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Stevenson A, Cray JA, Williams JP, Santos R, Sahay R, Neuenkirchen N, McClure CD, Grant IR, Houghton JDR, Quinn JP, Timson DJ, Patil SV, Singhal RS, Antón J, Dijksterhuis J, Hocking AD, Lievens B, Rangel DEN, Voytek MA, Gunde-Cimerman N, Oren A, Timmis KN, McGenity TJ, Hallsworth JE. Is there a common water-activity limit for the three domains of life? ISME J 2015; 9:1333-51. [PMID: 25500507 PMCID: PMC4438321 DOI: 10.1038/ismej.2014.219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 156] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2014] [Revised: 10/07/2014] [Accepted: 10/16/2014] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Archaea and Bacteria constitute a majority of life systems on Earth but have long been considered inferior to Eukarya in terms of solute tolerance. Whereas the most halophilic prokaryotes are known for an ability to multiply at saturated NaCl (water activity (a(w)) 0.755) some xerophilic fungi can germinate, usually at high-sugar concentrations, at values as low as 0.650-0.605 a(w). Here, we present evidence that halophilic prokayotes can grow down to water activities of <0.755 for Halanaerobium lacusrosei (0.748), Halobacterium strain 004.1 (0.728), Halobacterium sp. NRC-1 and Halococcus morrhuae (0.717), Haloquadratum walsbyi (0.709), Halococcus salifodinae (0.693), Halobacterium noricense (0.687), Natrinema pallidum (0.681) and haloarchaeal strains GN-2 and GN-5 (0.635 a(w)). Furthermore, extrapolation of growth curves (prone to giving conservative estimates) indicated theoretical minima down to 0.611 aw for extreme, obligately halophilic Archaea and Bacteria. These were compared with minima for the most solute-tolerant Bacteria in high-sugar (or other non-saline) media (Mycobacterium spp., Tetragenococcus halophilus, Saccharibacter floricola, Staphylococcus aureus and so on) and eukaryotic microbes in saline (Wallemia spp., Basipetospora halophila, Dunaliella spp. and so on) and high-sugar substrates (for example, Xeromyces bisporus, Zygosaccharomyces rouxii, Aspergillus and Eurotium spp.). We also manipulated the balance of chaotropic and kosmotropic stressors for the extreme, xerophilic fungi Aspergillus penicilloides and X. bisporus and, via this approach, their established water-activity limits for mycelial growth (∼0.65) were reduced to 0.640. Furthermore, extrapolations indicated theoretical limits of 0.632 and 0.636 a(w) for A. penicilloides and X. bisporus, respectively. Collectively, these findings suggest that there is a common water-activity limit that is determined by physicochemical constraints for the three domains of life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Stevenson
- Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, MBC, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, Northern Ireland, UK
| | - Jonathan A Cray
- Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, MBC, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, Northern Ireland, UK
| | - Jim P Williams
- Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, MBC, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, Northern Ireland, UK
| | - Ricardo Santos
- Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, MBC, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, Northern Ireland, UK
- Laboratório de Análises, Instituto Superior Técnico, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Richa Sahay
- University of Essex, School of Biological Sciences, Colchester, Essex, UK
| | - Nils Neuenkirchen
- University of Essex, School of Biological Sciences, Colchester, Essex, UK
| | - Colin D McClure
- Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, MBC, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, Northern Ireland, UK
| | - Irene R Grant
- Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, MBC, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, Northern Ireland, UK
| | - Jonathan DR Houghton
- Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, MBC, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, Northern Ireland, UK
| | - John P Quinn
- Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, MBC, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, Northern Ireland, UK
| | - David J Timson
- Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, MBC, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, Northern Ireland, UK
| | - Satish V Patil
- School of Life Sciences, North Maharashtra University, Jalgaon, Maharashtra, India
| | - Rekha S Singhal
- Department of Food Engineering and Technology, Institute of Chemical Technology, Mumbai, India
| | - Josefa Antón
- Department of Physiology, Genetics and Microbiology, University of Alicante, Alicante, Spain
| | | | - Ailsa D Hocking
- CSIRO Food and Nutrition, North Ryde, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Bart Lievens
- Microbial Ecology and Biorational Control, Scientia Terrae Research Institute, Sint-Katelijne-Waver, Belgium
| | - Drauzio E N Rangel
- Instituto de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento, Universidade do Vale do Paraíba, São José dos Campos, São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | - Nina Gunde-Cimerman
- Department of Biology, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Aharon Oren
- Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Sciences, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Kenneth N Timmis
- University of Essex, School of Biological Sciences, Colchester, Essex, UK
- Institute of Microbiology, Technical University Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Terry J McGenity
- University of Essex, School of Biological Sciences, Colchester, Essex, UK
| | - John E Hallsworth
- Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, MBC, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, Northern Ireland, UK
- University of Essex, School of Biological Sciences, Colchester, Essex, UK
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Abstract
For many decades it has been accepted that marine turtle hatchlings from the same nest generally emerge from the sand together. However, for loggerhead turtles (Caretta caretta) nesting on the Greek Island of Kefalonia, a more asynchronous pattern of emergence has been documented. By placing temperature loggers at the top and bottom of nests laid on Kefalonia during 1998, we examined whether this asynchronous emergence was related to the thermal conditions within nests. Pronounced thermal variation existed not only between, but also within, individual nests. These within-nest temperature differences were related to the patterns of hatchling emergence, with hatchlings from nests displaying large thermal ranges emerging over a longer time-scale than those characterised by more uniform temperatures. In many egg-laying animals, parental care of the offspring may continue while the eggs are incubating and also after they have hatched. Consequently, the importance of the nest site for determining incubation conditions may be reduced since the parents themselves may alter the local environment. By contrast, in marine turtles, parental care ceases once the eggs have been laid and the nest site covered. The positioning of the nest site, in both space and time, may therefore have profound effects for marine turtles by affecting, for example, the survival of the eggs and hatchlings as well as their sex (Janzen and Paukstis 1991). During incubation, sea turtle embryos grow from a few cells at oviposition to a self-sufficient organism at hatching some 50-80 days later (Ackerman 1997). After hatching, the young turtles dig up through the sand and emerge typically en masse at the surface 1-7 nights later, with a number of stragglers following over the next few nights (Christens 1990). This contrasts with the frequently observed pattern of hatching asynchrony in birds. It has been suggested that the cause of mass emergence in turtles is that eggs within a clutch are fertilised within a short period of time and then, when thermal conditions within the nest are uniform, develop at very similar rates and hence hatch and emerge together (Porter 1972). As a corollary of this idea, it would be predicted that when there are pronounced within-nest thermal gradients, development rates of siblings will be different and hence asynchronous hatching and emergence might occur. While it may be energetically beneficial for hatchlings to emerge in a group (Carr and Hirth 1961), if the extent of hatching asynchrony is marked then there may be severe costs for individuals if they wait for all their siblings to hatch before attempting to dig out of the sand (Hays and Speakman 1992). Under such conditions, the protracted emergence of small groups of hatchlings over several nights may be favoured. Examination of the literature suggests that emergence asynchrony may be more widespread than generally considered. For example, Witherington et al. (1990) described loggerhead turtle hatchlings (Caretta caretta) emerging over 4 days in Florida; for green turtles (Chelonia mydas), Hendrickson (1958) documented that nests in Malaysia and Sarawak produced hatchlings for up to 8 days; whilst Diamond (1976) found that hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata) nests on Cousin Island, Seychelles, were active for up to 4 days. Similarly, on the Greek Island of Kefalonia, we have shown that emergence from individual loggerhead turtle nests may occur on up to 11 nights (Hays and Speakman 1992). It is logical to suppose that asynchronous emergence relates to thermal gradients within nests, since the incubation duration of sea turtle eggs is related to temperature, with eggs hatching quicker when the temperature is higher. Here we test this hypothesis by measuring thermal variations within loggerhead turtle nests and comparing these variations to the patterns of hatchling emergence.
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Affiliation(s)
- J D Houghton
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Wales Swansea, Singleton Park, Swansea SA2 8PP, UK.
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Suckling KE, Jackson B, Suffolk RA, Houghton JD, Suckling CJ. Effects of 6,6-difluorocholestanol and 7,7-difluorocholestanol on hepatic enzymes of cholesterol metabolism. Biochim Biophys Acta 1989; 1002:401-4. [PMID: 2713389 DOI: 10.1016/0005-2760(89)90357-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
The effects of 6,6-difluorocholestanol and 7,7-difluorocholestanol on enzymes of hepatic liver cholesterol were examined. Neither compound affected the activity of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA reductase. 7,7-Diffluorocholestanol had no effect on the activity of acyl-CoA: cholesterol acyltransferase or cholesterol 7 alpha-hydroxylase. However, 6,6-difluorocholestanol was a competitive substrate for cholesterol in the esterification of cholesterol catalysed by the acyltransferase. 6,6-Difluorocholestanol also inhibited hydroxylation of cholesterol by cholesterol 7 alpha-hydroxylase but was not itself a substrate for this enzyme. These results show that substitutents in ring B of the sterol can have a significant effect on the binding of the sterol to enzymes and to the catalytic mechanism if the substituent is close to the groups in the molecule that participate.
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Affiliation(s)
- K E Suckling
- Department of Cellular Pharmacology, Smith Kline & French Research Ltd., Welwyn, U.K
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