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Ogoti BM, Riitho V, Wildemann J, Mutono N, Tesch J, Rodon J, Harichandran K, Emanuel J, Möncke-Buchner E, Kiambi S, Oyugi J, Mureithi M, Corman VM, Drosten C, Thumbi SM, Müller MA. Biphasic MERS-CoV Incidence in Nomadic Dromedaries with Putative Transmission to Humans, Kenya, 2022-2023. Emerg Infect Dis 2024; 30:581-585. [PMID: 38407189 PMCID: PMC10902546 DOI: 10.3201/eid3003.231488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) is endemic in dromedaries in Africa, but camel-to-human transmission is limited. Sustained 12-month sampling of dromedaries in a Kenya abattoir hub showed biphasic MERS-CoV incidence; peak detections occurred in October 2022 and February 2023. Dromedary-exposed abattoir workers (7/48) had serologic signs of previous MERS-CoV exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Nyamai Mutono
- University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya (B.M. Ogoti, V. Riitho, N. Mutono, J. Oyugi, M. Mureithi, S.M. Thumbi)
- Queen Mary University of London, London, UK (V. Riitho)
- Charité–Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany (J. Wildemann, J. Tesch, J. Rodon, K. Harichandran, J. Emanuel, E. Möncke-Buchner, V.M. Corman, C. Drosten, M.A. Müller)
- Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, USA (N. Mutono, S.M. Thumbi)
- Food and Agriculture Organization, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania (S. Kiambi)
- Labor Berlin–Charité Vivantes GmbH, Berlin (V.M. Corman)
- German Center for Infection Research, Berlin (V.M. Corman, C. Drosten, M.A. Müller)
- University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland, UK (S.M. Thumbi)
| | - Julia Tesch
- University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya (B.M. Ogoti, V. Riitho, N. Mutono, J. Oyugi, M. Mureithi, S.M. Thumbi)
- Queen Mary University of London, London, UK (V. Riitho)
- Charité–Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany (J. Wildemann, J. Tesch, J. Rodon, K. Harichandran, J. Emanuel, E. Möncke-Buchner, V.M. Corman, C. Drosten, M.A. Müller)
- Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, USA (N. Mutono, S.M. Thumbi)
- Food and Agriculture Organization, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania (S. Kiambi)
- Labor Berlin–Charité Vivantes GmbH, Berlin (V.M. Corman)
- German Center for Infection Research, Berlin (V.M. Corman, C. Drosten, M.A. Müller)
- University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland, UK (S.M. Thumbi)
| | - Jordi Rodon
- University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya (B.M. Ogoti, V. Riitho, N. Mutono, J. Oyugi, M. Mureithi, S.M. Thumbi)
- Queen Mary University of London, London, UK (V. Riitho)
- Charité–Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany (J. Wildemann, J. Tesch, J. Rodon, K. Harichandran, J. Emanuel, E. Möncke-Buchner, V.M. Corman, C. Drosten, M.A. Müller)
- Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, USA (N. Mutono, S.M. Thumbi)
- Food and Agriculture Organization, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania (S. Kiambi)
- Labor Berlin–Charité Vivantes GmbH, Berlin (V.M. Corman)
- German Center for Infection Research, Berlin (V.M. Corman, C. Drosten, M.A. Müller)
- University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland, UK (S.M. Thumbi)
| | - Kaneemozhe Harichandran
- University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya (B.M. Ogoti, V. Riitho, N. Mutono, J. Oyugi, M. Mureithi, S.M. Thumbi)
- Queen Mary University of London, London, UK (V. Riitho)
- Charité–Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany (J. Wildemann, J. Tesch, J. Rodon, K. Harichandran, J. Emanuel, E. Möncke-Buchner, V.M. Corman, C. Drosten, M.A. Müller)
- Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, USA (N. Mutono, S.M. Thumbi)
- Food and Agriculture Organization, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania (S. Kiambi)
- Labor Berlin–Charité Vivantes GmbH, Berlin (V.M. Corman)
- German Center for Infection Research, Berlin (V.M. Corman, C. Drosten, M.A. Müller)
- University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland, UK (S.M. Thumbi)
| | - Jackson Emanuel
- University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya (B.M. Ogoti, V. Riitho, N. Mutono, J. Oyugi, M. Mureithi, S.M. Thumbi)
- Queen Mary University of London, London, UK (V. Riitho)
- Charité–Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany (J. Wildemann, J. Tesch, J. Rodon, K. Harichandran, J. Emanuel, E. Möncke-Buchner, V.M. Corman, C. Drosten, M.A. Müller)
- Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, USA (N. Mutono, S.M. Thumbi)
- Food and Agriculture Organization, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania (S. Kiambi)
- Labor Berlin–Charité Vivantes GmbH, Berlin (V.M. Corman)
- German Center for Infection Research, Berlin (V.M. Corman, C. Drosten, M.A. Müller)
- University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland, UK (S.M. Thumbi)
| | - Elisabeth Möncke-Buchner
- University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya (B.M. Ogoti, V. Riitho, N. Mutono, J. Oyugi, M. Mureithi, S.M. Thumbi)
- Queen Mary University of London, London, UK (V. Riitho)
- Charité–Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany (J. Wildemann, J. Tesch, J. Rodon, K. Harichandran, J. Emanuel, E. Möncke-Buchner, V.M. Corman, C. Drosten, M.A. Müller)
- Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, USA (N. Mutono, S.M. Thumbi)
- Food and Agriculture Organization, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania (S. Kiambi)
- Labor Berlin–Charité Vivantes GmbH, Berlin (V.M. Corman)
- German Center for Infection Research, Berlin (V.M. Corman, C. Drosten, M.A. Müller)
- University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland, UK (S.M. Thumbi)
| | - Stella Kiambi
- University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya (B.M. Ogoti, V. Riitho, N. Mutono, J. Oyugi, M. Mureithi, S.M. Thumbi)
- Queen Mary University of London, London, UK (V. Riitho)
- Charité–Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany (J. Wildemann, J. Tesch, J. Rodon, K. Harichandran, J. Emanuel, E. Möncke-Buchner, V.M. Corman, C. Drosten, M.A. Müller)
- Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, USA (N. Mutono, S.M. Thumbi)
- Food and Agriculture Organization, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania (S. Kiambi)
- Labor Berlin–Charité Vivantes GmbH, Berlin (V.M. Corman)
- German Center for Infection Research, Berlin (V.M. Corman, C. Drosten, M.A. Müller)
- University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland, UK (S.M. Thumbi)
| | - Julius Oyugi
- University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya (B.M. Ogoti, V. Riitho, N. Mutono, J. Oyugi, M. Mureithi, S.M. Thumbi)
- Queen Mary University of London, London, UK (V. Riitho)
- Charité–Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany (J. Wildemann, J. Tesch, J. Rodon, K. Harichandran, J. Emanuel, E. Möncke-Buchner, V.M. Corman, C. Drosten, M.A. Müller)
- Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, USA (N. Mutono, S.M. Thumbi)
- Food and Agriculture Organization, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania (S. Kiambi)
- Labor Berlin–Charité Vivantes GmbH, Berlin (V.M. Corman)
- German Center for Infection Research, Berlin (V.M. Corman, C. Drosten, M.A. Müller)
- University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland, UK (S.M. Thumbi)
| | - Marianne Mureithi
- University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya (B.M. Ogoti, V. Riitho, N. Mutono, J. Oyugi, M. Mureithi, S.M. Thumbi)
- Queen Mary University of London, London, UK (V. Riitho)
- Charité–Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany (J. Wildemann, J. Tesch, J. Rodon, K. Harichandran, J. Emanuel, E. Möncke-Buchner, V.M. Corman, C. Drosten, M.A. Müller)
- Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, USA (N. Mutono, S.M. Thumbi)
- Food and Agriculture Organization, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania (S. Kiambi)
- Labor Berlin–Charité Vivantes GmbH, Berlin (V.M. Corman)
- German Center for Infection Research, Berlin (V.M. Corman, C. Drosten, M.A. Müller)
- University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland, UK (S.M. Thumbi)
| | - Victor M. Corman
- University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya (B.M. Ogoti, V. Riitho, N. Mutono, J. Oyugi, M. Mureithi, S.M. Thumbi)
- Queen Mary University of London, London, UK (V. Riitho)
- Charité–Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany (J. Wildemann, J. Tesch, J. Rodon, K. Harichandran, J. Emanuel, E. Möncke-Buchner, V.M. Corman, C. Drosten, M.A. Müller)
- Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, USA (N. Mutono, S.M. Thumbi)
- Food and Agriculture Organization, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania (S. Kiambi)
- Labor Berlin–Charité Vivantes GmbH, Berlin (V.M. Corman)
- German Center for Infection Research, Berlin (V.M. Corman, C. Drosten, M.A. Müller)
- University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland, UK (S.M. Thumbi)
| | - Christian Drosten
- University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya (B.M. Ogoti, V. Riitho, N. Mutono, J. Oyugi, M. Mureithi, S.M. Thumbi)
- Queen Mary University of London, London, UK (V. Riitho)
- Charité–Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany (J. Wildemann, J. Tesch, J. Rodon, K. Harichandran, J. Emanuel, E. Möncke-Buchner, V.M. Corman, C. Drosten, M.A. Müller)
- Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, USA (N. Mutono, S.M. Thumbi)
- Food and Agriculture Organization, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania (S. Kiambi)
- Labor Berlin–Charité Vivantes GmbH, Berlin (V.M. Corman)
- German Center for Infection Research, Berlin (V.M. Corman, C. Drosten, M.A. Müller)
- University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland, UK (S.M. Thumbi)
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2
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Waringa NMA, Waiboci LW, Bebora L, Kinyanjui PW, Kosgei P, Kiambi S, Osoro E. Human brucellosis in Baringo County, Kenya: Evaluating the diagnostic kits used and identifying infecting Brucella species. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0269831. [PMID: 36719875 PMCID: PMC9888686 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0269831] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2021] [Accepted: 05/30/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Human brucellosis diagnosis has been a challenge in Brucella-endemic areas. In Kenya, diagnosis is usually carried out using Febrile Brucella Antigen agglutination test (FBAT) whose performance is not well documented. This paper reports on the sensitivity and specificity of the FBAT used for brucellosis diagnosis on blood samples/serum collected in three healthcare facilities in Baringo County, Kenya, and on Brucella species present in the study area. The FBAT test results at the hospitals were used to guide patient management. Patients who visited the hospital's laboratory with a clinician's request for brucellosis testing also filled a questionnaire to assess knowledge and attitudes associated with transmission of the disease in the study area. The remaining serum samples were tested again using FBAT and Rose Bengal Plate Test (RBPT) within a month of blood collection at the University Nairobi Laboratory. The two rapid tests were then compared, with respect to brucellosis diagnostic sensitivity and specificity. To identify infecting Brucella species, a proportion 43% (71/166) of the blood clots were analyzed by multiplex polymerase chain reaction (PCR) using specific primers for B. abortus, B. melitensis, B. ovis and B. suis. Out of 166 serum samples tested, 26.5% (44/166) were positive using FBAT and 10.2% (17/166) positive using RBPT. The sensitivity and specificity of FBAT compared to RBPT was 76.47% and 71.19%, respectively while the positive and negative predictive values were 29.55% and 96.72%, respectively. The FBAT showed higher positivity then RBPT. The difference in sensitivity and specificity of FBAT and RBPTs was relatively low. The high FBAT positivity rate would be indication of misdiagnosis; this would lead to incorrect treatment. Brucella abortus was detected from 9.9% (7/71) of the blood clots tested; no other Brucella species were detected. Thus human brucellosis, in Baringo was mainly caused by B. abortus.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Lilly Bebora
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
| | | | - Philemon Kosgei
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Stella Kiambi
- Department of Livestock and Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Eric Osoro
- Ministry of Health, Zoonotic Diseases Unit, Nairobi, Kenya
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Kiambi S, Fèvre EM, Alarcon P, Gitahi N, Masinde J, Kang'ethe E, Aboge G, Rushton J, Onono JO. Assessment of Milk Quality and Food Safety Challenges in the Complex Nairobi Dairy Value Chain. Front Vet Sci 2022; 9:892739. [PMID: 35754542 PMCID: PMC9215719 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2022.892739] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2022] [Accepted: 04/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Food networks present varying food safety concerns because of the complexity of interactions, production, and handling practices. We investigated total bacteria counts (TBCs) and total coliform counts (TCCs) in various nodes of a Nairobi dairy value chain and identified practices that influence food safety. A value chain analysis framework facilitated qualitative data collection through 23 key informant interviews and 20 focus group discussions. Content thematic analysis identified food safety challenges. Cow milk products (N = 290) were collected from farms (N = 63), collection centers (N = 5), shops/kiosks (N = 37), milk bars (N = 17), roadside vendors (N = 14), restaurants (N = 3), milk vending machines (N = 2), mobile traders (N = 2) and a supermarket (N = 1). Mean values of colony-forming units for TBC and TCC were referenced to East African Standards (EAS). Logistic regression analysis assessed differences in milk acceptability based on EAS. The raw milk from farms and collection centers was relatively within acceptable EAS limits in terms of TBC (3.5 × 105 and 1.4 × 106 respectively) but TCC in the milk from farms was 3 times higher than EAS limits (1.5 × 105). Compared to farms, the odds ratio of milk acceptability based on TBC was lower on milk bars (0.02), restaurants (0.02), roadside vendors (0.03), shops/kiosks (0.07), and supermarkets (0.17). For TCC, the odds that milk samples from collection centers, milk bars, restaurants, roadside vendors, and shops/kiosks were acceptable was less than the odds of samples collected from farms (0.18, 0.03, 0.06, 0.02, and 0.12, respectively). Comparison of raw milk across the nodes showed that the odds of milk samples from restaurants, roadside vendors, and shops/kiosks being acceptable were less than the odds of samples collected the farm for TBC (0.03, 0.04, and 0.04, respectively). For TCC, the odds of raw milk from collection centers, restaurants, roadside vendors, milk bars, and shops/kiosks being acceptable were lower than the odds of acceptability for the farm samples (0.18, 0.12, 0.02, 0.04, and 0.05, respectively). Practices with possible influence on milk bacterial quality included muddy cowsheds, unconventional animal feed sources, re-use of spoilt raw milk, milk adulteration, acceptance of low-quality milk for processing, and lack of cold chain. Therefore, milk contamination occurs at various points, and the designing of interventions should focus on every node.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stella Kiambi
- Department of Public Health, Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
- International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya
- Directorate of Veterinary Services, Nairobi, Kenya
- *Correspondence: Stella Kiambi
| | - Eric M. Fèvre
- International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya
- Institute of Infection and Global Health, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Pablo Alarcon
- Institute of Infection, Veterinary and Ecological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Nduhiu Gitahi
- Department of Public Health, Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Johnstone Masinde
- Department of Public Health, Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Erastus Kang'ethe
- Department of Public Health, Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Gabriel Aboge
- Department of Public Health, Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Jonathan Rushton
- Institute of Infection, Veterinary and Ecological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Joshua Orungo Onono
- Department of Public Health, Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
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Caudell MA, Kiambi S, Afakye K, Koka E, Kabali E, Kimani T, Dorado-Garcia A. OUP accepted manuscript. JAC Antimicrob Resist 2022; 4:dlab193. [PMID: 35156026 PMCID: PMC8826779 DOI: 10.1093/jacamr/dlab193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2021] [Accepted: 12/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Objectives Methods Results Conclusions
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark A. Caudell
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Nairobi, Kenya
- Corresponding author. E-mail:
| | - Stella Kiambi
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Kofi Afakye
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Accra, Ghana
| | - Eric Koka
- Department of Sociology and Anthropology, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana
| | - Emmanuel Kabali
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy
| | - Tabitha Kimani
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Nairobi, Kenya
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Sitawa R, Folorunso F, Obonyo M, Apamaku M, Kiambi S, Gikonyo S, Kiptiness J, Njagi O, Githinji J, Ngoci J, VonDobschuetz S, Morzaria S, Ihab E, Gardner E, Wiersma L, Makonnen Y. Risk factors for serological evidence of MERS-CoV in camels, Kenya, 2016-2017. Prev Vet Med 2020; 185:105197. [PMID: 33186881 PMCID: PMC7605751 DOI: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2020.105197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2020] [Revised: 10/27/2020] [Accepted: 10/28/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (MERS-CoV) is an emerging viral disease and dromedary camels are known to be the source of human spill over events. A cross-sectional epidemiological surveillance study was carried out in Kenya in 2017 to, 1) estimate MERS-CoV antibody seropositivity in the camel-dense counties of Turkana, Marsabit, Isiolo, Laikipia and Nakuru to identify, and 2) determine the risk factors associated with seropositivity in camels. Blood samples were collected from a total of 1421 camels selected using a multi-stage sampling method. Data were also collected from camel owners or herders using a pre-tested structured questionnaire. The sera from camel samples were tested for the presence of circulating antibodies to MERS-CoV using the anti-MERS-CoV IgG ELISA test. Univariate and multivariable statistical analysis were used to investigate factors potentially associated with MERS-CoV seropositivity in camels. The overall seropositivity in camel sera was 62.9 %, with the highest seropositivity recorded in Isiolo County (77.7 %), and the lowest seropositivity recorded in Nakuru County (14.0 %). When risk factors for seropositivity were assessed, the "Type of camel production system" {(aOR = 5.40(95 %CI: 1.67-17.49)}, "Age between 1-2 years, 2-3 years and above 3 years" {(aOR = 1.64 (95 %CI: 1.04-2.59}", {(aOR = 3.27 (95 %CI: 3.66-5.61)}" and {(aOR = 6.12 (95 %CI: 4.04-9.30)} respectively and "Sex of camels" {(aOR = 1.75 (95 %CI: 1.27-2.41)} were identified as significant predictors of MERS-CoV seropositivity. Our studies indicate a high level of seropositivity to MERS-CoV in camels in the counties surveyed, and highlights the important risk factors associated with MERS-CoV seropositivity in camels. Given that MERS-CoV is a zoonosis, and Kenya possesses the fourth largest camel population in Africa, these findings are important to inform the development of efficient and risk-based prevention and mitigation strategies against MERS-CoV transmission to humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rinah Sitawa
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Kenya.
| | - Fasina Folorunso
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Tanzania
| | - Mark Obonyo
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Kenya
| | - Michael Apamaku
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Kenya
| | - Stella Kiambi
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Kenya
| | - Stephen Gikonyo
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Kenya
| | - Joshua Kiptiness
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Kenya
| | - Obadiah Njagi
- Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock, Fisheries and Irrigation, Kenya
| | - Jane Githinji
- Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock, Fisheries and Irrigation, Kenya
| | - James Ngoci
- Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock, Fisheries and Irrigation, Kenya
| | | | - Subhash Morzaria
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Rome, Italy
| | - ElMasry Ihab
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Rome, Italy
| | - Emma Gardner
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Rome, Italy
| | - Lidewij Wiersma
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Rome, Italy
| | - Yilma Makonnen
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Rome, Italy
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Afakye K, Kiambi S, Koka E, Kabali E, Dorado-Garcia A, Amoah A, Kimani T, Adjei B, Caudell MA. The Impacts of Animal Health Service Providers on Antimicrobial Use Attitudes and Practices: An Examination of Poultry Layer Farmers in Ghana and Kenya. Antibiotics (Basel) 2020; 9:E554. [PMID: 32872381 PMCID: PMC7557566 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics9090554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2020] [Revised: 08/24/2020] [Accepted: 08/26/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
International organizations and governments have argued that animal health service providers can play a vital role in limiting antimicrobial resistance by promoting the prudent use of antimicrobials. However, there is little research on the impact of these service providers on prudent use at the farm level, especially in low- and middle-income countries where enforcement of prudent-use regulations is limited. Here, we use a mixed-methods approach to assess how animal health-seeking practices on layer farms in Ghana (n = 110) and Kenya (n = 76) impact self-reported antimicrobial usage, engagement in prudent administration and withdrawal practices and perceptions of antimicrobial resistance. In general, our results show that the frequency of health-seeking across a range of service providers (veterinarians, agrovets, and feed distributors) does not significantly correlate with prudent or non-prudent use practices or the levels of antimicrobials used. Instead, we find that patterns of antimicrobial use are linked to how much farmers invest in biosecurity (e.g., footbaths) and the following vaccination protocols. Our results emphasize that more research is required to understand the interactions between animal health service providers and farmers regarding antimicrobial use and antimicrobial resistance. Addressing these gaps will be crucial to inform antimicrobial stewardship training, curriculums and, guidelines whose ultimate purpose is to limit the selection and transmission of antimicrobial resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kofi Afakye
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Accra 1628, Ghana; (K.A.); (A.A.); (B.A.)
| | - Stella Kiambi
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Nairobi 00100, Kenya; (S.K.); (T.K.)
| | - Eric Koka
- Department of Sociology and Anthropology, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast 5007, Ghana;
| | - Emmanuel Kabali
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 00153 Rome, Italy; (E.K.); (A.D.-G.)
| | - Alejandro Dorado-Garcia
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 00153 Rome, Italy; (E.K.); (A.D.-G.)
| | - Ann Amoah
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Accra 1628, Ghana; (K.A.); (A.A.); (B.A.)
| | - Tabitha Kimani
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Nairobi 00100, Kenya; (S.K.); (T.K.)
| | - Benjamin Adjei
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Accra 1628, Ghana; (K.A.); (A.A.); (B.A.)
| | - Mark A Caudell
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Nairobi 00100, Kenya; (S.K.); (T.K.)
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Kiambi S, Onono JO, Kang'ethe E, Aboge GO, Murungi MK, Muinde P, Akoko J, Momanyi K, Rushton J, Fèvre EM, Alarcon P. Investigation of the governance structure of the Nairobi dairy value chain and its influence on food safety. Prev Vet Med 2020; 179:105009. [PMID: 32438204 DOI: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2020.105009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2019] [Revised: 04/06/2020] [Accepted: 04/20/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
The dairy value chain of Nairobi is comprised, in its majority, of small-scale independent enterprises that operate within a complex interlinked system. In this complexity, the coordination and power structures of the system may have major influences on the management of dairy food safety. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the governance structure and challenges faced by stakeholders throughout the Nairobi dairy value chain and assess their potential implications on food safety. Qualitative data were collected through focus group discussions and key informant interviews based on a dairy value chain mapping framework previously developed. Thematic analysis enabled identification of governance themes, key challenges and analysis of their implications on food safety. Themes were organized depending on their association with farmers (informal settlement or peri-urban), dairy cooperatives, dairy traders, processing companies, retailers or government officers. The identified governance themes included: i) weak linkage between government and farmers, ii) inadequate compliance with government regulations by traders and retailers, iii) emphasis on business licenses and permits for revenue rather than for food safety, iv) multiple licensing resulting in high business cost and lack of compliance, v) fragmented regulation, vi) unfair competition and vii) sanctions that do not always result in compliance. The key challenges identified included, among others: i) inadequate farmer support, ii) harassment of traders and retailers and iii) high business costs for traders, retailers, dairy cooperatives and large processors. The implication of governance and challenges of food safety were, among others: i) inadequate extension services, ii) insufficient cold chain, iii) delivery of adulterated and low milk quality to bulking centers, iv) inadequate food safety training and v) lack of policies for management of waste milk. The range of issues highlighted are based on stakeholders' perceptions and reflects the complexity of the relationships between them. Many of the governance themes demonstrate the linkages that are both beneficial or confrontational between the formal and informal sectors, and between industry and regulatory authorities, with possible direct food safety consequences. Findings obtained provide indications to decision-makers of potential governance areas that could help improve efficiency and food safety along the dairy value chain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stella Kiambi
- Department of Public Health, Pharmacology & Toxicology, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya; International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya; Directorate of Veterinary Services, Nairobi, Kenya.
| | - Joshua Orungo Onono
- Department of Public Health, Pharmacology & Toxicology, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Erastus Kang'ethe
- Department of Public Health, Pharmacology & Toxicology, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Gabriel O Aboge
- Department of Public Health, Pharmacology & Toxicology, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
| | | | - Patrick Muinde
- International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - James Akoko
- International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Kelvin Momanyi
- International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Jonathan Rushton
- Institute for Infection, Ecology and Veterinary Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Eric M Fèvre
- International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya; Institute for Infection, Ecology and Veterinary Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Pablo Alarcon
- Veterinary Epidemiology, Economics and Public Health Group, Royal Veterinary College, London, United Kingdom
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8
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Caudell MA, Dorado-Garcia A, Eckford S, Creese C, Byarugaba DK, Afakye K, Chansa-Kabali T, Fasina FO, Kabali E, Kiambi S, Kimani T, Mainda G, Mangesho PE, Chimpangu F, Dube K, Kikimoto BB, Koka E, Mugara T, Rubegwa B, Swiswa S. Towards a bottom-up understanding of antimicrobial use and resistance on the farm: A knowledge, attitudes, and practices survey across livestock systems in five African countries. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0220274. [PMID: 31978098 PMCID: PMC6980545 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0220274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2019] [Accepted: 12/25/2019] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The nutritional and economic potentials of livestock systems are compromised by the emergence and spread of antimicrobial resistance. A major driver of resistance is the misuse and abuse of antimicrobial drugs. The likelihood of misuse may be elevated in low- and middle-income countries where limited professional veterinary services and inadequately controlled access to drugs are assumed to promote non-prudent practices (e.g., self-administration of drugs). The extent of these practices, as well as the knowledge and attitudes motivating them, are largely unknown within most agricultural communities in low- and middle-income countries. The main objective of this study was to document dimensions of knowledge, attitudes and practices related to antimicrobial use and antimicrobial resistance in livestock systems and identify the livelihood factors associated with these dimensions. A mixed-methods ethnographic approach was used to survey households keeping layers in Ghana (N = 110) and Kenya (N = 76), pastoralists keeping cattle, sheep, and goats in Tanzania (N = 195), and broiler farmers in Zambia (N = 198), and Zimbabwe (N = 298). Across countries, we find that it is individuals who live or work at the farm who draw upon their knowledge and experiences to make decisions regarding antimicrobial use and related practices. Input from animal health professionals is rare and antimicrobials are sourced at local, privately owned agrovet drug shops. We also find that knowledge, attitudes, and particularly practices significantly varied across countries, with poultry farmers holding more knowledge, desirable attitudes, and prudent practices compared to pastoralist households. Multivariate models showed that variation in knowledge, attitudes and practices is related to several factors, including gender, disease dynamics on the farm, and source of animal health information. Study results emphasize that interventions to limit antimicrobial resistance should be founded upon a bottom-up understanding of antimicrobial use at the farm-level given limited input from animal health professionals and under-resourced regulatory capacities within most low- and middle-income countries. Establishing this bottom-up understanding across cultures and production systems will inform the development and implementation of the behavioral change interventions to combat antimicrobial resistance globally.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark A. Caudell
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Nairobi, Kenya
| | | | - Suzanne Eckford
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy
| | - Chris Creese
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy
| | | | - Kofi Afakye
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Accra, Ghana
| | | | - Folorunso O. Fasina
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
| | - Emmanuel Kabali
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - Stella Kiambi
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Tabitha Kimani
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Geoffrey Mainda
- Department of Veterinary Services, Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock, Lusaka, Zambia
| | - Peter E. Mangesho
- National Institute for Medical Research, Amani Medical Research Centre, Muheza, Tanzania
| | - Francis Chimpangu
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Lusaka, Zambia
| | - Kululeko Dube
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | | | - Eric Koka
- Department of Sociology and Anthropology, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana
| | - Tendai Mugara
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - Bachana Rubegwa
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
| | - Samuel Swiswa
- Division of Veterinary Services, Department of Livestock and Veterinary Services, Harare, Zimbabwe
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9
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Kimani T, Kiambi S, Eckford S, Njuguna J, Makonnen Y, Rugalema G, Morzaria SP, Lubroth J, Fasina FO. Expanding beyond zoonoses: the benefits of a national One Health coordination mechanism to address antimicrobial resistance and other shared health threats at the human-animal-environment interface in Kenya. REV SCI TECH OIE 2019; 38:155-171. [PMID: 31564733 DOI: 10.20506/rst.38.1.2950] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
In order to manage global and transnational health threats at the human- animal-environment interface, a multisectoral One Health approach is required. Threats of this nature that require a One Health approach include, but are not limited to, emerging, endemic and re-emerging zoonotic diseases, food safety, antimicrobial resistance (AMR), vector-borne and neglected infectious diseases, toxicosis and pesticides. Relevant Kenyan authorities formally institutionalised One Health in 2011 through the establishment of the Zoonotic Disease Unit (ZDU) and its advisory group, the Zoonoses Technical Group. At that time, the One Health agenda focused on zoonotic diseases. As the issue of AMR began to gain traction globally, a One Health approach to its management was advocated in Kenya in 2015. This paper summarises a series of interviews (with respondents and key informants) that describe how AMR institutionalisation evolved in Kenya. It also examines how responses to other health threats at the human-animal- environment interface were coordinated and used to identify gaps and make recommendations to improve One Health coordination at the national level in Kenya. Results showed that the road to the institutionalisation of AMR through the National Action Plan on Prevention and Containment of Antimicrobial Resistance, 2017-2022 and a formally launched One Health coordination mechanism, the National Antimicrobial Stewardship Interagency Committee (NASIC), took ten years. Moreover, supplementary actions are still needed to further strengthen AMR coordination. In addition to the ZDU and NASIC, Kenya has established two other formal multisectoral and multidisciplinary coordination structures, one for aflatoxicosis and the other for health threats associated with pesticide use. The country has four distinct and separate One Health coordination mechanisms: for zoonoses, for AMR, for aflatoxicosis and for the health threats associated with pesticide use. The main gap lies in the lack of overall coordination between these topic-specific structures. An overall coordination mechanism for all One Health issues is therefore needed to improve synergy and complementarity. None of the topic-specific mechanisms plays a critical role in the policy development process, institutionalisation or implementation of activities related to the other topic areas. The authors recommend renaming the ZDU as the One Health Office, and expanding it to include AMR and food safety teams, and their associated technical working groups. Through this restructuring, the One Health Office would become an umbrella organisation dealing with all four issues mentioned above. Based on Kenya's experience, the authors recommend that other countries also consider expanding the scope of multisectoral One Health coordination mechanisms to include other shared health threats.
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10
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Bitek AO, Osoro E, Munyua PM, Nanyingi M, Muthiani Y, Kiambi S, Muturi M, Mwatondo A, Muriithi R, Cleaveland S, Hampson K, Njenga MK, Kitala PM, Thumbi SM. A hundred years of rabies in Kenya and the strategy for eliminating dog-mediated rabies by 2030. AAS Open Res 2019; 1:23. [PMID: 32259023 PMCID: PMC7117960 DOI: 10.12688/aasopenres.12872.2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Rabies causes an estimated 59,000 human deaths annually. In Kenya, rabies was first reported in a dog in 1912, with the first human case reported in 1928. Here we examine retrospective rabies data in Kenya for the period 1912 - 2017 and describe the spatial and temporal patterns of rabies occurrence in the country. Additionally, we detail Kenya's strategy for the elimination of dog-mediated human rabies by 2030. Methods: Data on submitted samples and confirmed cases in humans, domestic animals and wildlife were obtained from Kenya's Directorate of Veterinary Services. These data were associated with the geographical regions where the samples originated, and temporal and spatial trends examined. Results: Between 1912 and the mid 1970's, rabies spread across Kenya gradually, with fewer than 50 cases reported per year and less than half of the 47 counties affected. Following an outbreak in the mid 1970's, rabies spread rapidly to more than 85% of counties, with a 4 fold increase in the percent positivity of samples submitted and number of confirmed rabies cases. Since 1958, 7,584 samples from domestic animals (93%), wildlife (5%), and humans (2%) were tested. Over two-thirds of all rabies cases came from six counties, all in close proximity to veterinary diagnostic laboratories, highlighting a limitation of passive surveillance. Conclusions: Compulsory annual dog vaccinations between 1950's and the early 1970's slowed rabies spread. The rapid spread with peak rabies cases in the 1980's coincided with implementation of structural adjustment programs privatizing the veterinary sector leading to breakdown of rabies control programs. To eliminate human deaths from rabies by 2030, Kenya is implementing a 15-year step-wise strategy based on three pillars: a) mass dog vaccination, b) provision of post-exposure prophylaxis and public awareness and c) improved surveillance for rabies in dogs and humans with prompt responses to rabies outbreaks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Austine O Bitek
- Zoonotic Disease Unit, Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Eric Osoro
- Zoonotic Disease Unit, Ministry of Health, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Peninah M Munyua
- Division of Global Health Protection, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Mark Nanyingi
- Department of Public Health, Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Yvonne Muthiani
- Zoonotic Disease Unit, Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Stella Kiambi
- Zoonotic Disease Unit, Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Mathew Muturi
- Zoonotic Disease Unit, Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock, Nairobi, Kenya
| | | | - Rees Muriithi
- Directorate of Veterinary Services, Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Sarah Cleaveland
- Boyd Orr Centre for Population and Ecosystem Health, Institute for Biodiversity, Animal Health & Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Katie Hampson
- Boyd Orr Centre for Population and Ecosystem Health, Institute for Biodiversity, Animal Health & Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - M. Kariuki Njenga
- Center for Global Health Research, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya
- Paul G. Allen School for Global Animal Health, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, USA
| | - PM Kitala
- Department of Public Health, Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - SM Thumbi
- Center for Global Health Research, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya
- Paul G. Allen School for Global Animal Health, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, USA
- Rabies Free Africa, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, USA
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11
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Kiambi S, Corman VM, Sitawa R, Githinji J, Ngoci J, Ozomata AS, Gardner E, von Dobschuetz S, Morzaria S, Kimutai J, Schroeder S, Njagi O, Simpkin P, Rugalema G, Tadesse Z, Lubroth J, Makonnen Y, Drosten C, Müller MA, Fasina FO. Detection of distinct MERS-Coronavirus strains in dromedary camels from Kenya, 2017. Emerg Microbes Infect 2018; 7:195. [PMID: 30482895 PMCID: PMC6258726 DOI: 10.1038/s41426-018-0193-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2018] [Revised: 09/28/2018] [Accepted: 10/21/2018] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Stella Kiambi
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Rome, Italy
| | - Victor M Corman
- Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Institute of Virology, Berlin, Germany
- German Centre for Infection Research, associated partner Charité, Berlin, Germany
| | - Rina Sitawa
- Directorate of Veterinary Services, Nairobi, Kenya
| | | | - James Ngoci
- Directorate of Veterinary Services, Nairobi, Kenya
| | | | - Emma Gardner
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Rome, Italy
| | | | - Subhash Morzaria
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Rome, Italy
| | - Joshua Kimutai
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Rome, Italy
| | - Simon Schroeder
- Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Institute of Virology, Berlin, Germany
| | | | - Piers Simpkin
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Rome, Italy
| | - Gabriel Rugalema
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Rome, Italy
| | - Zelalem Tadesse
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Rome, Italy
| | - Juan Lubroth
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Rome, Italy
| | - Yilma Makonnen
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Rome, Italy
| | - Christian Drosten
- Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Institute of Virology, Berlin, Germany
- German Centre for Infection Research, associated partner Charité, Berlin, Germany
| | - Marcel A Müller
- Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Institute of Virology, Berlin, Germany.
- German Centre for Infection Research, associated partner Charité, Berlin, Germany.
| | - Folorunso O Fasina
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Rome, Italy
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12
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Kiambi S, Alarcon P, Rushton J, Murungi MK, Muinde P, Akoko J, Aboge G, Gikonyo S, Momanyi K, Kang'ethe EK, Fèvre EM. Mapping Nairobi's dairy food system: An essential analysis for policy, industry and research. Agric Syst 2018; 167:47-60. [PMID: 30739979 PMCID: PMC6358146 DOI: 10.1016/j.agsy.2018.08.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Demand for dairy products in sub-Saharan Africa, is expected to triple by 2050, while limited increase in supply is predicted. This poses significant food security risk to low income households. Understanding how the dairy food system operates is essential to identify mitigation measures to food insecurity impact. This study aims to determine the structure and functionality of Nairobi's dairy system using a value chain mapping approach. Primary data were gathered through focus group discussions and key informant interviews with dairy value chain stakeholders in Nairobi to obtain qualitative information on people and products in the chains while describing their interactions and flows. Qualitative thematic analysis combined with flowcharts created by participants enabled identification of key food system segments and the development of chain profiles (or flow-diagrams) which together form Nairobi's dairy system. Seven chain profiles forming Nairobi's dairy value chain were identified. These were found to be dominated by small-scale individuals who operate largely independently. Our profiles for the urban and peri-urban farming systems were structurally similar in their downstream networks, obtaining inputs from similar sources. Upstream, the urban systems were shorter, supplying mostly to immediate neighbours or based on own consumption, while the peri urban systems supplied to a wider network and showed some affiliations to producers' associations. Two distinct profiles characterize the milk flow from traders belonging either to a Dairy Traders Association (DTA) or those not belonging to this association (non-DTA). DTA traders sell mainly to fixed retailers and non-DTA traders to mobile retailers (hawkers or roadside vendors). Profiles associated with medium and large cooperatives were driven by networks of collection centres, but with medium-sized cooperatives selling half of their production to large processing companies, and large cooperatives only to fixed retailers. Large processing companies' profiles indicated distribution of high volumes and value addition processing. They reported strategic milk collection arrangements with suppliers on long, medium - or short - term contracts and with well-established product distribution channels. We have identified numerous inter-linkages across dairy chain profiles in Nairobi's complex system, demonstrating significant interdependency among the stakeholders. Therefore, enhancing the system's efficiency requires a holistic, system-wide approach and any policy interventions should consider every segment of the value chain. This study provides a methodological approach for organizations and policy makers to understand and address structural and functional vulnerabilities within food systems more broadly. The insights from this study are relevant to other rapidly growing cities in the region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stella Kiambi
- Department of Public Health, pharmacology & Toxicology, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
- International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya
- State Department of Veterinary Services, Kenya
- Corresponding author.
| | - Pablo Alarcon
- International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya
- Veterinary Epidemiology, Economics and Public Health group, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, United Kingdom
| | - Jonathan Rushton
- Veterinary Epidemiology, Economics and Public Health group, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, United Kingdom
- Institute for Infection and Global Health, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | | | - Patrick Muinde
- International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - James Akoko
- International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Gabriel Aboge
- Department of Public Health, pharmacology & Toxicology, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
| | | | - Kelvin Momanyi
- International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Erastus K. Kang'ethe
- Department of Public Health, pharmacology & Toxicology, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Eric M. Fèvre
- International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya
- Institute for Infection and Global Health, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
- Correspondence to: Eric M. Fèvre, Institute for Infection and Global Health, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
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13
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Bitek AO, Osoro E, Munyua PM, Nanyingi M, Muthiani Y, Kiambi S, Muturi M, Mwatondo A, Muriithi R, Cleaveland S, Hampson K, Njenga MK, Kitala PM, Thumbi SM. A hundred years of rabies in Kenya and the strategy for eliminating dog-mediated rabies by 2030. AAS Open Res 2018. [DOI: 10.12688/aasopenres.12872.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Rabies causes an estimated 59,000 human deaths annually. In Kenya, rabies was first reported in a dog in 1912, with the first human case reported in 1928. Here we examine retrospective rabies data in Kenya for the period 1912 – 2017 and describe the spatial and temporal patterns of rabies occurrence in the country. Additionally, we detail Kenya’s strategy for the elimination of dog-mediated human rabies by 2030. Methods: Data on submitted samples and confirmed cases in humans, domestic animals and wildlife were obtained from Kenya’s Directorate of Veterinary Services. These data were associated with the geographical regions where the samples originated, and temporal and spatial trends examined. Results: Between 1912 and the mid 1970’s, rabies spread across Kenya gradually, with fewer than 50 cases reported per year and less than half of the 47 counties affected. Following an outbreak in the mid 1970’s, rabies spread rapidly to more than 85% of counties, with a 4 fold increase in the percent positivity of samples submitted and number of confirmed rabies cases. Since 1958, 7,584 samples from domestic animals (93%), wildlife (5%), and humans (2%) were tested. Over two-thirds of all rabies cases came from six counties, all in close proximity to veterinary diagnostic laboratories, highlighting a limitation of passive surveillance. Conclusions: Compulsory annual dog vaccinations between 1950’s and the early 1970’s slowed rabies spread. The rapid spread with peak rabies cases in the 1980’s coincided with implementation of structural adjustment programs privatizing the veterinary sector leading to breakdown of rabies control programs. To eliminate human deaths from rabies by 2030, Kenya is implementing a 15-year step-wise strategy based on three pillars: a) mass dog vaccination, b) provision of post-exposure prophylaxis and public awareness and c) improved surveillance for rabies in dogs and humans with prompt responses to rabies outbreaks.
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14
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Alarcon P, Fèvre EM, Muinde P, Murungi MK, Kiambi S, Akoko J, Rushton J. Urban Livestock Keeping in the City of Nairobi: Diversity of Production Systems, Supply Chains, and Their Disease Management and Risks. Front Vet Sci 2017; 4:171. [PMID: 29164137 PMCID: PMC5669286 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2017.00171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2017] [Accepted: 09/26/2017] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Urban livestock keeping in developing cities have an important role in food security and livelihoods but can also pose a significant threat to the environment and health of urban dwellers. The aim of this study was to identify the different livestock systems in Nairobi, their supply chains, and their management and food safety risks. Seven focus group discussions with livestock production officers in charge of each major Nairobi sub-county were conducted. Data were collected on the type of systems existing for each livestock species and their supply chains, disease management, food safety risks, and general husbandry and gender factors. Supply chain flow diagrams and thematic analysis of the data was done. Results of the study show a large variability of livestock keeping in Nairobi. The majority were small scale with: <5 dairy cows, 1–6 dairy goats, <10 small ruminants, <20 pigs, 200–500 broilers, 300–500 layers, <10 indigenous chickens, or <20 rabbits. Beef keeping was mainly described as a “by the way” system or done by traders to fatten animals for 3 month. Supply chain analysis indicated that most dairy farmers sold milk directly to consumers due to “lack of trust” of these in traders. Broiler and pig farmers sold mainly to traders but are dependent on few large dominating companies for their replacement or distribution of products. Selling directly to retailers or consumers (including own consumption), with backyard slaughtering, were important chains for small-scale pig, sheep and goat, and indigenous chicken keepers. Important disease risk practices identified were associated with consumption of dead and sick animals, with underground network of brokers operating for ruminant products. Qualified trained health managers were used mainly by dairy farmers, and large commercial poultry and pig farmers, while use of unqualified health managers or no treatment were common in small-scale farming. Control of urban livestock keepers was reported difficult due to their “feeling of being outlaws,” “lack of trust” in government, “inaccessibility” in informal settlements, “lack of government funding,” or “understaffing.” Findings are useful for designing policies to help to control urban livestock production and minimize its associated health and environment risks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pablo Alarcon
- Royal Veterinary College, University of London, London, United Kingdom.,Leverhulme Centre for Integrated Research in Agriculture and Health, London, United Kingdom
| | - Eric M Fèvre
- Institute for Infection and Global Health, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom.,International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Patrick Muinde
- International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Nairobi, Kenya
| | | | - Stella Kiambi
- International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Nairobi, Kenya.,University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - James Akoko
- International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Jonathan Rushton
- Royal Veterinary College, University of London, London, United Kingdom.,Leverhulme Centre for Integrated Research in Agriculture and Health, London, United Kingdom.,Institute for Infection and Global Health, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
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15
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Alarcon P, Fèvre EM, Murungi MK, Muinde P, Akoko J, Dominguez-Salas P, Kiambi S, Ahmed S, Häsler B, Rushton J. Mapping of beef, sheep and goat food systems in Nairobi - A framework for policy making and the identification of structural vulnerabilities and deficiencies. Agric Syst 2017; 152:1-17. [PMID: 28260829 PMCID: PMC5312657 DOI: 10.1016/j.agsy.2016.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Nairobi is a large rapidly-growing city whose demand for beef, mutton and goat products is expected to double by 2030. The study aimed to map the Nairobi beef, sheep and goat systems structure and flows to identify deficiencies and vulnerabilities to shocks. Cross-sectional data were collected through focus group discussions and interviews with people operating in Nairobi ruminant livestock and meat markets and in the large processing companies. Qualitative and quantitative data were obtained about the type of people, animals, products and value adding activities in the chains, and their structural, spatial and temporal interactions. Mapping analysis was done in three different dimensions: people and product profiling (interactions of people and products), geographical (routes of animals and products) and temporal mapping (seasonal fluctuations). The results obtained were used to identify structural deficiencies and vulnerability factors in the system. Results for the beef food system showed that 44-55% of the city's beef supply flows through the 'local terminal markets', but that 54-64% of total supply is controlled by one 'meat market'. Numerous informal chains were identified, with independent livestock and meat traders playing a pivotal role in the functionality of these systems, and where most activities are conducted with inefficient quality control and under scarce and inadequate infrastructure and organisation, generating wastage and potential food safety risks in low quality meat products. Geographical and temporal analysis showed the critical areas influencing the different markets, with larger markets increasing their market share in the low season. Large processing companies, partly integrated, operate with high quality infrastructures, but with up to 60% of their beef supply depending on similar routes as the informal markets. Only these companies were involved in value addition activities, reaching high-end markets, but also dominating the distribution of popular products, such as beef sausages, to middle and low-end market. For the small ruminant food system, 73% of the low season supply flows through a single large informal market, Kiamaiko, located in an urban informal settlement. No grading is done for these animals or the meat produced. Large companies were reported to export up to 90% of their products. Lack of traceability and control of animal production was a common feature in all chains. The mapping presented provides a framework for policy makers and institutions to understand and design improvement plans for the Nairobi ruminant food system. The structural deficiencies and vulnerabilities identified here indicate the areas of intervention needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pablo Alarcon
- Royal Veterinary College, London, United Kingdom
- International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya
- Leverhulme Centre for Integrated Research in Agriculture and Health, London, United Kingdom
- Corresponding author: Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, Hatfield AL9 7TA, United Kingdom.Royal Veterinary CollegeHawkshead LaneHatfieldAL9 7TAUnited Kingdom
| | - Eric M. Fèvre
- International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya
- Institute for Infection and Global Health, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | | | - Patrick Muinde
- International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - James Akoko
- International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Paula Dominguez-Salas
- Royal Veterinary College, London, United Kingdom
- International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya
- Leverhulme Centre for Integrated Research in Agriculture and Health, London, United Kingdom
| | - Stella Kiambi
- International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya
- University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Sohel Ahmed
- University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Barbara Häsler
- Royal Veterinary College, London, United Kingdom
- Leverhulme Centre for Integrated Research in Agriculture and Health, London, United Kingdom
| | - Jonathan Rushton
- Royal Veterinary College, London, United Kingdom
- Leverhulme Centre for Integrated Research in Agriculture and Health, London, United Kingdom
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16
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Mbabu M, Njeru I, File S, Osoro E, Kiambi S, Bitek A, Ithondeka P, Kairu-Wanyoike S, Sharif S, Gogstad E, Gakuya F, Sandhaus K, Munyua P, Montgomery J, Breiman R, Rubin C, Njenga K. Establishing a One Health office in Kenya. Pan Afr Med J 2014; 19:106. [PMID: 25722779 PMCID: PMC4337352 DOI: 10.11604/pamj.2014.19.106.4588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2014] [Accepted: 08/08/2014] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
A One Health (OH) approach that integrates human,animal and environmental approaches to management of zoonotic diseases has gained momentum in the last decadeas part of a strategy to prevent and control emerging infectious diseases. However, there are few examples of howan OH approach can be established in a country. Kenya establishment of an OH office, referred to asthe Zoonotic Disease Unit (ZDU) in 2011. The ZDU bridges theanimal and human health sectors with a senior epidemiologist deployed from each ministry; and agoal of maintaining collaboration at the animal and human health interface towards better prevention and control of zoonoses. The country is adding an ecologist to the ZDU to ensure that environmental risks are adequately addressed in emerging disease control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Murithi Mbabu
- Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries Nairobi, Kenya
| | | | - Sarah File
- One Health Office, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Eric Osoro
- Zoonotic Disease Unit, Government of Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Stella Kiambi
- Zoonotic Disease Unit, Government of Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Austine Bitek
- Zoonotic Disease Unit, Government of Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Peter Ithondeka
- Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries Nairobi, Kenya
| | | | | | - Eric Gogstad
- Global Disease Detection Division, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention-Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya ; Division of Global Health Protection, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | | | | | - Peninah Munyua
- Global Disease Detection Division, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention-Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Joel Montgomery
- Global Disease Detection Division, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention-Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya ; Global Implementation Solutions, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Robert Breiman
- Global Disease Detection Division, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention-Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya ; Center for Global Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Carol Rubin
- One Health Office, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Kariuki Njenga
- Global Disease Detection Division, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention-Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya
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