkane composition between the examined samples was established. It was shown that the n-alkane variability of the central Balkan Sedum species was considerable and that n-alkanes might not be very reliable taxonomic markers for these species.

Endemic Balkan parsnip Pastinaca hirsuta: the chemical profile of essential oils, headspace volatiles and extracts

The present study for the first time reports the chemical composition of the endemic Balkan parsnip Pastinaca hirsuta Pančić essential oil and headspace (HS) volatiles, obtained from fresh roots, stems, flowers and fruits, as well as fresh fruits n-hexane and diethyl ether extracts. According to GC-MS and GC-FID analyses, β-Pinene was one of the major components of the root and stem HS volatiles (50.6-24.1%). (E)-β-Ocimene was found in a significant percentage in the stem and flowers HS volatiles (31.6-57.3%). The most abundant constituent of the fruit HS, flower and fruit essential oils and both extracts was hexyl butanoate (70.5%, 31.1%, 80.4%, 47.4% and 52.7%, respectively). Apiole, accompanied by myristicin and (Z)-falcarinol, make up over 70% of the root essential oils. γ-Palmitolactone was the major component of the stem essential oils (51.9% at the flowering stage and 45.7% at the fruiting stage). Beside esters as dominant compounds, furanocoumarins were also identified in extracts. (Dis)similarity relations of examined plant samples were also investigated by the agglomerative hierarchical cluster analysis. The obtained results show there is difference in the composition of volatile components from different plant organs, while the stage of growth mainly affects the quantitative volatiles composition.

Inferring the origin of rare fruit distillates from compositional data using multivariate statistical analyses and the identification of new flavour constituents

BACKGROUND

In Serbia, delicatessen fruit alcoholic drinks are produced from autochthonous fruit-bearing species such as cornelian cherry, blackberry, elderberry, wild strawberry, European wild apple, European blueberry and blackthorn fruits. There are no chemical data on many of these and herein we analysed volatile minor constituents of these rare fruit distillates. Our second goal was to determine possible chemical markers of these distillates through a statistical/multivariate treatment of the herein obtained and previously reported data.

RESULTS

Detailed chemical analyses revealed a complex volatile profile of all studied fruit distillates with 371 identified compounds. A number of constituents were recognised as marker compounds for a particular distillate. Moreover, 33 of them represent newly detected flavour constituents in alcoholic beverages or, in general, in foodstuffs. With the aid of multivariate analyses, these volatile profiles were successfully exploited to infer the origin of raw materials used in the production of these spirits. It was also shown that all fruit distillates possessed weak antimicrobial properties.

CONCLUSION

It seems that the aroma of these highly esteemed wild-fruit spirits depends on the subtle balance of various minor volatile compounds, whereby some of them are specific to a certain type of fruit distillate and enable their mutual distinction.

Endemic Balkan Parsnip Pastinaca Hirsuta: The Chemical Profile of Essential Oils, Headspace Volatiles and Extracts

The present study for the first time reports the chemical composition of the endemic Balkan parsnip Pastinaca hirsuta Pančić essential oil and headspace (HS) volatiles, obtained from fresh roots, stems, flowers and fruits, as well as fresh fruits n-hexane and diethyl ether extracts. According to GC-MS and GC-FID analyses, β-Pinene was one of the major components of the root and stem HS volatiles (50.6–24.1%). ( E)-β-Ocimene was found in a significant percentage in the stem and flowers HS volatiles (31.6–57.3%). The most abundant constituent of the fruit HS, flower and fruit essential oils and both extracts was hexyl butanoate (70.5%, 31.1%, 80.4%, 47.4% and 52.7%, respectively). Apiole, accompanied by myristicin and ( Z)-falcarinol, make up over 70% of the root essential oils. γ-Palmitolactone was the major component of the stem essential oils (51.9% at the flowering stage and 45.7% at the fruiting stage). Beside esters as dominant compounds, furanocoumarins were also identified in extracts. (Dis)similarity relations of examined plant samples were also investigated by the agglomerative hierarchical cluster analysis. The obtained results show there is difference in the composition of volatile components from different plant organs, while the stage of growth mainly affects the quantitative volatiles composition.

Comparison of chemical composition and biological activities of Seseli rigidum fruit essential oils from Serbia

Plants from genus Seseli, have been widely used in European traditional medicine, exhibiting antibacterial, antifungal, insect repellent, emmenogogue, antiflatulence, anti-inflammatory, antinociceptive, anti-tumor, antirheumatic activities and protective effect on human lymphocytes DNA. They usually grow on mountain rocky terrains. Part of their habitat on Vidlic Mountain, located in South-east Serbia, was struck with a large wildfire. Seseli rigidum fruit essential oils (from post fire and control areas) compositions were analyzed by GC and GC-MS, identifying monoterpenes α-pinene and sabinene as most abundant. Statistical tests showed a non-significant difference in chemical composition of these two oils, but a significant difference in comparison with the herb from a geographically different origin. Antimicrobial tests showed strong activities of the oils against tested bacteria, thus confirming its administration in various inflammation processes as a quite effective remedy. Applying DPPH. and ABTS+. radical scavenging and total reducing Fe(III) to Fe(II) power assays, antioxidant characteristics of both studied essential oils were estimated as weak, though of close values. Seseli rigidum fruit essential oil was proven as a potent inhibitor of human and horse serum cholinesterase, recognizing its possible application as neural protective agent

A Characterization of Content, Composition and Scavenging Capacity of Phenolic Compounds in Parsnip Roots of Various Weight

The contents, composition and radical scavenging capacity of phenolic compounds from parsnips of various root weights grown in Serbia were examined. The content of phenolic compounds depended on root size, and the highest content was in the group where the samples with the lowest root size were grouped. The content of phenolic compounds varied from 109.7 to 125.3 μmol of chlorogenic acid per g dry extract, i.e.5470.8 to 6245.1 mg per kg fresh weight. Among the identified compounds were quercetin, kaempferol, apigenin and genkwanin glucosides and hydroxycinnamic and caffeoylshikimic acids. The highest antioxidant capacity was found for the group with the lowest root weight; the IC50 values ranged from 1.59 to 2.49 mg mL–1. There was positive correlation between the total phenolic content and scavenging capacity, and the kaempferol glucosides content could be an indicator of DPPH scavenging capacity of parsnip roots.

A characterization of content, composition and scavenging capacity of phenolic compounds in parsnip roots of various weight

The contents, composition and radical scavenging capacity of phenolic compounds from parsnips of various root weights grown in Serbia were examined. The content of phenolic compounds depended on root size, and the highest content was in the group where the samples with the lowest root size were grouped. The content of phenolic compounds varied from 109.7 to 125.3 micromol of chlorogenic acid per g dry extract, i.e.5470.8 to 6245.1 mg per kg fresh weight. Among the identified compounds were quercetin, kaempferol, apigenin and genkwanin glucosides and hydroxycinnamic and caffeoylshikimic acids. The highest antioxidant capacity was found for the group with the lowest root weight; the IC50 values ranged from 1.59 to 2.49 mg mL(-1). There was positive correlation between the total phenolic content and scavenging capacity, and the kaempferol glucosides content could be an indicator of DPPH scavenging capacity of parsnip roots.

Clastogenic effect of atranorin, evernic acid, and usnic acid on human lymphocytes

Three lichen secondary metabolites atranorin (1), evernic acid (2), and usnic acid (3), were evaluated for their in vitro clastogenic and antiproliferative effects on human lymphocytes using the cytochalasin-B blocked micronucleus (CBMN) assay at concentrations of 2 microg/mL, 4 microg/mL and 6 microg/mL of final culture solution. The frequency of micronucleus (MN) was scored in binucleated cells, and cytokinesis-block proliferation index (CBPI) was calculated. Among the tested compounds, 3 exhibited the most prominent effect decreasing the frequency of MN in the range of 42.5% - 48.9%, that is about double of the positive control amifostin WR-2721 that reduces MN frequency for 22.0%. The effect of evernic acid was approximately equal to action of amifostin (23.2% -32.9%). Atranorin at concentrations of 2 microg/mL and 4 microg/mL decreasing the frequency of MN only for 11.1% and 1.8%, while in concentration of 6 microg/mL increases the frequency of MN for 9.6 %. The comparable CBPI values of the investigated compounds and control suggested that they did not show a statistically significant inhibitory effect on lymphocyte cell proliferation at applied concentrations.

Chemical Composition of Angelica pancicii Essential Oil Determined by Liquid and Headspace GC-MS Techniques

The essential oil of the Balkan endemic species, Angelica pancicii, obtained by hydrodistillation, was analyzed by GC and GC-MS, applying the liquid injection mode. These results were compared with the chemical composition of volatiles achieved by the “headspace” injection mode, followed by GC and GC-MS (HS-GC-MS). A total of 40 compounds were identified in the essential oil (98.8% of the total oil) and 44 by HS-GC-MS (99.8% of the total oil). The most abundant class of compounds in both cases was monoterpenoids, which formed 92.7% of the essential oil (97.7% by HS-GC-MS) of total identified compounds. The major components in both cases were β-phellandrene (54.9% and 60.1%, respectively), α-pinene (14.5% and 20.1%, respectively) and α-phellandrene (4.5% and 4.3%, respectively).

Chemical composition of Angelica pancicii essential oil determined by liquid and headspace GC-MS techniques

The essential oil of the Balkan endemic species, Angelica pancicii, obtained by hydrodistillation, was analyzed by GC and GC-MS, applying the liquid injection mode. These results were compared with the chemical composition of volatiles achieved by the "headspace" injection mode, followed by GC and GC-MS (HS-GC-MS). A total of 40 compounds were identified in the essential oil (98.8% of the total oil) and 44 by HS-GC-MS (99.8% of the total oil). The most abundant class of compounds in both cases was monoterpenoids, which formed 92.7% of the essential oil (97.7% by HS-GC-MS) of total identified compounds. The major components in both cases were beta-phellandrene (54.9% and 60.1%, respectively), alpha-pinene (14.5% and 20.1%, respectively) and alpha-phellandrene (4.5% and 4.3%, respectively).