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Abstract
The intestinal microbiota plays important roles in human health. This last decade, the viral fraction of the intestinal microbiota, composed essentially of phages that infect bacteria, received increasing attention. Numerous novel phage families have been discovered in parallel with the development of viral metagenomics. However, since the discovery of intestinal phages by d'Hérelle in 1917, our understanding of the impact of phages on gut microbiota structure remains scarce. Changes in viral community composition have been observed in several diseases. However, whether these changes reflect a direct involvement of phages in diseases etiology or simply result from modifications in bacterial composition is currently unknown. Here we present an overview of the current knowledge in intestinal phages, their identity, lifestyles, and their possible effects on the gut microbiota. We also gather the main data on phage interactions with the immune system, with a particular emphasis on recent findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Sausset
- Micalis Institute, INRA, AgroParisTech, Université Paris-Saclay, 78350, Jouy-en-Josas, France
- Myriade, 68 boulevard de Port Royal, 75005, Paris, France
| | - M A Petit
- Micalis Institute, INRA, AgroParisTech, Université Paris-Saclay, 78350, Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - V Gaboriau-Routhiau
- Micalis Institute, INRA, AgroParisTech, Université Paris-Saclay, 78350, Jouy-en-Josas, France
- Laboratory of Intestinal Immunity, INSERM UMR 1163, Institut Imagine, Paris, France
- Université Paris Descartes-Sorbonne Paris Cité, 75006, Paris, France
| | - M De Paepe
- Micalis Institute, INRA, AgroParisTech, Université Paris-Saclay, 78350, Jouy-en-Josas, France.
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2
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Abstract
An amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via a link at the top of the paper.
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Affiliation(s)
- R. Sausset
- 0000 0004 4910 6535grid.460789.4Micalis Institute, INRA, AgroParisTech, Université Paris-Saclay, 78350 Jouy-en-Josas, France ,Myriade, 68 boulevard de Port Royal, 75005 Paris, France
| | - M. A. Petit
- 0000 0004 4910 6535grid.460789.4Micalis Institute, INRA, AgroParisTech, Université Paris-Saclay, 78350 Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - V. Gaboriau-Routhiau
- 0000 0004 4910 6535grid.460789.4Micalis Institute, INRA, AgroParisTech, Université Paris-Saclay, 78350 Jouy-en-Josas, France ,grid.462336.6Laboratory of Intestinal Immunity, INSERM UMR 1163, Institut Imagine, Paris, France ,0000 0001 2188 0914grid.10992.33Université Paris Descartes-Sorbonne Paris Cité, 75006 Paris, France
| | - M. De Paepe
- 0000 0004 4910 6535grid.460789.4Micalis Institute, INRA, AgroParisTech, Université Paris-Saclay, 78350 Jouy-en-Josas, France
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Patterson AM, Mulder IE, Travis AJ, Lan A, Cerf-Bensussan N, Gaboriau-Routhiau V, Garden K, Logan E, Delday MI, Coutts AGP, Monnais E, Ferraria VC, Inoue R, Grant G, Aminov RI. Human Gut Symbiont Roseburia hominis Promotes and Regulates Innate Immunity. Front Immunol 2017; 8:1166. [PMID: 29018440 PMCID: PMC5622956 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2017.01166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2017] [Accepted: 09/04/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective Roseburia hominis is a flagellated gut anaerobic bacterium belonging to the Lachnospiraceae family within the Firmicutes phylum. A significant decrease of R. hominis colonization in the gut of ulcerative colitis patients has recently been demonstrated. In this work, we have investigated the mechanisms of R. hominis–host cross talk using both murine and in vitro models. Design The complete genome sequence of R. hominis A2-183 was determined. C3H/HeN germ-free mice were mono-colonized with R. hominis, and the host–microbe interaction was studied using histology, transcriptome analyses and FACS. Further investigations were performed in vitro and using the TLR5KO and DSS-colitis murine models. Results In the bacterium, R. hominis, host gut colonization upregulated genes involved in conjugation/mobilization, metabolism, motility, and chemotaxis. In the host cells, bacterial colonization upregulated genes related to antimicrobial peptides, gut barrier function, toll-like receptors (TLR) signaling, and T cell biology. CD4+CD25+FoxP3+ T cell numbers increased in the lamina propria of both mono-associated and conventional mice treated with R. hominis. Treatment with the R. hominis bacterium provided protection against DSS-induced colitis. The role of flagellin in host–bacterium interaction was also investigated. Conclusion Mono-association of mice with R. hominis bacteria results in specific bidirectional gene expression patterns. A set of genes thought to be important for host colonization are induced in R. hominis, while the host cells respond by strengthening gut barrier function and enhancing Treg population expansion, possibly via TLR5-flagellin signaling. Our data reveal the immunomodulatory properties of R. hominis that could be useful for the control and treatment of gut inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angela M Patterson
- Rowett Institute of Nutrition and Health, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, United Kingdom
| | - Imke E Mulder
- Rowett Institute of Nutrition and Health, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, United Kingdom
| | - Anthony J Travis
- Rowett Institute of Nutrition and Health, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, United Kingdom
| | - Annaig Lan
- Rowett Institute of Nutrition and Health, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, United Kingdom
| | - Nadine Cerf-Bensussan
- INSERM, UMR1163, Lab Intestinal Immunity, Paris, France.,Université Paris Descartes-Sorbonne Paris Cité and Institut Imagine, Paris, France
| | - Valerie Gaboriau-Routhiau
- INSERM, UMR1163, Lab Intestinal Immunity, Paris, France.,Université Paris Descartes-Sorbonne Paris Cité and Institut Imagine, Paris, France.,Micalis Institute, INRA, AgroParisTech, Université Paris-Saclay, Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Karen Garden
- Rowett Institute of Nutrition and Health, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, United Kingdom
| | - Elizabeth Logan
- Rowett Institute of Nutrition and Health, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, United Kingdom
| | - Margaret I Delday
- Rowett Institute of Nutrition and Health, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, United Kingdom
| | - Alistair G P Coutts
- Rowett Institute of Nutrition and Health, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, United Kingdom
| | - Edouard Monnais
- Rowett Institute of Nutrition and Health, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, United Kingdom
| | - Vanessa C Ferraria
- Rowett Institute of Nutrition and Health, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, United Kingdom
| | - Ryo Inoue
- Kyoto Prefectural University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - George Grant
- Rowett Institute of Nutrition and Health, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, United Kingdom.,School of Medicine, Medical Sciences and Nutrition, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, United Kingdom
| | - Rustam I Aminov
- Rowett Institute of Nutrition and Health, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, United Kingdom.,Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University, Kazan, Russia
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Flannigan KL, Ngo VL, Geem D, Harusato A, Hirota SA, Parkos CA, Lukacs NW, Nusrat A, Gaboriau-Routhiau V, Cerf-Bensussan N, Gewirtz AT, Denning TL. IL-17A-mediated neutrophil recruitment limits expansion of segmented filamentous bacteria. Mucosal Immunol 2017; 10:673-684. [PMID: 27624780 PMCID: PMC5350071 DOI: 10.1038/mi.2016.80] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2016] [Accepted: 07/05/2016] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Specific components of the intestinal microbiota are capable of influencing immune responses such that a mutualistic relationship is established. In mice, colonization with segmented filamentous bacteria (SFB) induces T-helper-17 (Th17) cell differentiation in the intestine, yet the effector functions of interleukin (IL)-17A in response to SFB remain incompletely understood. Here we report that colonization of mice with SFB-containing microbiota induced IL-17A- and CXCR2-dependent recruitment of neutrophils to the ileum. This response required adaptive immunity, as Rag-deficient mice colonized with SFB-containing microbiota failed to induce IL-17A, CXCL1 and CXCL2, and displayed defective neutrophil recruitment to the ileum. Interestingly, neutrophil depletion in wild-type mice resulted in significantly augmented Th17 responses and SFB expansion, which correlated with impaired expression of IL-22 and antimicrobial peptides. These data provide novel insight into a dynamic IL-17A-CXCR2-neutrophil axis during acute SFB colonization and demonstrate a central role for neutrophils in limiting SFB expansion.
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Affiliation(s)
- K L Flannigan
- Center for Inflammation, Immunity and Infection, Institute for Biomedical Sciences, Georgia State University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - V L Ngo
- Center for Inflammation, Immunity and Infection, Institute for Biomedical Sciences, Georgia State University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - D Geem
- Center for Inflammation, Immunity and Infection, Institute for Biomedical Sciences, Georgia State University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - A Harusato
- Center for Inflammation, Immunity and Infection, Institute for Biomedical Sciences, Georgia State University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - S A Hirota
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - C A Parkos
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - N W Lukacs
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - A Nusrat
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - V Gaboriau-Routhiau
- INSERM, U1163, Laboratory of Intestinal Immunity, Université Paris Descartes-Sorbonne Paris Cité and Institut Imagine, Paris, France
- Micalis Institute, INRA, AgroParisTech, Université Paris-Saclay, Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - N Cerf-Bensussan
- INSERM, U1163, Laboratory of Intestinal Immunity, Université Paris Descartes-Sorbonne Paris Cité and Institut Imagine, Paris, France
| | - A T Gewirtz
- Center for Inflammation, Immunity and Infection, Institute for Biomedical Sciences, Georgia State University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - T L Denning
- Center for Inflammation, Immunity and Infection, Institute for Biomedical Sciences, Georgia State University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
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Van Praet JT, Donovan E, Vanassche I, Drennan MB, Windels F, Dendooven A, Allais L, Cuvelier CA, van de Loo F, Norris PS, Kruglov AA, Nedospasov SA, Rabot S, Tito R, Raes J, Gaboriau-Routhiau V, Cerf-Bensussan N, Van de Wiele T, Eberl G, Ware CF, Elewaut D. Commensal microbiota influence systemic autoimmune responses. EMBO J 2015; 34:466-74. [PMID: 25599993 PMCID: PMC4331001 DOI: 10.15252/embj.201489966] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2014] [Revised: 11/12/2014] [Accepted: 12/01/2014] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Antinuclear antibodies are a hallmark feature of generalized autoimmune diseases, including systemic lupus erythematosus and systemic sclerosis. However, the processes underlying the loss of tolerance against nuclear self-constituents remain largely unresolved. Using mice deficient in lymphotoxin and Hox11, we report that approximately 25% of mice lacking secondary lymphoid organs spontaneously develop specific antinuclear antibodies. Interestingly, we find this phenotype is not caused by a defect in central tolerance. Rather, cell-specific deletion and in vivo lymphotoxin blockade link these systemic autoimmune responses to the formation of gut-associated lymphoid tissue in the neonatal period of life. We further demonstrate antinuclear antibody production is influenced by the presence of commensal gut flora, in particular increased colonization with segmented filamentous bacteria, and IL-17 receptor signaling. Together, these data indicate that neonatal colonization of gut microbiota influences generalized autoimmunity in adult life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jens T Van Praet
- Laboratory for Molecular Immunology and Inflammation, Department of Rheumatology, Ghent University Hospital, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Erin Donovan
- Laboratory for Molecular Immunology and Inflammation, Department of Rheumatology, Ghent University Hospital, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Inge Vanassche
- Laboratory for Molecular Immunology and Inflammation, Department of Rheumatology, Ghent University Hospital, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Michael B Drennan
- Laboratory for Molecular Immunology and Inflammation, Department of Rheumatology, Ghent University Hospital, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Fien Windels
- Laboratory for Molecular Immunology and Inflammation, Department of Rheumatology, Ghent University Hospital, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Amélie Dendooven
- Department of Pathology, University Medical Center, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Liesbeth Allais
- Department of Pathology, Ghent University Hospital, Ghent, Belgium
| | | | - Fons van de Loo
- Department of Rheumatology, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Paula S Norris
- Infectious and Inflammatory Disease Center, Sanford-Burnham Medical Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Andrey A Kruglov
- German Rheumatism Research Center (DRFZ), A Leibniz Institute, Berlin, Germany Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology and Biological Faculty, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Sergei A Nedospasov
- Engelhardt Institute of Molecular Biology, Russian Academy of Sciences, and Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Sylvie Rabot
- INRA, UMR1319 Micalis, Jouy-en-Josas, France AgroParisTech Micalis, Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Raul Tito
- Bioinformatics and (eco-)systems Biology Laboratory, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Rega Institute VIB Center for the Biology of Disease, KU Leuven, Belgium
| | - Jeroen Raes
- Bioinformatics and (eco-)systems Biology Laboratory, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Rega Institute VIB Center for the Biology of Disease, KU Leuven, Belgium
| | - Valerie Gaboriau-Routhiau
- INRA, UMR1319 Micalis, Jouy-en-Josas, France INSERM UMR1163, Laboratory of Intestinal Immunity, Université Paris Descartes-Sorbonne Paris Cité and Institut Imagine, Paris, France
| | - Nadine Cerf-Bensussan
- INSERM UMR1163, Laboratory of Intestinal Immunity, Université Paris Descartes-Sorbonne Paris Cité and Institut Imagine, Paris, France
| | - Tom Van de Wiele
- Laboratory of Microbial Ecology and Technology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Gérard Eberl
- Lymphoid Tissue Development Group, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | - Carl F Ware
- Infectious and Inflammatory Disease Center, Sanford-Burnham Medical Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Dirk Elewaut
- Laboratory for Molecular Immunology and Inflammation, Department of Rheumatology, Ghent University Hospital, Ghent, Belgium VIB Inflammation Research Center Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
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Gaboriau-Routhiau V, Raibaud P, Dubuquoy C, Moreau MC. Colonization of gnotobiotic mice with human gut microflora at birth protects against Escherichia coli heat-labile enterotoxin-mediated abrogation of oral tolerance. Pediatr Res 2003; 54:739-46. [PMID: 12904595 DOI: 10.1203/01.pdr.0000086902.52137.c9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Previous work has shown that the indigenous gut microflora in mice plays a protective role against Escherichia coli heat-labile enterotoxin (LT)-mediated abrogation of oral tolerance to an unrelated co-ingested protein. To assess potential protection by human gut microflora, we studied the effect of human gut microflora in a murine model. Oral tolerance was studied in adult gnotobiotic mice (i.e. ex-germ-free mice) colonized with the entire human fecal microflora and orally administered once with LT and ovalbumin. Systemic suppression of IgG, IgG1, IgG2a, and IgE antibody responses was assessed by ELISA. Both specific IgG subclasses and IgE hyporesponsiveness was induced in LT + ovalbumin-fed gnotobiotic mice, indicating that the human gut microflora can protect against the LT-mediated abrogation of oral tolerance. However, as confirmed with mouse gut microflora, this protective effect only occurs when the gut microflora is associated from birth on. Colonization of germ-free mice with a single bacterial strain, E. coli, predominant in the human and mouse gut microflora in the neonatal period, showed that this strain alone did not induce protection. These results supported the hypothesis that the natural establishment of the gut microflora in neonates crucially influenced resistance to LT-mediated abrogation of oral tolerance by reinforcing suppression of both T helper type 1- and T helper type 2-controlled responses, and suggested that sequential bacterial colonization of the gut rather than a single bacterial species may be involved in this phenomenon.
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Gaboriau-Routhiau V, Moreau MC. Oral tolerance to ovalbumin in mice: induction and long-term persistence unaffected by Staphylococcus aureus enterotoxin B and Clostridium perfringens type A enterotoxin. Pediatr Res 1997; 42:503-8. [PMID: 9380444 DOI: 10.1203/00006450-199710000-00014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Oral administration of dietary antigen (Ag) results in the systemic Ag-specific immunologic unresponsiveness termed oral tolerance. Its induction is of importance in the young where numerous symptoms are associated with IgE-mediated food-hypersensitivity reactions. Two related enterotoxins, cholera toxin and Escherichia coli heat-labile enterotoxin, have been shown to abrogate oral tolerance (i.e. IgG and IgE antibody (Ab) unresponsiveness) to an unrelated and simultaneously fed Ag. However, a critical role has been suggested for the gut flora in recovery of a hyporesponsive state. The purpose of the present study was to investigate whether the Staphylococcus aureus enterotoxin B (SEB) and Clostridium perfringens type A enterotoxin (CPE), involved in many diarrheas, could affect the induction and long-term persistence of oral tolerance to ovalbumin (OVA). Using conventional and germ-free mice fed once or twice with enterotoxin plus OVA, we investigated the possible role of the indigenous gut flora. In addition, we tested the influence of CPE synthesized in vivo in the digestive tract of gnotobiotic mice on the induction of OVA-specific oral tolerance. Mice were immunized intraperitoneally with OVA twice, and IgG and IgE Ab levels were measured by ELISA. Neither SEB nor CPE, orally given or synthesized in vivo (CPE), prevented the induction of oral tolerance to OVA. Moreover, the IgG Ab unresponsiveness persisted over 2 mo in the conventional mice fed with toxin plus OVA as also observed in the OVA controls. The results indicate that, independent of the gut flora's influence, SEB and CPE did not affect the induction nad long-term persistence of oral tolerance to co-ingested Ag.
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Affiliation(s)
- V Gaboriau-Routhiau
- Unité d'Ecologie et de Physiologie du Système Digestif, Laboratoire Fonctions des Bactéries Intestinales, INRA, Jouy-en-Josas, France
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Gaboriau-Routhiau V, Moreau MC. Gut flora allows recovery of oral tolerance to ovalbumin in mice after transient breakdown mediated by cholera toxin or Escherichia coli heat-labile enterotoxin. Pediatr Res 1996; 39:625-9. [PMID: 8848336 DOI: 10.1203/00006450-199604000-00011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Oral tolerance, the antigen-specific immunologic unresponsiveness after antigen (Ag) feeding, is of physiologic importance in preventing antibody (Ab) responses to dietary proteins. This is important in the young, especially at weaning when numerous dietary Ag are encountered for the first time. Two related enterotoxins responsible for much diarrhea in the infant, cholera toxin (CT) and Escherichia coli heat-labile enterotoxin (LT), have been shown to abrogate oral tolerance to an unrelated Ag fed simultaneously. The main objective of this study was to determine whether the gut flora can play a role in the CT- or LT-mediated abrogation of oral tolerance to the dietary protein ovalbumin (OVA), on a short-term and long-term basis. Conventional and germ-free mice were fed once or twice with toxin plus OVA. After two intraperitoneal immunizations with OVA, anti-OVA IgG and IgE Ab levels were measured. Because IgG and IgE Ab responses were detected, both CT and LT abrogated oral tolerance to OVA in conventional and germ-free mice. As time progressed (observations over 3 mo), whereas the specific IgG Ab response in the germ-free mice remained similar to that of the bicarbonate-fed controls, a hyporesponsive state was observed in conventional mice. The results showed that, although the gut flora did not prevent the CT- and LT-mediated abrogation of oral tolerance, it did shorten the effect and allow oral tolerance to be recovered.
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Affiliation(s)
- V Gaboriau-Routhiau
- Unité d'Ecologie et de Physiologie du Système Digestif, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, Jouy-en-Josas, France
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Moreau MC, Gaboriau-Routhiau V. The absence of gut flora, the doses of antigen ingested and aging affect the long-term peripheral tolerance induced by ovalbumin feeding in mice. Res Immunol 1996; 147:49-59. [PMID: 8739328 DOI: 10.1016/0923-2494(96)81548-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Several factors have been shown to affect the induction of peripheral tolerance induced by the oral route, also called oral tolerance. In the present study, we explored factors that shorten the duration of the IgG and IgE antibody unresponsiveness induced after ingestion of ovalbumin (OVA). Accordingly, we explored the effects of aging, the absence of gut flora, and ingestion of either one dose of 20 mg OVA or 5 doses of 1 mg OVA in young adult conventional (CV) mice and germ-free (GF) mice, and older CV mice. In young CV mice fed 20 mg OVA, IgG and IgE antibody unresponsiveness were still observed 2 to 3 months after feeding. In CV mice, neither aging nor 5 low doses of OVA prevented the induction of IgG and IgE antibody unresponsiveness but they reduced its duration. In young GF mice given 20 mg OVA, IgG antibody unresponsiveness only lasted between 7 and 21 days after feeding, but IgE antibody unresponsiveness lasted much longer. We believe these findings should be taken into account in the treatment of autoimmune and allergic diseases, for cases requiring conditions of antigen ingestion suitable for lasting suppression of peripheral antibody responses. The animal models used here might be of interest for better understanding of the mechanisms involved in the long-term persistence of oral tolerance.
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Affiliation(s)
- M C Moreau
- Unité d'Ecologie et de Physiologie du Systéme Digestif, INRA, Jouy-en-Josas, France
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