In vitro neurotoxic properties and excitatory aminoacids concentration in the cerebrospinal fluid of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis patients. Relationship with the degree of certainty of disease diagnoses

OBJECTIVE

To determine glutamate and aspartate levels in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in patients with sporadic amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (SALS) grouped according to El Escorial diagnostic criteria, and to perform an in vitro assessment of the neurotoxicity of the CSF in murine cortical neurons.

METHODS

SALS patients were sorted according to El Escorial diagnostic criteria. Glutamate and aspartate were measured in the CSF using high performance liquid chromatography. Cultured cortical neuron viability was determined after exposure to CSF for 24 h.

RESULTS

Glutamate levels were elevated in 28 out of the 29 patients with definite, probable or possible SALS. There were no differences in glutamate concentrations when the three clinical forms of the disease were compared; neither there were significant variation across disease duration and clinical presentation. In agreement with previous reports, we concluded that CSF-SALS-induced in vitro neurotoxicity is mediated by ionotropic glutamate receptors. We found no relationship between the degree of in vitro neurotoxicity and glutamate concentration in the CSF.

CONCLUSIONS

Glutamate but not aspartate CSF levels may contribute to ALS pathogenesis. However, glutamate levels may not influence the degree of diagnosis certainty or lesion extension.

Role of allopregnanolone on cerebellar granule cells neurogenesis

The role of allopregnanolone on immature cerebellar granule cells (CGC) proliferation was studied. Allopregnanolone (0.1-1 microM) increased [(3)H]thymidine incorporation and cell number determined by neuronal counting and by an MTT colorimetric assay. The effect of the neurosteroid was completely prevented by preincubation with 10 mM MgCl(2), 10 microM nifedipine, 10 microM picrotoxin or by 50 microM bicuculine. We conclude that ALLO affects cerebellar neurogenesis by increasing calcium influx through voltage-gated calcium channels and GABA(A) receptors activation.

A single-cell model to study changes in neuronal fractal dimension

Many methods have been developed to quantify neuronal morphology: measurement of neurite length, neurite number, etc. However, none of these approaches provides a comprehensive view of the complexity of neuronal morphology. In this work we have analyzed the evaluation of fractal dimension (D) as a tool to represent and quantify changes in complexity of the dendritic arbor, in in vitro cultures grown under low-density conditions. Neurons grown in isolation developed a bipolar morphology corresponding to a fractal dimension close to the unit. The analysis showed that neuronal complexity increased when cells were incubated with a depolarizing potassium concentration and there was a correlation with an increase in fractal dimension (D5 mM KCl = 1.08 +/- 0.01, D25 mM KCl =1.25 +/- 0.01). We conclude that fractal dimension is a suitable parameter to quantify changes in neuronal morphological complexity.

Hydrogen peroxide-induced neurotoxicity in cultured cortical cells grown in serum-free and serum-containing media

To compare different culture conditions for neuroprotection assays in cultured cortic neurons, we evaluated cell viability after H2O2 exposure in cells cultured with standard N2 and with the enriched B-27 developed by GIBCO, both serum-free supplements. The following additives/associations were compared: N2 (+N2), B-27 (+B-27), 10% FBS (+FBS), 1% FBS in combination with N2 (FBS/N2) or N2 supplement preceded by an 1 hour precoating with 10% FBS (N2 + precoated). Our data demonstrated that B-27 is as efficient as 10% FBS to support neuronal growth for more than a week. As shown by phase-contrast optics cells grown in N2 started degenerating within 24-48 hours although measurable absorbance was seen with MTT. The pre-coating procedure failed to modify substantially cell viability as compared with N2 alone. Dose-response curves for H2O2 to induce neuronal apoptosis were almost identical for B-27 and serum supplemented samples. Catalase (100 U/ml) or vitamin E (200 microM) prevented cell death in both culture conditions. Our results indicate that DMEM/B-27 provides a serum-free cell culture environment that allows neurons to grow with optimal cell viability, comparable to that obtained with serum. We conclude that this culture condition reveals as a useful tool to test the efficacy of neuroprotectants when a serum free medium is required.

In vivo evidences of early neurosteroid synthesis in the developing rat central nervous system and placenta

The aim of the present study was to determine the developmental pattern of progesterone metabolism in rat brain and spinal cord from embryonic day 13 (E13) to the perinatal period. A marked decrease in the 5alpha-reduction of progesterone in brain cortex was observed between E13 and postnatal day 5 (P5). Isopregnanolone was the predominant isomer in E13 in both cortex and spinal cord and its synthesis diminished gradually, while the concentration of allopregnanolone did not change significantly during development. The placental tissue was able to synthesize the 3alpha and 3beta isomers in E13, E16 and E19 embryos with allopregnanolone being the major metabolite in all the samples. We conclude that embryonic central nervous system tissues are able to synthesize neurosteroids at least from stage E13 and that they are developmentally regulated.

GABA induces proliferation of immature cerebellar granule cells grown in vitro

The presence of GABA and its receptors early in rodent nervous system development has lead to speculation on the role of this transmitter system in neuroblast proliferation, migration and differentiation. We studied the effect of GABA and GABA agonists on immature cerebellar granule cell proliferation and survival. Cerebellar granule cell suspensions were obtained from 6-8-day-old rats and grown in culture for up to 7 days in serum-containing or serum-free medium. The addition of GABA (0.1-100 microM) or muscimol (0.01-10 microM) 2 h after inoculation and harvested 22 h later, lead to an increase in 3H-thymidine incorporation over control samples with the correspondent increase in granule cells number assayed 48 h later. The effect on cell proliferation exerted by GABAA agonists was blocked by MgCl2 and nifedipine, as well as by the chloride channel blocker, picrotoxin (50 microM), and the GABAA receptor specific blocker, bicuculline (50 microM). The increase on cell proliferation induced by GABA also was blocked by PD98059 (75 microM), a specific inhibitor of the mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase (MAPKK). GABAA receptor-mediated proliferation was consistently seen in cells inoculated in serum-containing medium supplemented with 25 mM KCl but not seen in serum-free medium, with 5 mM or 25 mM KCl. The presence of serum did not enhance the survival of cerebellar granule cells grown for 7 days in either 5 mM or 25 mM KCl. Additionally, neither GABA nor muscimol applied from day 2 to day 7 in vitro affected cell survival in any culture condition. We conclude that GABA and GABAA receptor agonists influence granule cell proliferation but not survival and that this effect is mediated by a calcium influx via voltage-dependent calcium channel activation, with a subsequent activation of the MAPK cascade.

Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase activity at different ages in sporadic amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a progressive disorder resulting from degeneration of motor neurons in the brain and spinal cord. Sporadic ALS (SALS) accounts for the majority of patients and the familial form (FALS) represents fewer than 10% of all cases. Since it was found that there are Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase (SODI) gene mutations in 20% of FALS patients and that FALS and SALS patients show similar clinical features, it has been postulated that both may share a common physiopathological mechanism. We studied Cu/Zn SOD1 activity in cytosolic extracts of erythrocytes from 125 normal individuals and 40 SALS patients. We found that enzyme activity does not change with age in control subjects and tends to decrease in most SALS patients older than 60 years. A subpopulation of five SALS patients had significantly increased SOD1 activity; four of these patients over 70 years old. There was no correlation between enzyme activity and time of onset of the disease, or clinical forms of the illness. The variation in SOD1 activity in ageing SALS patients compared with younger patients suggests that they may undergo an oxidative disbalance contributing to the development of the disease.

Extracellular potassium concentration regulates proliferation of immature cerebellar granule cells

The present study examines the effect of depolarizing potassium concentrations on the proliferation of immature rat cerebellar neurons. Cells inoculated in serum free medium and 5 mM KCl (5 K) showed a high degree of 3H-thymidine incorporation that decreased 24-48 h after plating as differentiation began. During the first 24 h after inoculation, cells grown in high potassium (25 K), showed a 34 +/- 3% increase (mean +/- S.E.M., n = 12) in 3H-thymidine incorporation as compared with the values observed in 5 K. After 24 h in vitro, cells grown in 25 K showed 23 +/- 3% (mean +/- S.E.M., n = 3) less DNA synthesis than those inoculated in 5 K. The increase in DNA synthesis due to 25 K was blocked by MgCl2 and nifedipine, but not by omega-conotoxin GVIA, suggesting that it is mediated by a Ca2+ influx via voltage-gated calcium channels (VGCC) of the L-subtype. High potassium-induced cell proliferation was blocked by the mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase (MEK1) inhibitor (PD98059, 75 microM). The number of neurons counted after 48 h in vitro in 25 K was 35-100% above of the number obtained with 5 K and this increase also was blocked by MgCl2 and nifedipine. These data support the hypothesis that depolarizing activity during neurogenesis plays a role in the modulation of cerebellar granule cells proliferation.

Neurosteroid modulation of GABAA receptors in the developing rat brain cortex

The allosteric modulation of GABAA receptors in the rat brain cortex by neurosteroids was studied at different developmental stages. GABAA receptors were identified using [3H]muscimol binding to membrane preparations obtained from embryos and neonates (postnatal day 0-PN0; postnatal day 5-PN5). Data analysis disclosed a unique population of binding sites at all ages tested. An increase in the number of receptors was observed during development reaching almost adult levels at PN5. The neurosteroids pregnanolone and allopregnanolone failed to modulate [3H]muscimol specific binding in embryos and neonates, but a positive modulation was obtained in 5-day old animals. The addition of 1 microM pregnanolone induced a 3-6-fold increase [3H]muscimol affinity in PN5 (n = 3; P < 0.03), and a 2-fold increase in receptors number in adults (n = 3; P < 0.03). The differences observed in allosteric modulation during development suggest that a change occurred during the first week of life, and this change might affect GABAA receptor function.

The effect of X-radiation on cerebellar granule cells grown in culture. Ganglioside GM1 neuroprotective activity

In this paper we describe the effects of X-radiation on the viability of cerebellar granule cells grown in culture. Cell cultures were exposed to X-rays 2 h after plating and then grown for 1-7 days. Two days after X-ray exposure with a dose-range of 0.1-2 Gy (acute effect), a significant decrease in neuronal number was observed. The magnitude of the lethal effect was directly correlated to the dose of X-ray applied. When the interval between plating and irradiation was increased, the acute lethal effect of X-rays decreased. 3H-thymidine incorporation was maximal during the first 24 h in vitro and decreased to nearly blank levels, after 72 h. In some experiments, cells present in each culture dish were counted at day 2 and at day 7. We observed that the number of cells present in sham-irradiated cultures decreased from day 2 to day 7, reflecting cell death after several days in vitro. The cell loss observed in X-irradiated cultures was significantly greater as compared with sham-irradiated cultures, confirming the deleterious effect of X-ray on cell survival. This effect was completely prevented by GM1 (6.5, 10 and 30 microM) added 48 h after X-ray exposure, but not 1 h after plating. We conclude that X-rays induce two different effects: an acute effect related to impaired DNA synthesis which is very active during the first 24 h in vitro, and a long-term effect owing to a sublethal damage in the surviving neuronal population.

GABAergic cells and signals appear together in the early post-mitotic period of telencephalic and striatal development

Single cell suspensions derived from embryonic telencephala taken from embryos of gestational day 13 (E13) as well as rat striatal tissue from E14, 15 and 17 were prepared by tissue digestion with papain. Cell suspensions were analyzed by flow cytometry or plated onto poly-D-lysine-coated culture dishes for either nuclear staining or immunocytochemistry. Experiments on functional Na+ channels and GABAA receptor expression were carried out using a fluorescence-activated cell sorter (FACS) and a negatively charged fluorescent indicator dye (oxonol). FACS analysis of embryonic cell suspensions at E13-17 consistently revealed one major subpopulation accounting for 85-90% of the events and one minor subpopulation (10-15% of the total). When sorted, the major subpopulation consisted of phase-bright cells of 5-7 microns diameter some of which had neurites. The minor population consisted of phase-dark cells and resealed membranes of 0.5-4 microns diameter as well as debris. Almost all the cells obtained in the high FALS (forward-angle light scatter) subpopulation at E17 expressed 200-kDa neurofilament and tetanus toxin antigens while the small diameter cells seldom expressed tetanus toxin and particles never did. A small number of GABA-containing neurons were detected in the telencephalon at E13 (3%) and in the developing striatum at E14 (6%). All of the GABA-containing neurons expressed neurofilament. In the embryonic rat striatum, nanomolar concentrations of muscimol (GABAA agonist) induced depolarizing responses. A small number of cells in the high FALS subpopulation were responsive to muscimol starting at embryonic day 14, and the number of responsive cells increased at E15.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

N-(2-chloroethyl)-N-ethyl-2-bromobenzylamine (DSP4) impairs neurotransmission in the vas deferens of the rat

1. The in vitro effects of N-(2-chloroethyl)-N-ethyl-bromobenzylamine (DSP4) were studied in the rat vas deferens. 2. DSP4 inhibited the biphasic motor response induced by field stimulation in a concentration-dependent manner. The concentration of DSP4 that elicited 50% of the maximal inhibition of the twitch response induced by 3 Hz was 10 microM. 3. DSP4 10 microM abolished the motor response induced by exogenously applied noradrenaline and 0.1 mM ATP. Phentolamine (an alpha-adrenoceptor blocker) prevented DSP4 inhibitory effect. 4. DSP4 inhibitory effect was no due to the activation of alpha 2-presynaptic adrenoceptor mechanisms. 5. DSP4 impairs neurotransmission in the rat vas deferens by a postsynaptic alpha 1-adrenoceptor blockade and by an inhibition of the purinergic response.

Electrophysiological responses to muscarinic receptor stimulation in cultured hippocampal neurons

Electrophysiological recordings of responses to muscarinic receptor stimulation in cultured embryonic hippocampal neurons have been largely unsuccessful to date. In this study muscarinic receptor binding was demonstrated in 2-week-old embryonic rat hippocampal cultures. Using whole-cell patch-clamp recording we found that 1-5 microM carbachol produced multiple effects including depolarization, increased action potential firing rate, increased synaptic activity and a reduction in the amplitude of medium-duration afterhyperpolarizations. Voltage-clamp analysis revealed a time-dependent current relaxation with hyperpolarizing steps from a holding potential of about -40 mV which was inhibited by 10 microM muscarine or 50 microM carbachol and had characteristics similar to those of the m-current. Both atropine and pirenzepine inhibited all of these effects indicating that these cholinergic actions were mediated by muscarinic receptors. This study shows that muscarinic responses obtained classically in hippocampal brain slices can also be produced in cultured hippocampus.

Dopamine synthesis precedes dopamine uptake in embryonic rat mesencephalic neurons

We have measured [3H]dopamine ([3H]DA) uptake and tyrosine hydroxylase-immunopositive immunostaining in cells acutely dissociated from the embryonic ventral mesencephalon (MSC). DA and its metabolites as well as catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) and monoamine oxidase (MAO) activities were determined in homogenates taken from the MSC and striatum (STR). In the embryonic ventral MSC measurable DA and tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) immunostaining were present as early as embryonic day (E) 12.5. At E14 the number of TH+ neurons was about 50% of the values at E18. In the MSC, DA concentration increased sharply at E16 and reached a plateau before birth that was 10-fold lower than adult values. In the STR, DA was first detected at E16, suggesting that DA fibers reach the STR at this embryonic stage. High-affinity DA uptake appeared in the MSC only at E16, concomitantly with the arrival of DA fibers in the STR, increased sharply between E16 and E18, and reached a plateau before birth. This uptake mechanism was not selective for catecholamine uptake inhibitors. Thus, DA synthesis in the MSC preceded the onset of high-affinity uptake mechanism, which could be correlated to the beginning of striatal DA innervation. Measurable MAO and COMT activities were detected as early as E13 (MSC) and E15 (STR), but not DA metabolites, which appeared later. We conclude that the high-affinity DA uptake mechanism in MSC DA neurons develops coincident with the arrival of DA fibers to the STR. The sharp increase of DA uptake between E16 and E18 is due only in part to an increase in the number of TH+ cells. These results support the hypothesis that in vivo the target STR neurons regulate the maturation of MSC DA cells.

Embryonic and early postnatal hippocampal cells respond to nanomolar concentrations of muscimol

Embryonic and early postnatal tissue taken from rat hippocampi were papain digested in order to obtain cell suspensions suitable for analysis in a fluorescence-activated cell sorter (FACS). Cell suspensions consisted of two major peaks of forward-angle light scatter (FALS). FACS analysis showed that the population which stained intensely with the vital dye Acridine orange (AO) scattered significant levels of light (high FALS) and amounted to 85% of the total events collected in embryonic cell suspensions and 65% in postnatal (PN) samples. Two minor populations were weakly stained with AO and scattered little light. Oxonol, a voltage-sensitive indicator dye, was used to detect membrane polarization changes. The AO and oxonol staining patterns were very similar. All the events exposed to media containing 50 mM KCl were depolarized (increase in intensity of oxonol fluorescence). The depolarizing effect of veratridine, a sodium channel activator, was more pronounced in the high FALS subpopulation. In embryonic hippocampal cell suspensions nanomolar concentrations of GABAA agonists depolarized the high FALS subpopulation in a dose-dependent manner. This effect was prevented by preincubation with bicuculline or picrotoxin. In hippocampal cell suspensions obtained from 5-7-day-old rat pups (PN5-7), GABAA agonists depolarized one cell subpopulation and hyperpolarized another. Our results indicate that physiological responses can be resolved in subpopulations of hippocampal cell suspensions by FACS analysis. This technique seems to be a sensitive assay to measure physiological responses (changes in membrane potential) as a parameter of receptor expression. GABAA agonists induced pure depolarizing responses in embryonic and early postnatal hippocampus when active neurogenesis is taking place. The response become hyperpolarizing-depolarizing ones after inhibitory synapses appear.

Amphetamine antagonizes the presynaptic inhibitory effect of clonidine through an interaction at the level of the alpha 2-adrenoceptors

1. In the whole rat vas deferens 20 microM noradrenaline (NA) and 0.011 microM clonidine decreased (36 +/- 7.4% and 80 +/- 6.0% respectively) the motor response induced by hypogastric nerve stimulation. These effects were reverted by 1 microM yohimbine. Amphetamine 5.4 microM failed to antagonize the inhibitory effect of NA and attenuated clonidine effect. 2. The effect of amphetamine was not altered by preincubation with either cocaine 1 microM, (-)-propranolol 0.3 microM or cocaine plus prazosin 0.028 microM. 3. In reserpine pretreated animals amphetamine 5.4 microM shifted to the right the concentration-response curve (CRC) to clonidine 0.62 +/- 0.05 log units with a KB value of 1.83 +/- 0.30 microM. 4. Binding of [3H]clonidine and [3H]prazosin were inhibited by amphetamine. Amphetamine was 90 times more potent to inhibit [3H]clonidine binding. 5. The results obtained suggest a possible direct interaction between clonidine and amphetamine on alpha-adrenoceptor.

Interaction between amphetamine and alpha 2-postsynaptic adrenoreceptors in the rat submaxillary gland

1 The interaction between amphetamine and the alpha 2-adrenoreceptor agonists, clonidine and guanabenz, was studied in the submaxillary gland of anaesthetised rats. 2 Low doses of clonidine (10 micrograms/kg) and guanabenz (10 micrograms/kg) inhibited the secretory responses induced by methacholine and substance P, respectively. 3 Amphetamine (300 micrograms/kg) antagonized the inhibitory effects of both alpha 2-agonists. This dose of amphetamine alone did not show sialagogic effects. 4 Atropine (1 micrograms/kg) diminished the secretory responses to methacholine as much as clonidine (10 micrograms/kg). Amphetamine did not modify the blockade by atropine. 5 Guanabenz (10 micrograms/kg) markedly decreased the secretory responses to substance P, an effect that was also prevented by amphetamine. 6 Reserpine pretreatment (5 mg/kg, i.p., 18 h) did not alter the effect of amphetamine. 7 These results indicate that the interaction between amphetamine and alpha 2-adrenoreceptor agonists is unrelated to the indirect effect of this amine and suggest a direct interaction between the drug and postsynaptic inhibitory alpha 2-adrenoreceptors.

Amphetamine-clonidine interaction on neurotransmission in the vas deferens of the rat

The interaction between amphetamine and clonidine on neurotransmission in the rat vas deferens was studied. In the whole vas deferens, clonidine 0.037 mumol/l displaced to the right the frequency-response curve evoked by either hypogastric or field stimulation. The frequency of stimulation that produced 50% of the maximal response (EF 50) was: control 4.0 Hz, clonidine 18.3 Hz (P less than 0.001 n = 4), for hypogastric nerve stimulation; and 2.1 Hz in controls and 17.1 Hz in clonidine-treated preparations, for field stimulation (P less than 0.001 n = 5). Preincubation with 5.4 mumol/l amphetamine antagonized the effect of clonidine (EF 50 amphetamine alone 6.2 Hz, amphetamine + clonidine 7.3 Hz; P greater than 0.5). After 12 min of incubation with clonidine 0.037 mumol/l the responses to 6.4 Hz (3 s, 0.5 ms) were decreased by 77 +/- 2.2%. Both yohimbine and amphetamine, in a concentration-dependent manner, attenuated the inhibition. Washout of clonidine produced a slow recovery of the responses. Inhibition of the motor response to nerve stimulation (6.4 Hz, 3 s) by 30 mumol/l 2',3'-cAMP was increased by 10 mumol/l dipyridamole and impaired by 100 mumol/l theophylline. Amphetamine, in a concentration that markedly reduced clonidine inhibition of neurotransmission failed to antagonize 2',3'-cAMP. In the bisected vas deferens clonidine inhibited the peak motor response to short trains of field stimuli in the prostatic portion ("non-adrenergic") and the sustained response in the epididymal portion ("adrenergic"). Yohimbine potentiated both types of responses and fully prevented the effect of clonidine. In the prostatic portion amphetamine slightly inhibited the peak motor response and attenuated the inhibitory effect of clonidine in both portions of the vas.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)