Bacteriophage therapy for the treatment of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infections in humanized mice

The continuing emergence of new strains of antibiotic-resistant bacteria has renewed interest in phage therapy; however, there has been limited progress in applying phage therapy to multi-drug resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) infections. In this study, we show that bacteriophage strains D29 and DS6A can efficiently lyse Mtb H37Rv in 7H10 agar plates. However, only phage DS6A efficiently kills H37Rv in liquid culture and in Mtb-infected human primary macrophages. We further show in subsequent experiments that, after the humanized mice were infected with aerosolized H37Rv, then treated with DS6A intravenously, the DS6A treated mice showed increased body weight and improved pulmonary function relative to control mice. Furthermore, DS6A reduces Mtb load in mouse organs with greater efficacy in the spleen. These results demonstrate the feasibility of developing phage therapy as an effective therapeutic against Mtb infection.

A Novel Humanized Mouse Model for HIV and Tuberculosis Co-infection Studies

Tuberculosis (TB), caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb), continues to be a major public health problem worldwide. The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is another equally important life-threatening pathogen. Further, co-infections with HIV and Mtb have severe effects in the host, with people infected with HIV being fifteen to twenty-one times more likely to develop active TB. The use of an appropriate animal model for HIV/Mtb co-infection that can recapitulate the diversity of the immune response in humans would be a useful tool for conducting basic and translational research in HIV/Mtb infections. The present study was focused on developing a humanized mouse model for investigations on HIV-Mtb co-infection. Using NSG-SGM3 mice that can engraft human stem cells, our studies showed that they were able to engraft human CD34+ stem cells which then differentiate into a full-lineage of human immune cell subsets. After co-infection with HIV and Mtb, these mice showed decrease in CD4+ T cell counts overtime and elevated HIV load in the sera, similar to the infection pattern of humans. Additionally, Mtb caused infections in both lungs and spleen, and induced the development of granulomatous lesions in the lungs, detected by CT scan and histopathology. Distinct metabolomic profiles were also observed in the tissues from different mouse groups after co-infections. Our results suggest that the humanized NSG-SGM3 mice are able to recapitulate the effects of HIV and Mtb infections and co-infection in the human host at pathological, immunological and metabolism levels, providing a dependable small animal model for studying HIV/Mtb co-infection.

Development of a human glioblastoma model using humanized DRAG mice for immunotherapy

Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common and lethal primary brain tumor. The development of alternative humanized mouse models with fully functional human immune cells will potentially accelerate the progress of GBM immunotherapy. We successfully generated humanized DRAG (NOD.Rag1KO.IL2RγcKO) mouse model by transplantation of human DR4+ hematopoietic stem cells (hHSCs), and effectively grafted GBM patient-derived tumorsphere cells to form xenografted tumors intracranially. The engrafted tumors recapitulated the pathological features and the immune cell composition of human GBM. Administration of anti-human PD-1 antibodies in these tumor-bearing humanized DRAG mice decreased the major tumor-infiltrating immunosuppressive cell populations, including CD4+PD-1+ and CD8+PD-1+ T cells, CD11b+CD14+HLA-DR+ macrophages, CD11b+CD14+HLA-DR-CD15- and CD11b+CD14-CD15+ myeloid-derived suppressor cells, indicating the humanized DRAG mice as a useful model to test the efficacy of GBM immunotherapy. Taken together, these results suggest that the humanized DRAG mouse model is a reliable preclinical platform for studying brain cancer immunotherapy and beyond.

HIV-Differentiated Metabolite N-Acetyl-L-Alanine Dysregulates Human Natural Killer Cell Responses to Mycobacterium tuberculosis Infection

Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) has latently infected over two billion people worldwide (LTBI) and caused ~1.6 million deaths in 2021. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) co-infection with Mtb will affect the Mtb progression and increase the risk of developing active tuberculosis by 10-20 times compared with HIV- LTBI+ patients. It is crucial to understand how HIV can dysregulate immune responses in LTBI+ individuals. Plasma samples collected from healthy and HIV-infected individuals were investigated using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS), and the metabolic data were analyzed using the online platform Metabo-Analyst. ELISA, surface and intracellular staining, flow cytometry, and quantitative reverse-transcription PCR (qRT-PCR) were performed using standard procedures to determine the surface markers, cytokines, and other signaling molecule expressions. Seahorse extra-cellular flux assays were used to measure mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation and glycolysis. Six metabolites were significantly less abundant, and two were significantly higher in abundance in HIV+ individuals compared with healthy donors. One of the HIV-upregulated metabolites, N-acetyl-L-alanine (ALA), inhibits pro-inflammatory cytokine IFN-γ production by the NK cells of LTBI+ individuals. ALA inhibits the glycolysis of LTBI+ individuals' NK cells in response to Mtb. Our findings demonstrate that HIV infection enhances plasma ALA levels to inhibit NK-cell-mediated immune responses to Mtb infection, offering a new understanding of the HIV-Mtb interaction and providing insights into the implication of nutrition intervention and therapy for HIV-Mtb co-infected patients.

HIV-differentiated metabolite N-Acetyl-L-Alanine dysregulates human natural killer cell responses to Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection

Background

Mycobacterium tuberculosis ( Mtb ) has latently infected over two billion people worldwide (LTBI) and causes 1.8 million deaths each year. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) co-infection with Mtb will affect the Mtb progression and increase the risk of developing active tuberculosis by 10-20 times compared to the HIV-LTBI+ patients. It is crucial to understand how HIV can dysregulate immune responses in LTBI+ individuals.

Methods

Plasma samples collected from healthy and HIV-infected individuals were investigated by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS), and the metabolic data were analyzed using an online platform Metabo-Analyst. ELISA, surface and intracellular staining, flow cytometry, quantitative reverse transcription PCR (qRT-PCR) were performed by standard procedure to determine the surface markers, cytokines and other signaling molecule expression. Seahorse extra cellular flux assays were used to measure the mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation and glycolysis.

Results

Six metabolites were significantly less abundant, and two were significantly higher in abundance in HIV+ individuals compared to healthy donors. One of the HIV-upregulated metabolites, N-Acetyl-L-Alanine (ALA), inhibits pro-inflammatory cytokine IFN-□ production by NK cells of LTBI+ individuals. ALA inhibits glycolysis of LTBI+ individuals' NK cells in response to Mtb .

Conclusions

Our findings demonstrate that HIV infection enhances plasma ALA levels to inhibit NK cell-mediated immune responses to Mtb infection, offering a new understanding of the HIV- Mtb interaction and providing the implication of nutrition intervention and therapy for HIV- Mtb co-infected patients.

Bacteriophage therapy for the treatment of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infections in humanized mice

The continuing emergence of new strains of antibiotic-resistant bacteria has renewed interest in phage therapy; however, there has been limited progress in applying phage therapy to multi-drug resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) infections. In this study, we tested three bacteriophage strains for their Mtb-killing activities and found that two of them efficiently lysed Mtb H37Rv in 7H10 agar plates. However, only phage DS6A efficiently killed H37Rv in liquid culture and in Mtb-infected human primary macrophages. In subsequent experiments, we infected humanized mice with aerosolized H37Rv, then treated these mice with DS6A intravenously to test its in vivo efficacy. We found that DS6A treated mice showed increased body weight and improved pulmonary function relative to control mice. Furthermore, DS6A reduced Mtb load in mouse organs with greater efficacy in the spleen. These results demonstrated the feasibility of developing phage therapy as an effective therapeutic against Mtb infection.

Development of a human glioblastoma model using humanized DRAG mice for immunotherapy

Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common and lethal primary brain tumor with high mortality rates and a short median survival rate of about 15 months despite intensive multimodal treatment of maximal surgical resection, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy. Although immunotherapies have been successful in the treatment of various cancers, disappointing results from clinical trials for GBM immunotherapy represent our incomplete understanding. The development of alternative humanized mouse models with fully functional human immune cells will potentially accelerate the progress of GBM immunotherapy. In this study, we developed a humanized DRAG (NOD.Rag1KO.IL2RγcKO) mouse model, in which the human hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) were well-engrafted and subsequently differentiated into a full lineage of immune cells. Using this humanized DRAG mouse model, GBM patient-derived tumorsphere lines were successfully engrafted to form xenografted tumors, which can recapitulate the pathological features and the immune cell composition of human GBM. Importantly, the administration of anti-human PD-1 antibodies in these DRAG mice bearing a GBM patient-derived tumorsphere line resulted in decreasing the major tumor-infiltrating immunosuppressive cell populations, including CD4 + PD-1 + and CD8 + PD-1 + T cells, CD11b + CD14 + HLA-DR + macrophages, CD11b + CD14 + HLA-DR - CD15 - and CD11b + CD14 - CD15 + myeloid-derived suppressor cells, indicating the humanized DRAG mouse model as a useful model to test the efficacy of immune checkpoint inhibitors in GBM immunotherapy. Together, these results suggest that humanized DRAG mouse models are a reliable preclinical platform for brain cancer immunotherapy and beyond.

Wnt5a/β-catenin axis is involved in the downregulation of AT2 lineage by PAI-1

Failure to regenerate injured alveoli functionally and promptly causes a high incidence of fatality in coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). How elevated plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) regulates the lineage of alveolar type 2 (AT2) cells for re-alveolarization has not been studied. This study aimed to examine the role of PAI-1-Wnt5a-β catenin cascades in AT2 fate. Dramatic reduction in AT2 yield was observed in Serpine1Tg mice. Elevated PAI-1 level suppressed organoid number, development efficiency, and total surface area in vitro. Anti-PAI-1 neutralizing antibody restored organoid number, proliferation and differentiation of AT2 cells, and β-catenin level in organoids. Both Wnt family member 5A (Wnt5a) and Wnt5a-derived N-butyloxycarbonyl hexapeptide (Box5) altered the lineage of AT2 cells. This study demonstrates that elevated PAI-1 regulates AT2 proliferation and differentiation via the Wnt5a/β catenin cascades. PAI-1 could serve as autocrine signaling for lung injury repair.

AB0446 IMPROVEMENT OF BELIMUMAB ON QUALITY OF LIFE IN PATIENTS WITH SYSTEMIC LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS

Background

Accumulating evidence supports an impaired quality of life in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). A study reported the patients concerns centred on fatigue[1].

Objectives

We investigated the effect of belimumab on quality of life in patients with SLE.

Methods

SLE patients from Guangdong Second Provincial General Hospital treated with belimumab (n=19) or control group (n=22) were included. Patients in control group were in traditional treatment without belimumab. Data were collected prospectively at treatment initiation and now, including Systemic Lupus Erythematosus Disease Activity Index (SLEDAI), Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) and the SF-36 (Table 1).

Table 1.SLEDAIPPSQIPSF-36PGroupPre-treatmentPost-treatment-Pre-treatmentPost-treatment-Pre-treatmentPost-treatment-Belimumab group11±4.676.11±3.550.0016±3.833.58±2.010.02519.47±187.79685.62±141.780.004Control group8.82±5.693.55±2.110.0006.5±3.525.86±3.240.536541.73±185.22700.42±123.900.002P0.1990.007-0.6650.011-0.7050.723-

Results

Belimumab group showed improvement in SLEDAI, PSQI and the SF-36 (P＜0.05). Control group was improvement in SLEDAI and the SF-36 (P＜0.05), no changes in PSQI (P=0.536). However, the improvement of belimumab group in SLEDAI and PSQI observably outperformed the improvement of control group.

Conclusion

Belimumab effectively improve quality of life in patients with SLE. Further study of pediatric patients with SLE is still warranted.

References

[1]Golder V, Ooi J, Antony A S, et al. Discordance of patient and physician health status concerns in systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus,2018,27(3):501-506.

Disclosure of Interests

None declared

Phage Display-Derived Peptide for the Specific Binding of SARS-CoV-2

Beginning from the end of 2019, the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic swept all over the world and is still afflicting the whole global population. Given that the vaccine-manufacturing ability is limited and the virus can evolve quickly, vaccination alone may not be able to end the pandemic, thus developing fast and accurate diagnoses and effective therapeutics will always be unmet needs. Phage display peptide library has been used in screening antigen-specific peptides for the invention of novel mimic receptors/ligands. Here, we report that a 12-mer phage display peptide library has been screened against the SARS-CoV-2 receptor-binding domain (RBD), and five of the screened peptides show binding ability with the RBD protein by the enzyme-linked immune sorbent assay. The surface plasmon resonance assay further demonstrates that peptide no. 1 can specifically bind to SARS-CoV-2 RBD with a binding affinity constant (K d) of 5.8 μM. Transmission electron microscopy coupled with a magnetic bead assay further confirms that the screened peptide can specifically bind the inactivated SARS-CoV-2 virus. This SARS-CoV-2-specific peptide holds great promise as a new bioreceptor/ligand for the rapid and accurate detection of SARS-CoV-2.

VISTA facilitates phagocytic clearance of HIV infected CEM-SS T cells

Phagocytosis is a critical component of the innate immune response to viral infection, resulting in the clearance of infected cells while minimizing the exposure of uninfected cells. On the other hand, phagocytosis of HIV-infected T cells may cause phagocytes, such as macrophages and dendritic cells, to be infected, thus leading to HIV cell-to-cell transmission. V domain immunoglobulin suppressor of T cell activation (VISTA, gene Vsir, aliases Gi24, Dies-1, PD-1H, and DD1α) has been identified as an immune checkpoint molecule that possesses dual activities when expressed on APCs and T cells. Our study found that VISTA might play a significant role during the immune response to HIV infection via apoptosis upregulation and subsequent phagocytosis of infected CEM-SS T cells. HIV-induced apoptosis and monocytic cell engulfment were tested utilizing CEM-SS T cells as target cells and the monocytic cell line THP-1 as phagocytic cells. Cells were infected with a GFP-labeled HIV strain, NL4-3. HIV-infected CEM-SS T cells displayed greater apoptotic activity (approximately 18.0%) than mock-infected controls. Additionally, phagocytosis of HIV-infected CEM-SS T cells was increased approximately 4-fold. Expression of VISTA on infected CEM-SS T cells was detected in 16.7% of cells, which correlated with the increased phagocytosis observed. When an antagonistic antibody against VISTA was used, the number of phagocytosed cells was reduced by a factor of 2, which was replicated utilizing human stem cell-derived dendritic cells. Phagocytosis was also confirmed by the upregulation of IL-1β expression, which was 5-fold higher in infected cells than in control cells. We also found that VISTA overexpression on both phagocytes and HIV-infected CEM-SS T cells facilitated phagocytosis. Our study suggests that VISTA may act as a direct ligand in the phagocytosis of HIV-infected T cells.

Associations of D-Dimer on Admission and Clinical Features of COVID-19 Patients: A Systematic Review, Meta-Analysis, and Meta-Regression

Background

Dynamic D-dimer level is a key biomarker for the severity and mortality of COVID-19 (coronavirus disease 2019). How aberrant fibrinolysis influences the clinical progression of COVID-19 presents a clinicopathological dilemma challenging intensivists.

Methods

We performed meta-analysis and meta regression to analyze the associations of plasma D-dimer with 106 clinical variables to identify a panoramic view of the derangements of fibrinolysis in 14,862 patients of 42 studies. There were no limitations of age, gender, race, and country. Raw data of each group were extracted separately by two investigators. Individual data of case series, median and interquartile range, and ranges of median or mean were converted to SDM (standard deviation of mean).

Findings

The weighted mean difference of D-dimer was 0.97 µg/mL (95% CI 0.65, 1.29) between mild and severe groups, as shown by meta-analysis. Publication bias was significant. Meta-regression identified 58 of 106 clinical variables were associated with plasma D-dimer levels. Of these, 11 readouts were negatively related to the level of plasma D-dimer. Further, age and gender were confounding factors. There were 22 variables independently correlated with the D-dimer level, including respiratory rate, dyspnea plasma K+, glucose, SpO2, BUN (blood urea nitrogen), bilirubin, ALT (alanine aminotransferase), AST (aspartate aminotransferase), systolic blood pressure, and CK (creatine kinase).

Interpretation

These findings support elevated D-dimer as an independent predictor for both mortality and complications. The identified D-dimer-associated clinical variables draw a landscape integrating the aggregate effects of systemically suppressive and pulmonary hyperactive derangements of fibrinolysis, and the D-dimer-associated clinical biomarkers, and conceptually parameters could be combined for risk stratification, potentially for tracking thrombolytic therapy or alternative interventions.

Cross-sectional study reveals thatHLA-C*07:02 is a potential biomarker of early onset/lesion severityof psoriasis

Psoriasis is a common chronic autoimmune skin disease, with T cells playing a predominant role in its pathogenesis.Here, we aimed to investigate the relation of T cell repertoires (TCR) and major histocompatibility complex (MHC) in psoriatic patients to further understand mechanisms in disease pathogenesis.We conducted a cross-sectional study involving 9 pairs of monozygotic twins with inconsistent psoriasis and examined the TCR diversity and MHC haplotype ofthe individuals using multiple-PCR and high-throughput sequencing. Additionally, 665 psoriatic patients were applied to validate the relation of human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-class I allele HLA-C*07:02 and early onset or lesion severity of psoriasis.The immune diversity was lower in psoriatic patients compared with unaffected individuals within the twin pairs, although the difference was not significant.The clonotypes of TCR significantly decreased in psoriatic patients with high PASI score and early onset. HLA-C*07:02, a haplotype associated with psoriasis, was positively correlated with the diversity of the TCRV gene. Moreover, HLA-C*07:02 clustered in patients with high PASI and early onset. In the replication stage, we found that the PASI and onset age in psoriasis with HLA-C*07:02 were significantly different from those without HLA-C*07:02 and without HLA-C*06:02. Our observations indicate that HLA-C*07:02 is positively correlated with the diversity of TCRV gene in psoriasis, and maybe a potential biomarker of early onset/severe lesions of psoriasis.

MiR-744 mediates the Oxaliplatin chemoresistance in colorectal cancer through inhibiting BIN1

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is one of the most common malignant cancers worldwide. However, lacking of novel and sensitive chemotherapy revealed the major challenge to improve the survival of CRC patients. The aim of this study was to explore the effect and mechanism of miR-744 on the oxaliplatin chemoresistance in CRC. Firstly, the levels of miR-744 were elevated significantly in CRC tissues from patients with oxaliplatin administration before surgery and in oxaliplatin-resistant HCT116 cells. Then, the oxaliplatin chemoresistance was enhanced by miR-744 overexpression, while was attenuated by miR-744 inhibition in HCT116 and T84 cells. Additionally, the level of BIN1 protein was found to be regulated negatively by miR-744, and BIN1 overexpression blocked the oxaliplatin chemoresistance induced by miR-744. Furthermore, BIN1 was proved to be a direct target of miR-744 by luciferase reporter assay. Taken together, these findings demonstrated that miR-744 might positively mediate the oxaliplatin chemoresistance through suppressing BIN1 expression in CRC cells, thus suggested a rationale target for the developing more effective strategies to reverse oxaliplatin resistance in CRC treatment.

PD-1H facilitates phagocytic clearance of HIV infected T cells by monocyte derived macrophages and dendritic cells

Phagocytosis is a critical component of the immune response to viral infection, resulting in the clearance of infected cells, while minimizing exposure of uninfected cells. HIV is able to evade this response through suppression of key regulators of phagocytosis. Programmed death 1- homologue (PD-1H) has been identified as a co-inhibitory molecule that suppresses activation of T cells during infection and cancer immunogenesis. However, our evidence indicates that PD-1H may also play a significant role during immune response to HIV infection via upregulation and subsequent phagocytosis of infected T cells. HIV-induced apoptosis and monocytic cell engulfment was tested utilizing CEMSS T cells as target cells and monocyte derived macrophages (THP-1), as phagocytic cells. Cells were infected with a GFP-labeled HIV strain, NL4-3. HIV-infected T cells displayed greater apoptotic activity (approximately 9.0%) relative to mock-infected controls. Concurrently, phagocytosis of HIV-infected T cells increased approximately 4-fold. Expression of PD-1H on infected T-cells was detected on 16.7% of cells, which correlated with increased phagocytosis. When an antagonistic antibody against PD-1H was used, the number of phagocytic cells was reduced by a factor 2, which was replicated utilizing human stem cell derived dendritic cells. Phagocytosis was also confirmed by the upregulation of IL-1β, which was 5 fold higher relative to controls. Here we demonstrate that PD-1H facilitates monocytes-derived macrophages or DCs to phagocytize HIV-infected T cells in cell based assays. Based on these results we believe that further study in humanized mouse models of HIV infection is warranted.

MGIS: managing banana (Musa spp.) genetic resources information and high-throughput genotyping data

Unraveling the genetic diversity held in genebanks on a large scale is underway, due to advances in Next-generation sequence (NGS) based technologies that produce high-density genetic markers for a large number of samples at low cost. Genebank users should be in a position to identify and select germplasm from the global genepool based on a combination of passport, genotypic and phenotypic data. To facilitate this, a new generation of information systems is being designed to efficiently handle data and link it with other external resources such as genome or breeding databases. The Musa Germplasm Information System (MGIS), the database for global ex situ-held banana genetic resources, has been developed to address those needs in a user-friendly way. In developing MGIS, we selected a generic database schema (Chado), the robust content management system Drupal for the user interface, and Tripal, a set of Drupal modules which links the Chado schema to Drupal. MGIS allows germplasm collection examination, accession browsing, advanced search functions, and germplasm orders. Additionally, we developed unique graphical interfaces to compare accessions and to explore them based on their taxonomic information. Accession-based data has been enriched with publications, genotyping studies and associated genotyping datasets reporting on germplasm use. Finally, an interoperability layer has been implemented to facilitate the link with complementary databases like the Banana Genome Hub and the MusaBase breeding database.

Database URL:https://www.crop-diversity.org/mgis/

A DNA Vaccine Protects Human Immune Cells against Zika Virus Infection in Humanized Mice

A DNA vaccine encoding prM and E protein has been shown to induce protection against Zika virus (ZIKV) infection in mice and monkeys. However, its effectiveness in humans remains undefined. Moreover, identification of which immune cell types are specifically infected in humans is unclear. We show that human myeloid cells and B cells are primary targets of ZIKV in humanized mice. We also show that a DNA vaccine encoding full length prM and E protein protects humanized mice from ZIKV infection. Following administration of the DNA vaccine, humanized DRAG mice developed antibodies targeting ZIKV as measured by ELISA and neutralization assays. Moreover, following ZIKV challenge, vaccinated animals presented virtually no detectable virus in human cells and in serum, whereas unvaccinated animals displayed robust infection, as measured by qRT-PCR. Our results utilizing humanized mice show potential efficacy for a targeted DNA vaccine against ZIKV in humans.

•

Zika DNA vaccine elicits protective antibody response in humanized DRAG mice.

•

Human myeloid cells and B cells are targets of Zika virus.

A Zika virus vaccine requires testing in human immune cells to determine its effectiveness. In this communication, we report that a DNA vaccine encoding Zika prM and E protein is able to elicit protective neutralizing antibodies against Zika virus in humanized DRAG mice, and that human myeloid cells and B cells are primary targets of Zika virus.

Combination of IL-10 and IL-2 induces oligoclonal human CD4 T cell expansion during xenogeneic and allogeneic GVHD in humanized mice

IL-10 is a crucial anti-inflammatory cytokine which can also exert a seemingly divergent immunostimulatory effects under certain conditions. We found high levels of the cytokine in a xenogeneic GVHD model where NOD-scid IL2rγcnull (NSG) mice were transplanted with human PBMCs in presence of IL-2. Presence of exogenous IL-10 altered the kinetics of IL-2 induced human T cell reconstitution in vivo, showing an initial delay, followed by rapid expansion. Further, compared to IL-2 alone, treatment with IL-2 in combination with IL-10 increased survival in most animals and completely protected ∼20% of mice from GVHD. Additionally, IL-2 induced expansion of both CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ xenoreactive T cells whereas a combination of IL-2 and IL-10 resulted in selective expansion of CD4⁺ T cells only. TCR Vβ repertoire analysis of CD4⁺ T cells showed that in contrast to IL-2 alone, simultaneous presence of both cytokines drastically reduced the Vβ repertoire of the expanded CD4⁺ T cells. Highly restricted Vβ usage was also observed when the cytokine combination was tested in an allogeneic GVHD model where NOD-scid IL2rγc^null mice expressing HLA-DR4 (NSG-DR4) were transplanted with purified CD4⁺ T cells from HLA-DR4 negative donors. Taken together, our results demonstrate that IL-10 can profoundly modulate the subset composition and repertoire of responding T cells during GVHD.

Chemical composition and antifungal activity of Carica papaya Linn. seed essential oil against Candida spp

In recent years, the incidence of clinical yeast infections has increased dramatically. Due to the extensive use of broad-spectrum antifungal agents, there has been a notable increase in drug resistance among infections yeast species. As one of the most popular natural antimicrobial agents, essential oils (EOs) have attracted a lot of attention from the scientific community. The aim of this study was to analyse the chemical composition and examine the antifungal activity of the EO extracted from the seeds of Carica papaya Linn. The papaya seed EO was analysed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The major constituent is benzyl isothiocyanate (99·36%). The filter paper disc diffusion method and broth dilution method were employed. The EO showed inhibitory effect against all the tested Candida strains including C. albicans, C. glabrata, C. krusei, C. parapsilosis and C. tropical with inhibition zone diameters in the range of 14·2-33·2 mm, the minimal inhibitory concentrations (MICs) in the range of 4·0-16·0 μg ml^-1 and the minimum fungicidal concentrations (MFCs) in the range of 16·0-64·0 μg ml^-1 . Here, we found that the papaya seed EO has promising anticandida activity and identify C. papaya L. as a potential natural source of antifungal agents.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY

The chemical composition and antifungal activity of essential oil of Carica papaya seeds were studied. The oil of papaya seeds could inhibit the growth of Candida spp. for the first report. Carica Papaya may be recognized as a possible new source of natural antifungal agents.

Blocking proteinase-activated receptor 2 alleviated neuropathic pain evoked by spinal cord injury

Spinal cord injury (SCI) is an extremely serious type of physical trauma observed in clinics. Especially, neuropathic pain resulting from SCI has a lasting and significant impact on most aspects of daily life. Thus, a better understanding of the molecular pathways responsible for the cause of neuropathic pain observed in SCI is important to develop effectively therapeutic agents and treatment strategies. Proteinase-activated receptors (PARs) are a family member of G-protein-coupled receptors and are activated by a proteolytic mechanism. One of its subtypes PAR2 has been reported to be engaged in mechanical and thermal hyperalgesia. Thus, in this study we specifically examined the underlying mechanisms responsible for SCI evoked-neuropathic pain in a rat model. Overall, we demonstrated that SCI increases PAR2 and its downstream pathways TRPV1 and TRPA1 expression in the superficial dorsal horn of the spinal cord. Also, we showed that blocking spinal PAR2 by intrathecal injection of FSLLRY-NH2 significantly inhibits neuropathic pain responses induced by mechanical and thermal stimulation whereas FSLLRY-NH2 decreases the protein expression of TRPV1 and TRPA1 as well as the levels of substance P and calcitonin gene-related peptide. Results of this study have important implications, i.e. targeting one or more of these signaling molecules involved in activation of PAR2 and TRPV1/TRPA1 evoked by SCI may present new opportunities for treatment and management of neuropathic pain often observed in patients with SCI.

Gene array analysis of PD-1H overexpressing monocytes reveals a pro-inflammatory profile (INC2P.417)

We have previously reported that overexpression of Programmed Death -1 Homolog (PD-1H) in human monocytes leads to activation and spontaneous secretion of multiple pro inflammatory cytokines. Here we evaluated changes in monocytes gene expression after enforced PD-1H expression by gene array. Total RNA isolated from PD-1H-expressing and control monocytes were analyzed with human Illumina HT-12 v4 Expression BeadChip. Fold change of genes were confirmed by real time PCR. Data revealed alterations in 51 potential candidate genes that relate to immune response, cell adhesion and metabolism. Genes corresponding to pro-inflammatory cytokines showed the highest upregulation. Compared to vector control, PD-1H induced a 7, 3.2, 3.0, 5.8, 4.4 and 3.1 fold upregulation of TNF-α, IL-1beta, IFN-α, γ, λ and IL-27 respectively. Further, the difference was abrogated in presence of specific but not scrambled siRNA. The data are in agreement with our cytometric bead array analysis showing induction of proinflammatory cytokines, IL-6, IL-1β and TNF-α by PD-1H. Other genes related to inflammation, including transglutaminase 2, the transcription factor NF-kB (p65 and p50) and toll like receptors 3 and 4 were also upregulated 5, 4.5 and 2.5 fold respectively. The analysis also revealed a novel set of previously unreported genes that need to be further mined and validated. We conclude that PD-1H functions to enhance monocyte activation.

Genome-wide copy number profiling using high-density SNP array in chickens

Phenotypic diversity is a direct consequence resulting mainly from the impact of underlying genetic variation, and recent studies have shown that copy number variation (CNV) is emerging as an important contributor to both phenotypic variability and disease susceptibility. Herein, we performed a genome-wide CNV scan in 96 chickens from 12 diversified breeds, benefiting from the high-density Affymetrix 600 K SNP arrays. We identified a total of 231 autosomal CNV regions (CNVRs) encompassing 5.41 Mb of the chicken genome and corresponding to 0.59% of the autosomal sequence. The length of these CNVRs ranged from 2.6 to 586.2 kb with an average of 23.4 kb, including 130 gain, 93 loss and eight both gain and loss events. These CNVRs, especially deletions, had lower GC content and were located particularly in gene deserts. In particular, 102 CNVRs harbored 128 chicken genes, most of which were enriched in immune responses. We obtained 221 autosomal CNVRs after converting probe coordinates to Galgal3, and comparative analysis with previous studies illustrated that 153 of these CNVRs were regarded as novel events. Furthermore, qPCR assays were designed for 11 novel CNVRs, and eight (72.73%) were validated successfully. In this study, we demonstrated that the high-density 600 K SNP array can capture CNVs with higher efficiency and accuracy and highlighted the necessity of integrating multiple technologies and algorithms. Our findings provide a pioneering exploration of chicken CNVs based on a high-density SNP array, which contributes to a more comprehensive understanding of genetic variation in the chicken genome and is beneficial to unearthing potential CNVs underlying important traits of chickens.

Multiplexing seven miRNA-Based shRNAs to suppress HIV replication

Multiplexed miRNA-based shRNAs (shRNA-miRs) could have wide potential to simultaneously suppress multiple genes. Here, we describe a simple strategy to express a large number of shRNA-miRs using minimal flanking sequences from multiple endogenous miRNAs. We found that a sequence of 30 nucleotides flanking the miRNA duplex was sufficient for efficient processing of shRNA-miRs. We inserted multiple shRNAs in tandem, each containing minimal flanking sequence from a different miRNA. Deep sequencing of transfected cells showed accurate processing of individual shRNA-miRs and that their expression did not decrease with the distance from the promoter. Moreover, each shRNA was as functionally competent as its singly expressed counterpart. We used this system to express one shRNA-miR targeting CCR5 and six shRNA-miRs targeting the HIV-1 genome. The lentiviral construct was pseudotyped with HIV-1 envelope to allow transduction of both resting and activated primary CD4 T cells. Unlike one shRNA-miR, the seven shRNA-miR transduced T cells nearly abrogated HIV-1 infection in vitro. Additionally, when PBMCs from HIV-1 seropositive individuals were transduced and transplanted into NOD/SCID/IL-2R γc(-/-) mice (Hu-PBL model) efficient suppression of endogenous HIV-1 replication with restoration of CD4 T cell counts was observed. Thus, our multiplexed shRNA appears to provide a promising gene therapeutic approach for HIV-1 infection.

Newer gene editing technologies toward HIV gene therapy

Despite the great success of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) in ameliorating the course of HIV infection, alternative therapeutic approaches are being pursued because of practical problems associated with life-long therapy. The eradication of HIV in the so-called "Berlin patient" who received a bone marrow transplant from a CCR5-negative donor has rekindled interest in genome engineering strategies to achieve the same effect. Precise gene editing within the cells is now a realistic possibility with recent advances in understanding the DNA repair mechanisms, DNA interaction with transcription factors and bacterial defense mechanisms. Within the past few years, four novel technologies have emerged that can be engineered for recognition of specific DNA target sequences to enable site-specific gene editing: Homing Endonuclease, ZFN, TALEN, and CRISPR/Cas9 system. The most recent CRISPR/Cas9 system uses a short stretch of complementary RNA bound to Cas9 nuclease to recognize and cleave target DNA, as opposed to the previous technologies that use DNA binding motifs of either zinc finger proteins or transcription activator-like effector molecules fused to an endonuclease to mediate sequence-specific DNA cleavage. Unlike RNA interference, which requires the continued presence of effector moieties to maintain gene silencing, the newer technologies allow permanent disruption of the targeted gene after a single treatment. Here, we review the applications, limitations and future prospects of novel gene-editing strategies for use as HIV therapy.

Correction: Chimeric Rhinoviruses Displaying MPER Epitopes Elicit Anti-HIV Neutralizing Responses

[This corrects the article on p. e72205 in vol. 8.].

Chimeric rhinoviruses displaying MPER epitopes elicit anti-HIV neutralizing responses

Background

The development of an effective AIDS vaccine has been a formidable task, but remains a critical necessity. The well conserved membrane-proximal external region (MPER) of the HIV-1 gp41 glycoprotein is one of the crucial targets for AIDS vaccine development, as it has the necessary attribute of being able to elicit antibodies capable of neutralizing diverse isolates of HIV.

Methodology/Principle Findings

Guided by X-ray crystallography, molecular modeling, combinatorial chemistry, and powerful selection techniques, we designed and produced six combinatorial libraries of chimeric human rhinoviruses (HRV) displaying the MPER epitopes corresponding to mAbs 2F5, 4E10, and/or Z13e1, connected to an immunogenic surface loop of HRV via linkers of varying lengths and sequences. Not all libraries led to viable chimeric viruses with the desired sequences, but the combinatorial approach allowed us to examine large numbers of MPER-displaying chimeras. Among the chimeras were five that elicited antibodies capable of significantly neutralizing HIV-1 pseudoviruses from at least three subtypes, in one case leading to neutralization of 10 pseudoviruses from all six subtypes tested.

Conclusions

Optimization of these chimeras or closely related chimeras could conceivably lead to useful components of an effective AIDS vaccine. While the MPER of HIV may not be immunodominant in natural infection by HIV-1, its presence in a vaccine cocktail could provide critical breadth of protection.

Penalized gaussian process regression and classification for high-dimensional nonlinear data

The model based on Gaussian process (GP) prior and a kernel covariance function can be used to fit nonlinear data with multidimensional covariates. It has been used as a flexible nonparametric approach for curve fitting, classification, clustering, and other statistical problems, and has been widely applied to deal with complex nonlinear systems in many different areas particularly in machine learning. However, it is a challenging problem when the model is used for the large-scale data sets and high-dimensional data, for example, for the meat data discussed in this article that have 100 highly correlated covariates. For such data, it suffers from large variance of parameter estimation and high predictive errors, and numerically, it suffers from unstable computation. In this article, penalized likelihood framework will be applied to the model based on GPs. Different penalties will be investigated, and their ability in application given to suit the characteristics of GP models will be discussed. The asymptotic properties will also be discussed with the relevant proofs. Several applications to real biomechanical and bioinformatics data sets will be reported.

Measuring Fatigue in PZT Thin Films

Small signal dielectric response is reported for a variety of PZT thin film samples. Small and large signal responses, recorded simultaneously during the fatiguing of PZT thin films, are used to identify distinct fatigue mechanisms. Microcracking or electrode delamination less than 100 Å is sufficient to explain the high correlation between the dielectric permittivity and remanent polarization during fatigue.

Descriptive study of enzootic nasal adenocarcinoma in goats in southwestern China

This is the first report on enzootic nasal adenocarcinoma (ENA) in goats (Nanjiang Yellow goats and Jianyang Big-ear Black goats) in southwestern China. The clinical, histological and ultrastructural features of ENA in goats were described. From July 2007 to May 2009, 21 cases of ENA in goats, from 6 months to 8 years old, were diagnosed solely in one big herd. Clinically, the affected goats showed nasal discharge, facial swelling, sneezing, stertorous breathing and weight loss. Tumours that originated from the ethmoid area of the nasal cavity were unilateral (18/21) or bilateral (3/21). All tumours were classified as low grade adenocarcinomas by histopathological examination and were displayed a combination of tubular and papillary growth. No metastases were detected in regional lymph nodes, brain or other organs. Ultrastructurally, virus-like particles with an average diameter between 80 and 110 nm were observed in 5/7 examined tumours.

Relation of ventricular repolarization to cardiac cycle length in normal subjects, hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, and patients with myocardial infarction

BACKGROUND

Prolonged QT interval and QT dispersion have been reported to reflect an increased inhomogeneity of ventricular repolarization, which is believed to be responsible for the development of arrhythmic events in patients with long QT syndrome, coronary heart disease, and myocardial infarction, congestive heart failure, and hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HC).

HYPOTHESIS

This study was undertaken to determine whether an abnormal QT/RR dynamicity may reflect autonomic imbalance and may contribute to arrhythmogenesis in patients with heart disease.

METHODS

The relation between QT, QTpeak (QTp), Tpeak-Tend (TpTe) intervals and cardiac cycle length was assessed in 70 normal subjects, 37 patients with HC, and 48 survivors of myocardial infarction (MI). A set of 10 consecutive electrocardiograms was evaluated automatically in each subject using QT Guard software (Marquette Medical Systems, Milwaukee, Wisc.).

RESULTS

In patients with HC, all intervals were significantly prolonged compared with normals (p < 0.001 for QT and QTp; p < 0.04 for TpTc); in survivors of MI, this was true for the maximum QT and QTp intervals (p < 0.05). A strong linear correlation between QT, QTp, and RR intervals was observed in normals and in patients with MI and HC (r = 0.65-0.59, 0.82-0.77, 0.79-0.74, respectively, p < 0.0001). TpTe interval only showed a weak correlation with heart rate in normals (r = 0.24, p < 0.05) and was rate-independent in both patient groups (p = NS). Compared with normals, the slopes of QT/RR and QTp/RR regression lines were significantly steeper in patients with MI and HC (0.0990-0.0883, 0.1597-0.1551, 0.1653-0.1486, respectively). Regression lines were neither parallel nor identical between normals and patients (T > 1.96, Z > 3.07). There was no difference in steepness for TpTeR/RR lines between groups (0.0110, 0.0076, 0.0163, respectively). TpTe/QTp ratio was similar in normals and in patients with MI and HC (0.30 +/- 0.03, 0.31 +/- 0.07, 0.30 +/- 0.04, respectively), in the absence of any correlation between QTp and TpTe intervals, suggesting disproportional prolongation of both components of QT interval.

CONCLUSION

Compared with normals, a progressive increase in QT and QTp intervals at slower heart rates in patients with MI and HC may indicate an enhanced variability of the early ventricular repolarization and may be one of the mechanisms of arrhythmogenesis.

Effects of subchronic methyl tert-butyl ether ether exposure on male Sprague-Dawley rats

Methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE) is an additive used to oxygenate gasoline to improve air quality by reducing tailpipe emissions of carbon monoxide and ozone precursors. Although several toxicity studies in rats have been conducted to examine the acute, subchronic, and chronic toxicities by employing various routes of exposure to MTBE, few data were available on the effects of MTBE exposure on blood. In this study, MTBE was administered to rats at dose levels of 0, 400, 800, and 1600 mg/kg/day, respectively. After 2- or 4-weeks treatment period, rats were euthanized and blood was collected for the assay of hematological indicators and blood biochemistry indicators. Some organs, including brain, heart, liver, spleen, lung, kidneys, testes, epididymis, thymus, and prostate, were immediately removed and weighed. Possible subchronic health effects of MTBE exposure by gavage were evaluated on mortality, body weight, relative organ weight, hematology, and blood biochemistry indicators in male Sprague-Dawley rats. The results indicated that MTBE did not disrupt the growth rate of rats. Relative organ weight showed change in heart, liver, kidney, testes, thymus, and prostate. In the 2-week treatment, MTBE exerted toxicity on white blood cell count, including lymphocyte, granulocyte, and eosinophil. This finding was especially strong at 1600 mg/kg/day MTBE. In the 4-week treatment, hemoglobin at high dose MTBE significantly increased. The results of the assay for the biochemistry indicators and relative organ weight indicated that MTBE could impair liver and kidney functions and also have adverse effects on lipid metabolism and immune system. It was conducted that subchronic MTBE exposure induced the adverse effects occurring in the relative organ weight, the hematological indicators, and the biochemistry indicators under high MTBE dose.

A homogeneous fluorometric assay platform based on novel synthetic proteins

Novel synthetic recombinant sensor proteins have been created to detect analytes in solution, in a rapid single-step "mix and read" noncompetitive homogeneous assay process, based on modulating the Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) property of the sensor proteins upon binding to their targets. The sensor proteins comprise a protein scaffold that incorporates a specific target-capturing element, sandwiched by genetic fusion between two molecules that form a FRET pair. The utility of the sensor proteins was demonstrated via three examples, for detecting an anti-biotin Fab antibody, a His-tagged recombinant protein, and an anti-FLAG peptide antibody, respectively, all done directly in solution. The diversity of sensor-target interactions that we have demonstrated in this study points to a potentially universal applicability of the biosensing concept. The possibilities for integrating a variety of target-capturing elements with a common sensor scaffold predict a broad range of practical applications.

Is QT dispersion associated with sudden cardiac death in patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy?

QT dispersion is significantly greater in patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) than that in healthy subjects. Few data exist regarding the prognostic value of QT dispersion in HCM. In this study, we retrospectively investigated the association between QT dispersion and sudden cardiac death in 46 patients with HCM (mean 33.1 +/- 15.5 years, 32 men). The case group consisted of 23 HCM patients who died suddenly, and the control group consisted of 23 HCM patients who survived uneventfully during follow-up. Study patients were pair-matched for age, gender, and maximum left ventricular wall thickness. QT dispersion (maximum minus minimum QT interval) was manually measured on early 12-lead ECGs using a digitizing board. An in-house program was used for calculating QT interval, QT dispersion, JT interval, and JT dispersion (maximum minus minimum J point to T end interval). Patients in the case group tended to have shorter RR intervals than those in the control group (777 +/- 171 vs 856 +/- 192 ms, P = 0.08). Maximum corrected QT and JT intervals did not discriminate the case group from controls (489 +/- 29 vs 479 +/- 27 ms, P = NS; 375 +/- 36 vs 366 +/- 22 ms, P = NS, respectively). Greater QT dispersion and JT dispersion were found in the case group compared with controls (74 +/- 28 vs 59 +/- 21 ms, P = 0.02 and 76 +/- 32 vs 59 +/- 26 ms, P = 0.03, respectively). The measurements of maximum QT, JT, and T peak to T end intervals, precordial QT and JT dispersion, and T peak and T end dispersion were all comparable between the two groups (P = NS for all). No systematic changes in ECG measurements were found from late ECGs of the case group compared to those from early ECGs (P = NS). No correlation between maximum left ventricular wall thickness and QT dispersion, JT dispersion, maximum QTc or JTc intervals was observed (r < 0.29, P > 0.05 for all). Our results show that increased QT dispersion and JT dispersion is weakly associated with sudden cardiac death in the selected patients with HCM.

Vp28 of shrimp white spot syndrome virus is involved in the attachment and penetration into shrimp cells

White spot disease (WSD) is caused by the white spot syndrome virus (WSSV), which results in devastating losses to the shrimp farming industry around the world. However, the mechanism of virus entry and spread into the shrimp cells is unknown. A binding assay in vitro demonstrated VP28-EGFP (envelope protein VP28 fused with enhanced green fluorescence protein) binding to shrimp cells. This provides direct evidence that VP28-EGFP can bind to shrimp cells at pH 6.0 within 0.5 h. However, the protein was observed to enter the cytoplasm 3 h post-adsorption. Meanwhile, the plaque inhibition test showed that the polyclonal antibody against VP28 (a major envelope protein of WSSV) could neutralize the WSSV and block an infection with the virus. The result of competition ELISA further confirmed that the envelope protein VP28 could compete with WSSV to bind to shrimp cells. Overall, VP28 of the WSSV can bind to shrimp cells as an attachment protein, and can help the virus enter the cytoplasm.

ORF390 of white spot syndrome virus genome is identified as a novel anti-apoptosis gene

Apoptosis serves as an important defense strategy employed by host cells against viral invasion. Many viruses contain the anti-apoptotic genes to block the defense-by-death response of host cells. In this study, we tried to identify the putative anti-apoptotic genes in white spot syndrome virus (WSSV) genome. We confirmed that actinomycin D could induce apoptosis of shrimp primary cells. However, the apoptosis triggered by actinomycin D was inhibited by WSSV infection. As mutants of Autographa californica nucleopolyhedrovirus (AcMNPV), AcMNPVDelta35k/pol+ lacks a functional P35 gene undergoing apoptosis and its infection could induce Sf9 cell apoptosis. To identify the putative apoptotic suppressor gene of WSSV, overlapping cosmid clones representing the entire WSSV genome were individually cotransfected along with genome DNA of AcMNPVDeltaP35k/pol+. Using this marker rescue assay, a WSSV DNA fragment that was able to rescue AcMNPVDeltaP35k/pol+ infection in Sf9 cells was isolated. By further sequence analysis and rescue assay, the ORF390 was identified as a novel anti-apoptotic gene. The ORF displays two putative caspase9 cleavage sites LLVETDGPS, VKLEHDGSK, and a caspase3 cleavage site EEDEVDGVP. The ORF was cloned into the pIE1 vector and then the recombinant vector was transfected into Sf9 cells. The Sf9 cells did not show obvious characteristics of apoptosis when infected with AcMNPVDeltaP35k/pol+. And the transient expression of ORF390 allowed AcMNPVDeltaP35k/pol+ replication in Sf9 cells and resulted in the formation of polyhedra successfully. The results indicate that function of ORF390 in WSSV is a kind of apoptotic suppressor like P35 in AcMNPV.

Use of Pi5(t) markers in marker-assisted selection to screen for cultivars with resistance to Magnaporthe grisea

Identification of the PCR markers tightly linked to genes that encode important agronomic traits is useful for marker-assisted selection (MAS). The rice Pi5(t) locus confers broad-spectrum resistance to Magnaporthe grisea, the causal agent of rice blast disease. It has been hypothesized that the Pi5(t) locus carries the same gene as that encoded by the Pi3(t) and Pii(t) loci. We developed three PCR-based dominant markers (JJ80-T3, JJ81-T3, and JJ113-T3) from three previously identified BIBAC clones-JJ80, JJ81, and JJ113-that are linked to the Pi5(t) locus. PCR analysis of 24 monogenic lines revealed that these markers are present only in lines that carry Pi5(t), Pi3(t), and Pii(t). PCR and DNA gel-blot analysis of candidate resistance lines using JJ80-T3, JJ81-T3, and JJ113-T3 indicated that Tetep is the likely donor of Pi5(t). Of the 184 rice varieties tested, 34 carried the JJ80-T3-, JJ81-T3-, and JJ113-T3-specific bands. Disease evaluation of those 34 varieties revealed that all conferred resistance to PO6-6. The genomic structure of three of these resistant varieties (i.e., IR72, Taebaeg, Jahyangdo) is most similar to that of Pi5(t). Our results demonstrate the usefulness of the JJ80-T3, JJ81-T3, and JJ113-T3 markers for MAS for M. grisea resistance.

A new design of specimen stage for in situ magnetising experiments in the transmission electron microscope

A new stage for carrying out in situ magnetising experiments in the transmission electron microscope has been designed, constructed and tested. The principal advantages of the stage are that it delivers horizontal fields with negligible perturbation to the illumination and is suitable for operation in pulsed or continuous field mode. Details of its performance, including field calibration, are given. The paper concludes with a description of where the stage is likely to be of most use.

A phage-displayed peptide can inhibit infection by white spot syndrome virus of shrimp

White spot disease, caused by white spot syndrome virus (WSSV), results in devastating losses to the shrimp farming industry around the world, and no effective treatments have been found. Control focuses on exclusion of the virus from culture ponds but, once introduced, spread is often rapid and uncontrollable. The purpose of this study was to select a phage-displayed peptide that might be able to prevent WSSV infection. A 10-mer phage display peptide library (titre 7.2 x 10(7)) was constructed and screened against immobilized WSSV. Selected peptides were assessed for specificity and efficiency of inhibition of virus infection. Of four peptides that specifically bound to WSSV one, designated 2E6, had a high specificity and blocked virus infection, with the possible critical motif for virus inhibition being VAVNNSY. The results suggest that peptide 2E6 has potential for exploitation as an antiviral peptide drug.