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Lin L, Dacal E, Díez N, Carmona C, Martin Ramirez A, Barón Argos L, Bermejo-Peláez D, Caballero C, Cuadrado D, Darias-Plasencia O, García-Villena J, Bakardjiev A, Postigo M, Recalde-Jaramillo E, Flores-Chavez M, Santos A, Ledesma-Carbayo MJ, Rubio JM, Luengo-Oroz M. Edge Artificial Intelligence (AI) for real-time automatic quantification of filariasis in mobile microscopy. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2024; 18:e0012117. [PMID: 38630833 PMCID: PMC11057975 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0012117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2023] [Revised: 04/29/2024] [Accepted: 03/29/2024] [Indexed: 04/19/2024] Open
Abstract
Filariasis, a neglected tropical disease caused by roundworms, is a significant public health concern in many tropical countries. Microscopic examination of blood samples can detect and differentiate parasite species, but it is time consuming and requires expert microscopists, a resource that is not always available. In this context, artificial intelligence (AI) can assist in the diagnosis of this disease by automatically detecting and differentiating microfilariae. In line with the target product profile for lymphatic filariasis as defined by the World Health Organization, we developed an edge AI system running on a smartphone whose camera is aligned with the ocular of an optical microscope that detects and differentiates filarias species in real time without the internet connection. Our object detection algorithm that uses the Single-Shot Detection (SSD) MobileNet V2 detection model was developed with 115 cases, 85 cases with 1903 fields of view and 3342 labels for model training, and 30 cases with 484 fields of view and 873 labels for model validation before clinical validation, is able to detect microfilariae at 10x magnification and distinguishes four species of them at 40x magnification: Loa loa, Mansonella perstans, Wuchereria bancrofti, and Brugia malayi. We validated our augmented microscopy system in the clinical environment by replicating the diagnostic workflow encompassed examinations at 10x and 40x with the assistance of the AI models analyzing 18 samples with the AI running on a middle range smartphone. It achieved an overall precision of 94.14%, recall of 91.90% and F1 score of 93.01% for the screening algorithm and 95.46%, 97.81% and 96.62% for the species differentiation algorithm respectively. This innovative solution has the potential to support filariasis diagnosis and monitoring, particularly in resource-limited settings where access to expert technicians and laboratory equipment is scarce.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lin Lin
- Spotlab, Madrid, Spain
- Biomedical Image Technologies, ETSI Telecomunicación, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | | | | | - Claudia Carmona
- Malaria and Emerging Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, National Microbiology Centre, Instituto de Salud Carlos III—Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Alexandra Martin Ramirez
- Malaria and Emerging Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, National Microbiology Centre, Instituto de Salud Carlos III—Madrid, Madrid, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Infecciosas (CIBERINFEC) Instituto de Salud Carlos III—Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Lourdes Barón Argos
- Malaria and Emerging Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, National Microbiology Centre, Instituto de Salud Carlos III—Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Ethan Recalde-Jaramillo
- Spotlab, Madrid, Spain
- Biomedical Image Technologies, ETSI Telecomunicación, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Maria Flores-Chavez
- Malaria and Emerging Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, National Microbiology Centre, Instituto de Salud Carlos III—Madrid, Madrid, Spain
- Fundación Mundo Sano, Madrid, Spain
| | - Andrés Santos
- Biomedical Image Technologies, ETSI Telecomunicación, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - María Jesús Ledesma-Carbayo
- Biomedical Image Technologies, ETSI Telecomunicación, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - José M. Rubio
- Malaria and Emerging Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, National Microbiology Centre, Instituto de Salud Carlos III—Madrid, Madrid, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Infecciosas (CIBERINFEC) Instituto de Salud Carlos III—Madrid, Madrid, Spain
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Chicharro C, Nieto J, Miguelañez S, Garcia E, Ortega S, Peña A, Rubio JM, Flores-Chavez M. Molecular Diagnosis of Leishmaniasis in Spain: Development and Validation of Ready-To-Use Gel-Form Nested and Real-Time PCRs To Detect Leishmania spp. Microbiol Spectr 2023; 11:e0335422. [PMID: 37014253 PMCID: PMC10269443 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.03354-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2022] [Accepted: 03/08/2023] [Indexed: 04/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Leishmaniasis is an endemic parasitic disease in at least 98 countries. In Spain, it is considered a zoonosis caused by Leishmania infantum, with an annual incidence of 0.62 cases/100,000 inhabitants. The predominant clinical manifestations are the cutaneous (CL) and visceral forms (VL), and the diagnosis is performed by parasitological, serological, and molecular tests. At the WHO Collaborating Center for Leishmaniasis (WHOCCLeish), routine diagnostic tests are based on a nested PCR (Ln-PCR), culture, and serological tests. To simplify our PCR protocol, we aimed to develop and validate a ready-to-use nested gel-form PCR (LeishGelPCR) and a duplex real-time PCR (qPCR) that allowed simultaneous detection of Leishmania and mammalian DNA as an internal control (Leish-qPCR). Clinical validation was performed in 200 samples from the WHOCCLeish collection; 92 and 85 out of 94 and 87 samples were positive by LeishGelPCR and Leish-qPCR, respectively, showing a sensitivity of 98% in both approaches. The specificity was 100% for LeishGelPCR and 98% for Leish-qPCR. The limits of detection of both protocols were similar (0.5 and 0.2 parasites/reaction). Parasite loads in VL and CL forms were similar, although high loads were observed when invasive samples were tested. In conclusion, LeishGelPCR and Leish-qPCR showed excellent performance in the diagnosis of leishmaniasis. These new forms of 18S rRNA gene PCR are equivalent to Ln-PCR and can be introduced in the algorithm for CL and VL diagnosis. IMPORTANCE Although the gold standard for diagnosis of leishmaniasis is the microscopic observation of amastigotes, molecular techniques are becoming a cost-efficient alternative. Currently, PCR is a routine resource that is used in many reference microbiology laboratories. In this article, we have described two ways to improve the reproducibility and usability of the molecular detection of Leishmania spp. These new approaches could be introduced even in middle- and low-resource laboratories; one is a ready-to-use gel-form system of a nested PCR and the other is a real-time PCR. We show why molecular diagnosis is the best methodology to confirm a clinical suspicion of leishmaniasis with higher sensitivity than traditional methods, thus facilitating early diagnosis and timely treatment of human leishmaniasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carmen Chicharro
- Reference and Research Laboratory for Parasitology, National Centre for Microbiology, Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII), Madrid, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Infecciosas (CIBERINFEC-ISCIII), Madrid, Spain
- WHO Collaborating Center for Leishmaniasis (WHOCCLeish), Madrid, Spain
| | - Javier Nieto
- Reference and Research Laboratory for Parasitology, National Centre for Microbiology, Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII), Madrid, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Infecciosas (CIBERINFEC-ISCIII), Madrid, Spain
- WHO Collaborating Center for Leishmaniasis (WHOCCLeish), Madrid, Spain
| | - Silvia Miguelañez
- Reference and Research Laboratory for Parasitology, National Centre for Microbiology, Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII), Madrid, Spain
- WHO Collaborating Center for Leishmaniasis (WHOCCLeish), Madrid, Spain
| | - Emilia Garcia
- Reference and Research Laboratory for Parasitology, National Centre for Microbiology, Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII), Madrid, Spain
- WHO Collaborating Center for Leishmaniasis (WHOCCLeish), Madrid, Spain
| | - Sheila Ortega
- Reference and Research Laboratory for Parasitology, National Centre for Microbiology, Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII), Madrid, Spain
| | - Ana Peña
- Reference and Research Laboratory for Parasitology, National Centre for Microbiology, Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII), Madrid, Spain
| | - Jose Miguel Rubio
- Reference and Research Laboratory for Parasitology, National Centre for Microbiology, Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII), Madrid, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Infecciosas (CIBERINFEC-ISCIII), Madrid, Spain
| | - Maria Flores-Chavez
- Reference and Research Laboratory for Parasitology, National Centre for Microbiology, Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII), Madrid, Spain
- Fundación Mundo Sano, Madrid, Spain
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Jember TH, Amor A, Nibret E, Munshea A, Flores-Chavez M, Ta-Tang TH, Saugar JM, Benito A, Anegagrie M. Prevalence of Strongyloides stercoralis infection and associated clinical symptoms among schoolchildren living in different altitudes of Amhara National Regional State, northwest Ethiopia. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2022; 16:e0010299. [PMID: 35482629 PMCID: PMC9049318 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0010299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2021] [Accepted: 03/03/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Strongyloides stercoralis is a parasite that causes strongyloidiasis in humans. It is prevalent in the tropics and sub-tropics where poor sanitation is a common problem. The true prevalence of S. stercoralis in Ethiopia is underestimated due to the lack of a “Gold” standard diagnostic method. Moreover, its prevalence across altitudinal gradient in Amhara Region has not been studied. Methods A cross-sectional study was conducted among 844 schoolchildren in Amhara Region from April to December 2019. A stool sample was collected from each study participant and processed using formol ether concentration technique (FECT), spontaneous tube sedimentation technique (STST), Baermann concentration technique (BCT), agar plate culture (APC) and real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Data were entered using EpiData and analyzed by SPSS version 23 statistical software. Prevalence of S. stercoralis infection was determined using a single diagnostic technique and combination of techniques. Association of clinical variables with S. stercoralis infection was assessed by logistic regression and independent variables with p<0.05 were considered statistically significant. Results Prevalence of soil-transmitted helminths (STHs) and S. mansoni infections was 38.0% and 20.4%, respectively. Among STHs, the prevalence of hookworm infection was 32.8%. Prevalence of S. stercoralis infection was 39.0%, 28.8%, 10.9%, 10.3%, 4.0% and 2.0% by the respective, combinations of the five methods, RT-PCR, APC, BCT, STST and FECT. The highest prevalence rates, 48.2%, 45.0% and 41.1% of S. stercoralis were recorded in the age group of 12–14 years, males and rural dwellers, respectively. Prevalence rates of S. stercoralis infection in highland, semi-highland and lowland areas were 40.4%, 41.8% and 25.9%, respectively. Having abdominal pain (AOR = 2.48; 95% CI:1.65–3.72), cough (AOR = 1.63;95%CI:1.09–2.42), urticaria (AOR = 2.49;95%CI:1.50–4.01) and being malnourished (AOR = 1.44;95%:1.10–2.01) were significantly associated with strongyloidiasis. Conclusion Prevalence of S. stercoralis infection was high and varied across different altitudes in Amhara Region. Some clinical syndromes were found to be significantly associated with S. stercoralis infection. Therefore, proper diagnosis and preventive strategies against S. stercoralis infection are highly recommended to be devised and implemented in Amhara Region. Prevalence of S. stercoralis is under-reported in many resource-poor countries including Ethiopia. We carried out a school-based cross-sectional study among 844 schoolchildren across highlands, semi-highlands and lowland areas of Amhara Region. We used an approach made of five diagnostic methods, namely, FECT, STST, BCT, APC, and RT-PCR. The total prevalence of S. stercoralis was 39.0%. The highest S. stercoralis prevalence (41.8%) was observed in the semi-highland areas of the region. Strongyloidiasis was significantly higher among 12–14 years age groups, males, and rural dweller children. Clinical symptoms such as presence of abdominal pain, cough, skin rash and malnourishment were significantly associated with strongyloidiasis. We recommend that preventive strategies against strongyloidiasis in Amhara Region should be implemented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tadesse Hailu Jember
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Bahir Dar University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia
- * E-mail:
| | - Arancha Amor
- Mundo Sano Foundation and Institute of Health Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Endalkachew Nibret
- Biology Department, Science College, Bahir Dar University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia
| | - Abaineh Munshea
- Biology Department, Science College, Bahir Dar University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia
| | - Maria Flores-Chavez
- Mundo Sano Foundation and National Centre for Microbiology Institute of Health Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Thuy-Huong Ta-Tang
- National Center of Tropical Medicine, Institute of Health Carlos III, Biomedical Research Networking Center of Infectious Diseases (CIBERINFEC), Madrid, Spain
| | - Jose M Saugar
- National Centre of Microbiology, Institute of Health Carlos III, (CIBERINFEC), Madrid, Spain
| | - Agustín Benito
- National Centre of Tropical Medicine, Institute of Health Carlos III, (CIBERINFEC), Madrid, Spain
| | - Melaku Anegagrie
- Mundo Sano Foundation and Institute of Health Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
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Rodriguez-Guardado A, González ML, Rodriguez M, Flores-Chavez M, Boga JA, Gascon J. Trypanosoma cruzi infection in a Spanish liver transplant recipient. Clin Microbiol Infect 2015; 21:687.e1-3. [PMID: 25882355 DOI: 10.1016/j.cmi.2015.03.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2014] [Revised: 03/22/2015] [Accepted: 03/28/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The shortage of suitable organ donors for transplantation has stimulated the use of organs from donors with transmissible infections such as Chagas disease in noninfected recipients. A case is described of liver transplantation from an anti-Trypanosoma cruzi-positive donor to a noninfected recipient who showed favorable evolution despite not having undergone preemptive therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - M Rodriguez
- Microbiology Unit, Hospital Universitario Central de Asturias, Oviedo, Spain
| | - M Flores-Chavez
- Leishmaniasis and Chagas Disease Unit, National Microbiology Center, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - J A Boga
- Microbiology Unit, Hospital Universitario Central de Asturias, Oviedo, Spain
| | - J Gascon
- ISGlobal, Centre for International Health Research (CRESIB), Barcelona, Spain
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Norman FF, Pérez-Ayala A, Pérez-Molina JA, Flores-Chavez M, Cañavate C, López-Vélez R. Lack of association between blood-based detection of Trypanosoma cruzi DNA and cardiac involvement in a non-endemic area. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 2012; 105:425-30. [PMID: 22117851 DOI: 10.1179/1364859411y.0000000033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022]
Abstract
Cases of chronic Chagas disease have been increasing in non-endemic areas due to the growth in immigration. This study examined the association between positive Trypanosoma cruzi-DNA detection in blood by PCR and presence of chagasic cardiac involvement in a cohort of immigrants in a European city. No association was found in this study between the positive T. cruzi blood PCR and cardiac involvement.
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Affiliation(s)
- F F Norman
- Tropical Medicine and Clinical Parasitology, Infectious Diseases Department, Hospital Ramón y Cajal, Instituto Ramón y Cajal de Investigación Sanitaria, Madrid, Spain.
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Navarro M, Perez-Ayala A, Guionnet A, Perez-Molina JA, Navaza B, Estevez L, Norman F, Flores-Chavez M, Lopez-Velez R. Targeted screening and health education for Chagas disease tailored to at-risk migrants in Spain, 2007 to 2010. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011; 16. [PMID: 21958531 DOI: 10.2807/ese.16.38.19973-en] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Chagas disease is endemic in Latin America, but migration has expanded the disease's geographical limits. Spain is the most affected country in Europe. From 2007, a specific Chagas disease programme aimed at at-risk migrants was developed in three Spanish cities (Madrid, Jerez de la Frontera and Alicante). The objectives of the programme were to increase participants' knowledge and decrease their fears about the disease and to encourage them to undergo screening for Trypanosoma cruzi infection. The programme was specially focused on migrants from Bolivia and Latin American women of childbearing age. Culturally tailored interventions were carried out in non-clinical settings. A total of 276 migrants were screened using a rapid immunochromatographic test following talks on the disease: the results were then later confirmed by standard serological tests. Of those tested, 44 (15.9%) were confirmed cases of Chagas disease. All of them came from Bolivia and a quarter were pregnant women. Of the 44 cases, 31 were later followed up at a specialised Chagas disease clinic. We consider that the adaptation of the programme to the target population's needs and collaboration with non-governmental organisations and migrants' associations contributed to the acceptance of the programme and the increasing number of patients seen at a specialised clinic.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Navarro
- Tropical Medicine and Clinical Parasitology, Infectious Diseases Department, Ramon y Cajal Hospital, Madrid, Spain
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Basile L, Jansa JM, Carlier Y, Salamanca DD, Angheben A, Bartoloni A, Seixas J, Van Gool T, Canavate C, Flores-Chavez M, Jackson Y, Chiodini PL, Albajar-Vinas P. Chagas disease in European countries: the challenge of a surveillance system. Euro Surveill 2011; 16:19968. [PMID: 21944556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023] Open
Abstract
A study of aggregate data collected from the literature and official sources was undertaken to estimate expected and observed prevalence of Trypanosoma cruzi infection, annual incidence of congenital transmission and rate of underdiagnosis of Chagas disease among Latin American migrants in the nine European countries with the highest prevalence of Chagas disease. Formal and informal data sources were used to estimate the population from endemic countries resident in Europe in 2009, diagnosed cases of Chagas disease and births from mothers originating from endemic countries. By 2009, 4,290 cases had been diagnosed in Europe, compared with an estimated 68,000 to 122,000 expected cases. The expected prevalence was very high in undocumented migrants (on average 45% of total expected cases) while the observed prevalence rate was 1.3 cases per 1,000 resident migrants from endemic countries. An estimated 20 to 183 babies with congenital Chagas disease are born annually in the study countries. The annual incidence rate of congenital transmission per 1,000 pregnancies in women from endemic countries was between none and three cases. The index of under diagnosis of T. cruzi infection was between 94% and 96%. Chagas disease is a public health challenge in the studied European countries. Urgent measures need to be taken to detect new cases of congenital transmission and take care of the existing cases with a focus on migrants without legal residency permit and potential difficulty accessing care.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Basile
- Department of Health, Generalitat of Catalonia, Barcelona, Spain
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Rodríguez-Guardado A, Rodríguez M, Alonso P, Seco C, Flores-Chavez M, Mejuto P, Cartón JA. Serological screening of Chagas disease in an immigrant population in Asturias, Spain proceeding from Chagas-endemic areas. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009; 41:774-6. [DOI: 10.1080/00365540903161523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Flores-Chavez M, Fernandez B, Puente S, Torres P, Rodriguez M, Monedero C, Cruz I, Garate T, Canavate C. Transfusional Chagas Disease: Parasitological and Serological Monitoring of an Infected Recipient and Blood Donor. Clin Infect Dis 2008; 46:e44-7. [DOI: 10.1086/527448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022] Open
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Flores-Chavez M, Bosseno MF, Bastrenta B, Dalenz JLA, Hontebeyrie M, Revollo S, Brenière SF. Polymerase chain reaction detection and serologic follow-up after treatment with benznidazole in Bolivian children infected with a natural mixture of Trypanosoma cruzi I and II. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2006; 75:497-501. [PMID: 16968928] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Thirty-five Bolivian children (5-10 years of age) seropositive for infection with T. cruzi underwent specific chemotherapy with benznidazole. Before treatment, 57.1% had a positive parasitologic diagnosis. Some patients presented an early conversion by polymerase chain reaction of blood samples, while others were still positive four and seven months after the end of the treatment, which indicated an absence of parasite clearance. Strain typing showed that most patients were infected by a mixture of clones I and II of T. cruzi. Serologic conversion in conventional tests and antibodies to shed acute-phase antigen were observed in two and four patients, respectively. For the other patients, the average rate of antibody decay was half the initial rate. The parasitologic and serologic data indicated that chemotherapy acts throughout the course of infection in a long-lasting process in which the decrease of specific antibody production is related to the reduction of the live parasite load.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Flores-Chavez
- Facultad de Ciencias Farmacéuticas y Bioquímicas, Instituto Seladis, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia
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