Worldwide forest surveys reveal forty-three new species in Phytophthora major Clade 2 with fundamental implications for the evolution and biogeography of the genus and global plant biosecurity

During 25 surveys of global Phytophthora diversity, conducted between 1998 and 2020, 43 new species were detected in natural ecosystems and, occasionally, in nurseries and outplantings in Europe, Southeast and East Asia and the Americas. Based on a multigene phylogeny of nine nuclear and four mitochondrial gene regions they were assigned to five of the six known subclades, 2a-c, e and f, of Phytophthora major Clade 2 and the new subclade 2g. The evolutionary history of the Clade appears to have involved the pre-Gondwanan divergence of three extant subclades, 2c, 2e and 2f, all having disjunct natural distributions on separate continents and comprising species with a soilborne and aquatic lifestyle and, in addition, a few partially aerial species in Clade 2c; and the post-Gondwanan evolution of subclades 2a and 2g in Southeast/East Asia and 2b in South America, respectively, from their common ancestor. Species in Clade 2g are soilborne whereas Clade 2b comprises both soil-inhabiting and aerial species. Clade 2a has evolved further towards an aerial lifestyle comprising only species which are predominantly or partially airborne. Based on high nuclear heterozygosity levels ca. 38 % of the taxa in Clades 2a and 2b could be some form of hybrid, and the hybridity may be favoured by an A1/A2 breeding system and an aerial life style. Circumstantial evidence suggests the now 93 described species and informally designated taxa in Clade 2 result from both allopatric non-adaptive and sympatric adaptive radiations. They represent most morphological and physiological characters, breeding systems, lifestyles and forms of host specialism found across the Phytophthora clades as a whole, demonstrating the strong biological cohesiveness of the genus. The finding of 43 previously unknown species from a single Phytophthora clade highlight a critical lack of information on the scale of the unknown pathogen threats to forests and natural ecosystems, underlining the risk of basing plant biosecurity protocols mainly on lists of named organisms. More surveys in natural ecosystems of yet unsurveyed regions in Africa, Asia, Central and South America are needed to unveil the full diversity of the clade and the factors driving diversity, speciation and adaptation in Phytophthora. Taxonomic novelties: New species: Phytophthora amamensis T. Jung, K. Kageyama, H. Masuya & S. Uematsu, Phytophthora angustata T. Jung, L. Garcia, B. Mendieta-Araica, & Y. Balci, Phytophthora balkanensis I. Milenković, Ž. Tomić, T. Jung & M. Horta Jung, Phytophthora borneensis T. Jung, A. Durán, M. Tarigan & M. Horta Jung, Phytophthora calidophila T. Jung, Y. Balci, L. Garcia & B. Mendieta-Araica, Phytophthora catenulata T. Jung, T.-T. Chang, N.M. Chi & M. Horta Jung, Phytophthora celeris T. Jung, L. Oliveira, M. Tarigan & I. Milenković, Phytophthora curvata T. Jung, A. Hieno, H. Masuya & M. Horta Jung, Phytophthora distorta T. Jung, A. Durán, E. Sanfuentes von Stowasser & M. Horta Jung, Phytophthora excentrica T. Jung, S. Uematsu, K. Kageyama & C.M. Brasier, Phytophthora falcata T. Jung, K. Kageyama, S. Uematsu & M. Horta Jung, Phytophthora fansipanensis T. Jung, N.M. Chi, T. Corcobado & C.M. Brasier, Phytophthora frigidophila T. Jung, Y. Balci, K. Broders & I. Milenković, Phytophthora furcata T. Jung, N.M. Chi, I. Milenković & M. Horta Jung, Phytophthora inclinata N.M. Chi, T. Jung, M. Horta Jung & I. Milenković, Phytophthora indonesiensis T. Jung, M. Tarigan, L. Oliveira & I. Milenković, Phytophthora japonensis T. Jung, A. Hieno, H. Masuya & J.F. Webber, Phytophthora limosa T. Corcobado, T. Majek, M. Ferreira & T. Jung, Phytophthora macroglobulosa H.-C. Zeng, H.-H. Ho, F.-C. Zheng & T. Jung, Phytophthora montana T. Jung, Y. Balci, K. Broders & M. Horta Jung, Phytophthora multipapillata T. Jung, M. Tarigan, I. Milenković & M. Horta Jung, Phytophthora multiplex T. Jung, Y. Balci, K. Broders & M. Horta Jung, Phytophthora nimia T. Jung, H. Masuya, A. Hieno & C.M. Brasier, Phytophthora oblonga T. Jung, S. Uematsu, K. Kageyama & C.M. Brasier, Phytophthora obovoidea T. Jung, Y. Balci, L. Garcia & B. Mendieta-Araica, Phytophthora obturata T. Jung, N.M. Chi, I. Milenković & M. Horta Jung, Phytophthora penetrans T. Jung, Y. Balci, K. Broders & I. Milenković, Phytophthora platani T. Jung, A. Pérez-Sierra, S.O. Cacciola & M. Horta Jung, Phytophthora proliferata T. Jung, N.M. Chi, I. Milenković & M. Horta Jung, Phytophthora pseudocapensis T. Jung, T.-T. Chang, I. Milenković & M. Horta Jung, Phytophthora pseudocitrophthora T. Jung, S.O. Cacciola, J. Bakonyi & M. Horta Jung, Phytophthora pseudofrigida T. Jung, A. Durán, M. Tarigan & M. Horta Jung, Phytophthora pseudoccultans T. Jung, T.-T. Chang, I. Milenković & M. Horta Jung, Phytophthora pyriformis T. Jung, Y. Balci, K.D. Boders & M. Horta Jung, Phytophthora sumatera T. Jung, M. Tarigan, M. Junaid & A. Durán, Phytophthora transposita T. Jung, K. Kageyama, C.M. Brasier & H. Masuya, Phytophthora vacuola T. Jung, H. Masuya, K. Kageyama & J.F. Webber, Phytophthora valdiviana T. Jung, E. Sanfuentes von Stowasser, A. Durán & M. Horta Jung, Phytophthora variepedicellata T. Jung, Y. Balci, K. Broders & I. Milenković, Phytophthora vietnamensis T. Jung, N.M. Chi, I. Milenković & M. Horta Jung, Phytophthora ×australasiatica T. Jung, N.M. Chi, M. Tarigan & M. Horta Jung, Phytophthora ×lusitanica T. Jung, M. Horta Jung, C. Maia & I. Milenković, Phytophthora ×taiwanensis T. Jung, T.-T. Chang, H.-S. Fu & M. Horta Jung. Citation: Jung T, Milenković I, Balci Y, Janoušek J, Kudláček T, Nagy ZÁ, Baharuddin B, Bakonyi J, Broders KD, Cacciola SO, Chang T-T, Chi NM, Corcobado T, Cravador A, Đorđević B, Durán A, Ferreira M, Fu C-H, Garcia L, Hieno A, Ho H-H, Hong C, Junaid M, Kageyama K, Kuswinanti T, Maia C, Májek T, Masuya H, Magnano di San Lio G, Mendieta-Araica B, Nasri N, Oliveira LSS, Pane A, Pérez-Sierra A, Rosmana A, Sanfuentes von Stowasser E, Scanu B, Singh R, Stanivuković Z, Tarigan M, Thu PQ, Tomić Z, Tomšovský M, Uematsu S, Webber JF, Zeng H-C, Zheng F-C, Brasier CM, Horta Jung M (2024). Worldwide forest surveys reveal forty-three new species in Phytophthora major Clade 2 with fundamental implications for the evolution and biogeography of the genus and global plant biosecurity. Studies in Mycology 107: 251-388. doi: 10.3114/sim.2024.107.04.

Genera of phytopathogenic fungi: GOPHY 4

This paper is the fourth contribution in the Genera of Phytopathogenic Fungi (GOPHY) series. The series provides morphological descriptions and information about the pathology, distribution, hosts and disease symptoms, as well as DNA barcodes for the taxa covered. Moreover, 12 whole-genome sequences for the type or new species in the treated genera are provided. The fourth paper in the GOPHY series covers 19 genera of phytopathogenic fungi and their relatives, including Ascochyta, Cadophora, Celoporthe, Cercospora, Coleophoma, Cytospora, Dendrostoma, Didymella, Endothia, Heterophaeomoniella, Leptosphaerulina, Melampsora, Nigrospora, Pezicula, Phaeomoniella, Pseudocercospora, Pteridopassalora, Zymoseptoria, and one genus of oomycetes, Phytophthora. This study includes two new genera, 30 new species, five new combinations, and 43 typifications of older names.

Taxonomic novelties: New genera:Heterophaeomoniella L. Mostert, C.F.J. Spies, Halleen & Gramaje, Pteridopassalora C. Nakash. & Crous; New species:Ascochyta flava Qian Chen & L. Cai, Cadophora domestica L. Mostert, R. van der Merwe, Halleen & Gramaje, Cadophora rotunda L. Mostert, R. van der Merwe, Halleen & Gramaje, Cadophora vinacea J.R. Úrbez-Torres, D.T. O’Gorman & Gramaje, Cadophora vivarii L. Mostert, Havenga, Halleen & Gramaje, Celoporthe foliorum H. Suzuki, Marinc. & M.J. Wingf., Cercospora alyssopsidis M. Bakhshi, Zare & Crous, Dendrostoma elaeocarpi C.M. Tian & Q. Yang, Didymella chlamydospora Qian Chen & L. Cai, Didymella gei Qian Chen & L. Cai, Didymella ligulariae Qian Chen & L. Cai, Didymella qilianensis Qian Chen & L. Cai, Didymella uniseptata Qian Chen & L. Cai, Endothia cerciana W. Wang. & S.F. Chen, Leptosphaerulina miscanthi Qian Chen & L. Cai, Nigrospora covidalis M. Raza, Qian Chen & L. Cai, Nigrospora globospora M. Raza, Qian Chen & L. Cai, Nigrospora philosophiae-doctoris M. Raza, Qian Chen & L. Cai, Phytophthora transitoria I. Milenković, T. Májek & T. Jung, Phytophthora panamensis T. Jung, Y. Balci, K. Broders & I. Milenković, Phytophthora variabilis T. Jung, M. Horta Jung & I. Milenković, Pseudocercospora delonicicola C. Nakash., L. Suhaizan & I. Nurul Faziha, Pseudocercospora farfugii C. Nakash., I. Araki, & Ai Ito, Pseudocercospora hardenbergiae Crous & C. Nakash., Pseudocercospora kenyirana C. Nakash., L. Suhaizan & I. Nurul Faziha, Pseudocercospora perrottetiae Crous, C. Nakash. & C.Y. Chen, Pseudocercospora platyceriicola C. Nakash., Y. Hatt, L. Suhaizan & I. Nurul Faziha, Pseudocercospora stemonicola C. Nakash., Y. Hatt., L. Suhaizan & I. Nurul Faziha, Pseudocercospora terengganuensis C. Nakash., Y. Hatt., L. Suhaizan & I. Nurul Faziha, Pseudocercospora xenopunicae Crous & C. Nakash.; New combinations:Heterophaeomoniella pinifoliorum (Hyang B. Lee et al.) L. Mostert, C.F.J. Spies, Halleen & Gramaje, Pseudocercospora pruni-grayanae (Sawada) C. Nakash. & Motohashi., Pseudocercospora togashiana (K. Ito & Tak. Kobay.) C. Nakash. & Tak. Kobay., Pteridopassalora nephrolepidicola (Crous & R.G. Shivas) C. Nakash. & Crous, Pteridopassalora lygodii (Goh & W.H. Hsieh) C. Nakash. & Crous; Typification: Epitypification:Botrytis infestans Mont., Cercospora abeliae Katsuki, Cercospora ceratoniae Pat. & Trab., Cercospora cladrastidis Jacz., Cercospora cryptomeriicola Sawada, Cercospora dalbergiae S.H. Sun, Cercospora ebulicola W. Yamam., Cercospora formosana W. Yamam., Cercospora fukuii W. Yamam., Cercospora glochidionis Sawada, Cercospora ixorana J.M. Yen & Lim, Cercospora liquidambaricola J.M. Yen, Cercospora pancratii Ellis & Everh., Cercospora pini-densiflorae Hori & Nambu, Cercospora profusa Syd. & P. Syd., Cercospora pyracanthae Katsuki, Cercospora horiana Togashi & Katsuki, Cercospora tabernaemontanae Syd. & P. Syd., Cercospora trinidadensis F. Stevens & Solheim, Melampsora laricis-urbanianae Tak. Matsumoto, Melampsora salicis-cupularis Wang, Phaeoisariopsis pruni-grayanae Sawada, Pseudocercospora angiopteridis Goh & W.H. Hsieh, Pseudocercospora basitruncata Crous, Pseudocercospora boehmeriigena U. Braun, Pseudocercospora coprosmae U. Braun & C.F. Hill, Pseudocercospora cratevicola C. Nakash. & U. Braun, Pseudocercospora cymbidiicola U. Braun & C.F. Hill, Pseudocercospora dodonaeae Boesew., Pseudocercospora euphorbiacearum U. Braun, Pseudocercospora lygodii Goh & W.H. Hsieh, Pseudocercospora metrosideri U. Braun, Pseudocercospora paraexosporioides C. Nakash. & U. Braun, Pseudocercospora symploci Katsuki & Tak. Kobay. ex U. Braun & Crous, Septogloeum punctatum Wakef.; Neotypification:Cercospora aleuritis I. Miyake; Lectotypification: Cercospora dalbergiae S.H. Sun, Cercospora formosana W. Yamam., Cercospora fukuii W. Yamam., Cercospora glochidionis Sawada, Cercospora profusa Syd. & P. Syd., Melampsora laricis-urbanianae Tak. Matsumoto, Phaeoisariopsis pruni-grayanae Sawada, Pseudocercospora symploci Katsuki & Tak. Kobay. ex U. Braun & Crous.

Citation: Chen Q, Bakhshi M, Balci Y, Broders KD, Cheewangkoon R, Chen SF, Fan XL, Gramaje D, Halleen F, Horta Jung M, Jiang N, Jung T, Májek T, Marincowitz S, Milenković T, Mostert L, Nakashima C, Nurul Faziha I, Pan M, Raza M, Scanu B, Spies CFJ, Suhaizan L, Suzuki H, Tian CM, Tomšovský M, Úrbez-Torres JR, Wang W, Wingfield BD, Wingfield MJ, Yang Q, Yang X, Zare R, Zhao P, Groenewald JZ, Cai L, Crous PW (2022). Genera of phytopathogenic fungi: GOPHY 4. Studies in Mycology101: 417–564. doi: 10.3114/sim.2022.101.06.

Gender differences in completed suicidal hangings from 2013 to 2018 in Muğla, Turkey

BACKGROUND

Hanging is the most preferred among suicide methods. Although methods vary based on age groups and social and cultural conditions, many studies have reported it as the most common suicide method in Turkey.

OBJECTIVE

Assess autopsy findings of suicidal hangings according to gender differences.

DESIGN

Retrospective, cross-sectional.

SETTING

Local morgue.

SUBJECTS AND METHODS

The autopsy reports of hanging autopsies between 2013-2018. Data was retrospectively collected from autopsy reports. Sociodemographic features, reasons, suicide notes, the news media, and macroscopic autopsy findings were evaluated. Findings were statistically compared by gender.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE

Gender differences in autopsy findings.

SAMPLE SIZE AND CHARACTERISTICS

175 autopsy reports of suicide by hanging.

RESULTS

Among 2534 autopsies, 175 (6.9%) cases involved hanging. Most (76%, n=133) were males; the median (interquartile range) age was 42.0 (29.5), the male/female ratio was 3:1. Suicide notes were found in 42 cases; 81 (24%) were from men. The most common reason for suicide was a mental illness (n=51, 29.2%), followed by family problems (n=26, 14.9%), but the cause was unknown in 42 cases (24.0%). More than half of the events were covered in the news media (58.9%). Rope was most commonly used with women preferring a softer material. Men were more frequently single than women. Men were more frequently single and not actively working than women (P=.026 and P≤.001, respectively). The incidence of atypical hanging was higher for males than females (P<.05).

CONCLUSION

The findings showed that there were some statistically significant differences in socioeconomic and mental health factors between men and women in hanging suicide. This study may serve as the basis for more comprehensive studies to investigate the causes of suicide.

LIMITATIONS

Single-center, retrospective.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

None.

Factors Associated with Leguminous Green Manure Incorporation and Fusarium Wilt Suppression in Watermelon

Fall-planted Vicia villosa or Trifolium incarnatum cover crops, incorporated in spring as a green manure, can suppress Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. niveum) of watermelon. During cover crop growth, termination, and incorporation into the soil, many factors such as arbuscular mycorrhizae colonization, leachate, and soil respiration differ. How these cover-crop-associated factors affect Fusarium wilt suppression is not fully understood. Experiments were conducted to evaluate how leachate, soil respiration, and other green-manure-associated changes affected Fusarium wilt suppression, and to evaluate the efficacy of the biocontrol product Actinovate AG (Streptomyces lydicus WYEC 108). General and specific suppression was examined in the field by assessing the effects of cover crop green manures (V. villosa, T. incarnatum, Secale cereale, and Brassica juncea) on soil respiration, presence of F. oxysporum spp., and arbuscular mycorrhizal colonization of watermelon. Cover crop treatments V. villosa, T. incarnatum, and S. cereale and no cover crop were evaluated both alone and in combination with Actinovate AG in the greenhouse. Additionally, in vitro experiments were conducted to measure the effects of cover crop leachate on the mycelial growth rates of F. oxysporum f. sp. niveum race 1 and Trichoderma harzianum. Soil microbial respiration was significantly elevated in V. villosa and Trifolium incarnatum treatments both preceding and following green manure incorporation, and was significantly negatively correlated with Fusarium wilt, suggesting that microbial activity was higher under the legumes, indicative of general suppression. Parallel to this, in vitro growth rates of F. oxysporum f. sp. niveum and Trichoderma harzianum on V. villosa leachate amended media were 66 and 213% greater, respectively, than on nonamended plates. The F. oxysporum spp. population (based on CFU and not differentiated into formae specialis or races) significantly increased in V. villosa-amended field plots. Additionally, the percentage of watermelon roots colonized by arbuscular mycorrhizae following V. villosa and Trifolium incarnatum green manures was significantly higher than in watermelon following bare ground (58 and 44% higher, respectively). In greenhouse trials where cover crops were amended to soil, Actinovate AG did not consistently reduce Fusarium wilt. Both general and specific disease suppression play a role in reducing Fusarium wilt on watermelon.

Liver laceration related to cardiopulmonary resuscitation

Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is recognized as a medical procedure performed to maintain vital functions of a person whose cardiac and respiratory functions have stopped. Chest compression is the most essential component of CPR and it is performed on the lower half of the sternum. During CPR, many complications may occur because of chest compressions, especially chest injuries including sternum and rib fractures. Rarely tracheal injury, rupture of the stomach, or liver or spleen injury may also occur as complications. In this study, we present two cases of liver injury caused by resuscitation. With this article, we want to emphasize the importance of making correct chest compressions.

A unique species in Phytophthora clade 10, Phytophthora intercalaris sp. nov., recovered from stream and irrigation water in the eastern USA

A novel species of the genus Phytophthora was recovered during surveys of stream and nursery irrigation water in Maryland, Massachusetts, North Carolina, Virginia and West Virginia in the USA. The novel species is heterothallic, and all examined isolates were A1 mating type. It produced rare ornamented oogonia and amphigynous antheridia when paired with A2 mating type testers of Phytophthora cinnamomi and Phytophthora cryptogea. Sporangia of this novel species were non-papillate and non-caducous. Thin-walled intercalary chlamydospores were abundant in hemp seed agar and carrot agar, while they were produced only rarely in aged cultures grown in clarified V8 juice agar. Phylogenetic analyses based on sequences of the internal transcribed spacer region and the β-tubulin and mitochondrial cytochrome-c oxidase 1 (cox1) genes indicated that the novel species is phylogenetically close to Phytophthora gallica in Phytophthora clade 10. The novel species has morphological and molecular features that are distinct from those of other species in Phytophthora clade 10. It is formally described here as Phytophthora intercalaris sp. nov. Description of this unique clade-10 species is important for understanding the phylogeny and evolution of Phytophthora clade 10.

Characteristics of injuries caused by paragliding accidents: A cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

This study was undertaken to analyze the characteristics and risk factors relating to fatalities and injuries caused by paragliding.

METHODS

The judicial examination reports and hospital documents of 82 patients traumatized in 64 accidents during 242 355 paragliding jumps between August 2004 and September 2011 were analyzed.

RESULTS

In these accidents, 18 of the 82 patients lost their lives. In the patients with a confirmed cause of accident, most of them were involved with multiple fractures and internal organ injuries (n=8, 44.4%).

CONCLUSION

We investigated the incidence of paragliding injuries, the types of the injuries, and the severity of affected anatomical regions. The findings are significant for the prevention of paragliding injuries and future research.

Analysis of Suicide Notes: An experience in Eskişehir City

INTRODUCTION

It is estimated that a million people around the world die by suicide each year. It has been reported that a note was left in 5%-43% of the suicides. In this study, it we aimed to evaluate and discuss suicide notes in our city which is situated in Western Anatolia and where several universities are located.

METHOD

All forensic deaths in Eskişehir in 10-year period between 2001 and 2011 were evaluated. Forensic investigation files were assessed. After investigation, Out of 399 cases, 168 (42.1%) cases, who were determined to have left a suicide letter, telephone message (sms) or message via social network sites, were included in the scope of the study.

RESULTS

It was found that 95 (56.5%) of all cases had left a suicide letter, 69 (41.1%) cases had sent a telephone message to a person or more than one person, 4 (2.4%) cases had written notes about suicide and death in social networking sites.

CONCLUSION

A suicide note is an important finding in suicide cases to clarify the case. However, the note should be confirmed by investigation to be accepted as evidence.

Phytophthora cinnamomi as a Contributor to White Oak Decline in Mid-Atlantic United States Forests

To evaluate Phytophthora cinnamomi as a cause of white oak (Quercus alba) decline in mid-Atlantic forests, sampling was conducted at 102 sites from 2011 to 2012. Soil and roots from healthy and declining white oak trees were collected. Phytophthora spp. were isolated using baiting and CFU of P. cinnamomi quantified using wet-sieving. Fine roots were scanned and measured. Phytophthora spp. were isolated from 43% of the sites. P. cinnamomi was common; six other species were isolated infrequently. Little difference in lesion size existed on white oak seedlings inoculated with 32 isolates of P. cinnamomi; only 13 isolates caused significant mortality. Soils from white oak versus nine other hosts did not have significantly different CFU. P. cinnamomi was restricted to United States Department of Agriculture hardiness zones six and seven and never found in zone five. The presence of Phytophthora spp. in soil can be associated with white oak fine root health. When Phytophthora spp. were present, white oak trees in zones five and six had less fine roots. In mid-Atlantic oak forests, however, environmental conditions appear to play a key role in determining the impact of P. cinnamomi on the root system. P. cinnamomi alone does not appear to be a causal factor of white oak decline.

Movement of Phytophthora spp. in Maryland's Nursery Trade

Phytophthora spp. cause major losses in the nursery industry worldwide. However, a clear demonstration of the route of movement has not been previously shown. A survey of 10 Maryland nurseries was conducted over a 3-year period to investigate the presence of Phytophthora spp. on newly arrived plants, mainly from West Coast suppliers. Local nursery plants, irrigation water, and potting media were also sampled for Phytophthora spp. Isolates were identified using a combination of morphological characteristics and DNA sequencing. Species identified included Phytophthora cactorum, P. cambivora, P. cinnamomi, P. citrophthora, P. drechsleri, P. elongata, P. gonapodyides, P. hydropathica, P. irrigata, P. lacustris, P. multivora, P. nicotianae, P. pini, P. plurivora, and P. syringae. P. taxon pgchlamydo was also isolated from irrigation water. Eight of the abovementioned Phytophthora spp. were isolated in association with incoming material, indicating that the movement of these pathogens continues to occur. Asymptomatic plant material was the main route of introduction of Phytophthora spp. to Maryland nurseries. Results also indicated that several Phytophthora spp. could be found in Maryland nurseries in association with infested potting media of asymptomatic plants. Although P. ramorum was not detected, our surveys underscore the significance of nursery practices that allow introductions of these significant plant pathogens to new geographic locations.

Phomopsis Blight: A New Disease of Pieris japonica Caused by Phomopsis amygdali in the United States

Pieris japonica, also known as Japanese andromeda, is an economically valuable broadleaf evergreen used in landscapes across the United States. From spring 2010 to 2012, P. japonica 'Mountain Fire' plants growing in Maryland nurseries were observed with a high incidence of stem canker, shoot dieback, and blight symptoms. Necrosis was evident on shoot tips and often advanced into lateral shoots, as well as to the crowns, leading to plant death. Phomopsis amygdali, known as a destructive pathogen of peach and almond, was consistently isolated from symptomatic plants. P. amygdali also caused similar symptoms on Mountain Fire test plants following inoculations. P. amygdali was consistently recovered and its identity was confirmed with both morphological and molecular tools, thus fulfilling Koch's postulates. In addition, nursery sampling in 2012 revealed that P. amygdali could also be isolated from asymptomatic plants. In all instances, infected plants were shipped from a West Coast nursery, indicating that this pathogen was inadvertently introduced to new locations. P. amygdali may be emerging as an important pathogen in nurseries because this is the first known association of this pathogen with an ornamental plant species.

Time-dependent changes of sperm cells in human ejaculate samples added in various liquid media

INTRODUCTION

It is known that sexual assault victim's contacting to water may decrease the detectability of sperm cells on the body of a victim. The features of water (i.e. chemical and biological) also have an importance in this respect. In this study, it is aimed at studying different kinds of water in terms of the detection of sperm cells in vitro. The difference of the study from other studies in the literature is the usage of different types of water and the search for detectability of sperm in these water samples regarding both time and dilution factor.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

After sexual abstinence, 30 volunteer young adults' ejaculate samples were taken with their informed consent. These samples were examined in liquid media in terms of change in time. Ejaculate samples which were standardized as to include 50 million sperms cells in each milliliter were diluted by 20% in 4 tubes including distilled water, tap water, sea water and river water. Sperm count in diluted samples was conducted daily.

RESULTS

It is determined that sperm cells can be detected after a longer time in tap and distilled water than in sea and fresh water. Sperm cells were detected up to 1128 h in tap water, 888 h in sea water, 1008 h in distilled water and 792 h in river water. Changes in sperm count in terms of dilution rate and liquid type were recorded.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

It is known that in vitro results are not the same as in vivo results. Time-dependent changes about detectability of sperm cells in different types of water are presented in tables and figures.

An analysis of the murder of women in a 10-year period in Eskişehir Province located in western Anatolia in Turkey

Murder of women generally occurs as a result of violence by their husbands and relatives. We evaluated the female victims of murder in Eskişehir, located in western Anatolia, where the education level is high in this study. Our aim was to assess and discuss data related to the victims and murderers. A total of 141 women's murder cases were analysed in the study. After a legal process and the results of the autopsies during 2002-2011 in Eskişehir, 715 subjects found to have died as a result of murder were chosen. Cases were evaluated in terms of their age, marital status, education level, relationship to the murderer, reasons for violence, type of action and reasons for death. It was determined that 48.2% (n = 68) of the victims had been killed by the husband and 7.8% (n = 11) by the ex-husband. Murderers generally stated that the reason of murder was the woman's request for divorce or breaking up (n = 40, 28.4%). In compliance with the literature, the women were most commonly killed by their husbands in our study. Enhancing women's status and preventing violence against women will decrease such murders.

Analysis of suicide deaths in a 15-year period in Eskisehir, western Anatolia, Turkey and the determination of risk factors

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

It is estimated that every year 1 million people die all around the world due to suicide. The average rate of suicide in the world is reported as 16/100,000. In this study, we aimed to evaluate and discuss the suicide cases in our city Eskisehir that is located in western Anatolia.

DESIGN AND SETTINGS

This is a retrospective study covering the period 1997-2011.

METHODS

All deaths in Eskisehir caused due to the consumption of forensic medicines in a 15-year period between 1997 and 2011 were evaluated retrospectively. A total of 553 cases were determined to be suicidal following both forensic and criminal investigations, and were included in the study. Furthermore, death examination and autopsy reports were investigated, and judicial investigation records were also taken into account.

RESULTS

In this period, the average rate of suicide in our city was determined as 5.1/100,000 of which 71.4% of the cases were male. It was determined that the suicides most commonly occurred between the ages of 19 and 29 (32.4%, n=179). The most commonly encountered suicide method was hanging (60.9%, n=337).

CONCLUSION

It was ascertained that the suicide rate in our city was lower than the average rate in the world, but it was higher than the average rate in Turkey. Unemployment was determined as the most common risk factor in our study. A follow-up should be provided for people with a history of attempting to commit suicide or with a tendency to committing suicide due to a psychological disorder.

Cattle-caused fatalities in a province of western Turkey: 1996-2010 autopsy results

Cattle-caused injuries and deaths are much more than predicted. The aim of this research is to determine the prevalence of cattle-caused fatalities and the factors affecting it in a province of western Turkey. The court files on cattle-caused fatalities during a 15-year period between 1996 and 2010 were explored. The proportion of forensic-qualified deaths from the total of 3753 was 0.9% (35/3753). Most of the cases were between the ages of 18 and 65 (60%). Most deaths occurred in the spring and summer months compared with autumn and winter months (9 and 22 vs. 3 and 1, respectively). The mortality rate was much higher in men compared with women (94.3% and 5.7%, respectively). The majority of deaths were caused by injuries on the chest (71.4%). The reason for most deaths was due to hemopneumothorax and lung injury (71.4%). Predicting the behavior of cattle may not always be possible, as such, it is advisable that one wears protective equipment when dealing with cattle.

Variation Among Phytophthora cinnamomi Isolates from Oak Forest Soils in the Eastern United States

Phytophthora cinnamomi isolates from geographically diverse oak forest soils in the Mid-Atlantic regions were studied to determine the extent of genotypic, phenotypic, and pathogenic variation. Four microsatellite loci were targeted for genetic analysis. Phenotypic characteristics measured included sexual and asexual spore dimensions and colony growth rate and morphology. Red oak (Quercus rubra) logs were inoculated with selected isolates to determine relative pathogenicity. Microsatellite analysis showed that the genetic variability of P. cinnamomi isolates was low, with two predominant microsatellite fingerprint groups (MFG). Isolates in MFG1 (48% of the total isolates examined) were characterized by DNA fragment lengths of 120 and 122 bp at locus d39, 169 and 170 bp at locus e16, and 254 and 255 bp at locus g13. MFG2 isolates were characterized by marker sizes of 122 and 124 bp at locus d39, 161 and 163 bp at locus e16, and 247 and 248 bp at locus g13. Asexual and sexual spore dimensions varied greatly among isolates but were similar to previously published descriptions. Phenotypic differences were most pronounced when data were grouped by MFG; the most significant were colony morphology and growth rate. Neither characteristic was a reliable predictor of isolate genotype. Differences in growth rates of MFGs were observed, with MFG1 being less tolerant at higher incubation temperatures. No variation in pathogenicity was observed on red oak logs. The low level of phenotypic and genotypic variation of P. cinnamomi suggest that other factors such as climate might play a more important role in its northern distribution and the diseases it causes.

Gonadal dysfunction and pelvic sonographic findings in females with thalassaemia major

OBJECTIVE

To investigate pubertal and menstrual problems and evaluate pelvic sonographic findings in patients with beta-thalassaemia major.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Twenty-five female patients followed for thalassaemia major constituted the study population. Sexual maturation and hormonal status were assessed. Pubertal and menstrual problems were investigated.

RESULTS

There was one patient with delayed puberty and five patients with arrested puberty. Mean ferritin level in this group of patients was slightly but not significantly higher than patients with normal pubertal maturation (2620 +/- 994 ng/ml vs. 2409 +/- 1348 ng/ml, p > 0.05). There were 10 patients with primary amenorrhoea, three with secondary amenorrhoea, five with oligomenorrhoea and irregular menstruation and one with regular menstruation. Compared to menstruating patients, the mean uterine size was smaller (4.1 +/- 3.5 cm(3) vs. 52.8 +/- 14.5 cm(3)) in all patients with delayed and arrested puberty (p < 0.05). Ten patients were taking hormone replacement therapy (HRT). The mean uterine size in these patients was larger than that in patients with amenorrhoea who were not taking HRT, but smaller than that in menstruating patients (9.1 +/- 15.9 cm(3), 2.7 +/- 1.3 cm(3) and 52.8 +/- 14.5 cm(3), respectively) (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

Thalassaemia major has important side effects on the hypothaloma-pituitary-gonadal axis resulting in pubertal and menstrual abnormalities. HRT should be given to provide normal sexual maturation in these patients.

Phytophthora spp. Associated with Forest Soils in Eastern and North-Central U.S. Oak Ecosystems

A survey of soils associated with oak species was conducted in 2003 and 2004 in Indiana, Illinois, Maryland, Michigan, Minnesota, Pennsylvania, Ohio, West Virginia, and Wisconsin to investigate the occurrence of Phytophthora spp. Soils taken from around the base of healthy and declining oak trees were flooded with H₂O and Quercus robur leaflets were used as bait for Phytophthora spp. From 829 soil samples collected near trees, 21% were positive for Phytophthora spp., with 55% of the 125 sites surveyed yielding a Phytophthora sp. Phytophthora cinnamomi was the most frequently isolated species, representing 69.4% of the Phytophthora-infested sites surveyed. Other species, in decreasing order of isolation frequency were Phytophthora sp. 2, P. citricola, P. europaea, P. cambivora, P. quercina-like isolates, and Phytophthora sp. 1. No significant association was found between the presence of Phytophthora organisms and site characteristics such as latitude, elevation, soil pH, or the crown condition of the trees. However, in P. cinnamomi-infested sites, a significant association was found with the deteriorating crown status of Q. alba and the presence of P. cinnamomi. The absence of P. cinnamomi above the 40°N latitude range also was noteworthy.

Characterization of the gunshot suicides

The aim of this study is to present the characteristics of gunshot suicides by highlighting the ones with multiple entrance wounds. The criminal investigation reports of suicides (n=318) during the period 1991-2000, in the central judicial district of Eskisehir were investigated. 20.4% of all suicide cases (n=65) used firearms. Firearm suicides were more common in males and their frequency decreased as age increased. The usage of long-barrelled weapons was 47.7%. Among the long-barrelled gunshots, twelve were shotguns and the remaining were military riffles. Forty-five weapons were legal. Thirty-four out of 45 gunshot suicide victims had licensed weapons because of their occupations. In the majority of cases, (72.3%) the shooting distance was contact or near contact. Most of the entrance wounds (75.0%) were located in the head and neck region and the direction of the bullet path was upward and front-to-back. Of all the gunshot suicides, 6.1% (n=4) had multiple entrance and exit wounds. All of the victims were soldiers. In suicide cases using long-barrelled weapons (3/4), military rifles were set on automatic mode. In our study, at least eight of the victims survived for a period. To be able to increase the survival rate of the victims or improve the outcomes, intensive pre- and post-operative care is critical.

Simultaneous sudden infant death syndrome

The simultaneous sudden deaths of twins rarely occur and therefore it has received limited attention in the medical literature. When the deaths of the twins meet the defined criteria for sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) independently and take place within the same 24 h range it can be called as simultaneous SIDS (SSIDS). The case(s): Twin girls (3.5-month-old) were found dead by their mother in their crib, both in supine position. The infants were identical twins and delivered at a hospital by cesarean section. Both infants were healthy and did not have any serious medical history. Two days prior to the incident, the twins had received the second dose of oral polio, DPT and the first dose of hepatitis B vaccines and they had fever on the first day of the vaccination and been given teaspoonful of acetaminophen. Death scene investigation, judicial investigation, parental assessment, macroscopic and microscopic autopsy findings and the toxicological analysis did not yield any specific cause of death. The case(s) were referred to a supreme board composed of multidisciplinary medical professionals at the Institute of Forensic Medicine, Ministry of Justice, in Istanbul. The Board decided that the available data was consistent with SIDS. These SIDS case(s) are presented because twin SIDS are rare and this is the first time that a simultaneous twin SIDS have been reported in Turkey. Simultaneous SIDS cases have many implications regarding definition, diagnosis and medico-legal approach.

Bodies Recovered from Wells, Sewerage Systems and Pits: What is the Cause of Death?

Introduction: The aim of this study was to determine the problems encountered during investigations into causes of death in corpses found in wells, sewer systems and pits, and to seek solutions to the problems. In fact, wells, sewer systems and pits have some common characteristics which may cause the problems. They contain water, have a hypoxic/anoxic environment and prevent corpses from being recognised. Materials and Methods: Based on the data obtained from the 1st Specialization Board of the Council of Forensic Medicine, affiliated with the Ministry of Justice, we retrospectively reviewed 69 corpses found in wells, sewer systems and pits between 1 January 1992 and 31 December 2002. Data on age, sex, crime scene and causes of death were obtained and evaluated using the SPSS 11.0 package programme. Results: Of 69 cases, 69.1% were male and 33.4% were aged 0 to 10 years. Fifty-eight per cent and 13.1% of the cases were found in wells and sewer systems respectively. Forty-three (62.3%) cases were found in a place with water. However, 34.9% of them had not drowned. The most frequent cause of death was drowning (40.6%). The cause of death was unknown in 18.8% of the cases. 15.9% of the corpses were exhumed to determine the cause of death. Twenty-six cases (37.7%) had signs of putrefaction and the cause of death was not determined in 9 cases. Diatom was investigated in 42.0% of the cases (29 cases), but 17 cases did not have diatom. Conclusion: It is a complicated process to determine the causes of death in bodies recovered from wells, pits, water supplies and sewer systems, etc. Thorough forensic investigations are required because death may result from a wide variety of factors, and lesions on the corpses may undergo some changes quickly or can be covered in wells, pits and water supplies. A complete crime scene investigation, a thorough autopsy and histopathological, toxicological and biochemical examinations would prevent potential problems in determining the causes of death in bodies recovered from wells, sewer systems and pits. Almost one-third of the bodies recovered from wells, sewer systems and pits were aged 10 years or younger, which indicates a public health problem. Extra safety precautions will help to solve this problem. Key words: Autopsy, Drowning, Postmortem investigation

Bodies recovered from wells, sewerage systems and pits: what is the cause of death?

INTRODUCTION

The aim of this study was to determine the problems encountered during investigations into causes of death in corpses found in wells, sewer systems and pits, and to seek solutions to the problems. In fact, wells, sewer systems and pits have some common characteristics which may cause the problems. They contain water, have a hypoxic/anoxic environment and prevent corpses from being recognised.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Based on the data obtained from the 1st Specialization Board of the Council of Forensic Medicine, affiliated with the Ministry of Justice, we retrospectively reviewed 69 corpses found in wells, sewer systems and pits between 1 January 1992 and 31 December 2002. Data on age, sex, crime scene and causes of death were obtained and evaluated using the SPSS 11.0 package programme.

RESULTS

Of 69 cases, 69.1% were male and 33.4% were aged 0 to 10 years. Fifty-eight per cent and 13.1% of the cases were found in wells and sewer systems respectively. Forty-three (62.3%) cases were found in a place with water. However, 34.9% of them had not drowned. The most frequent cause of death was drowning (40.6%). The cause of death was unknown in 18.8% of the cases. 15.9% of the corpses were exhumed to determine the cause of death. Twenty-six cases (37.7%) had signs of putrefaction and the cause of death was not determined in 9 cases. Diatom was investigated in 42.0% of the cases (29 cases), but 17 cases did not have diatom.

CONCLUSION

It is a complicated process to determine the causes of death in bodies recovered from wells, pits, water supplies and sewer systems, etc. Thorough forensic investigations are required because death may result from a wide variety of factors, and lesions on the corpses may undergo some changes quickly or can be covered in wells, pits and water supplies. A complete crime scene investigation, a thorough autopsy and histopathological, toxicological and biochemical examinations would prevent potential problems in determining the causes of death in bodies recovered from wells, sewer systems and pits. Almost one-third of the bodies recovered from wells, sewer systems and pits were aged 10 years or younger, which indicates a public health problem. Extra safety precautions will help to solve this problem.

First Report of Phytophthora europaea in Oak Forests in the Eastern and North-Central United States

In 2003 and 2004, soils in oak forest ecosystems in nine central and eastern states of the United States were surveyed for Phytophthora spp. Soil samples were collected around healthy and symptomatic trees. Symptoms included dieback of branches, gaps in lateral branch systems, yellowing of foliage, wilting and clustering of leaves, and the presence of epicormic shoots. Soil subsamples were collected in each of the four cardinal directions and at a distance of 1 to 2 m from the base of a tree. The four subsamples were bulked to produce a sample of approximately 2,000 ml. In the laboratory, each sample was mixed thoroughly and a single 250-g subsample was flooded with 500 ml of distilled water and baited with Quercus robur leaflets for 3 to 5 days at 17 to 20°C. Discolored leaflets were examined microscopically (×200) and those with sporangia typical of Phytophthora spp. were plated on PARPNH selective medium (1). Phytophthora europaea was recovered from soil samples collected from Q. alba in West Virginia, Q. rubra in Minnesota, West Virginia, and Wisconsin, Q. phellos in Ohio, and Q. velutina in Pennsylvania. Cultures were identified as P. europaea by their morphological, physiological, and molecular characteristics (4). Average dimensions of nine isolates were determined. Oogonia were 40 ± 3.9 μm in diameter and often had few bullet protuberances and tapered bases; oospores mostly filled the oogonia and averaged 36 ± 3.7 μm; sporangia dimensions averaged 42 ± 6.1 × 30 ± 4.1 μm with a length/width ratio of 1:4. Isolates produced larger oogonia and oospores but had similar sporangia length/width ratios comparable to the species description (4). Growth optimum (5.8 to 6.9 mm day^-1) on V8 juice agar (V8A) occurred at 25°C. On potato dextrose agar, colonies produced dense, felt-like mycelia, often with a central mound of aerial hyphae. DNA also was extracted from eight representative isolates and the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region of rDNA from each isolate was amplified and sequenced. ITS sequences were identical to those of P. europaea in the NCBI GenBank database (Accession No. DQ313222). Pathogenicity of six isolates (one from each site) was confirmed by wounding stems of 2-year-old Q. alba, Q. rubra, and Q. velutina seedlings and inoculating wounds with V8A plugs (6 mm) containing mycelia; V8A plugs without mycelia were used for controls. Two months after inoculation, P. europaea was reisolated on PARPNH medium from advancing lesions on all inoculated seedlings but was not isolated from control plants. Mean lesion lengths on seedlings inoculated with P. europaea were significantly greater (P < 0.05) than those on control plants; lesions averaged 0.46 cm on Q. alba, 1.38 cm on Q. rubra, and 1.01 cm on Q. velutina. Previously, P. europaea only was reported from oak trees and soil in forests of Austria, France, and Germany (1-4). These findings extend the current distribution of P. europaea and raise questions about its origin and role in the health of oak forests in eastern and north-central United States. Q. alba, Q. phellos, Q. rubra, and Q. velutina are new host associations for P. europaea. References: (1) Y. Balci and E. Halmschlager. For. Pathol. 33:157, 2003. (2) E. Hansen and C. Delatour. Ann. Sci. For. 56:539, 1999. (3) G. Hartmann and R. Blank. Forst Holz. 57:539, 2002. (4) T. Jung et al. Mycol. Res. 106:397, 2002.

A forensic case of Munchausen's syndrome

The case of a 37-year-old cleaning worker, who applied to the court with a claim of being fired from her job due to permanent functional loss of her left arm triggered by a stroke following a work accident, is presented. The court has forwarded the case to the forensic medicine department for further evaluation and documentation of the judicial report. Examination of the medical files has revealed that the person applied to our and other hospitals with various symptoms simulating urologic, neurological, musculoskeletal, cardiovascular, and pulmonary disorders. The person had been hospitalized for extensive, costly, and often invasive medical examinations and/or treatment, and deceived the physicians into carry out unnecessary diagnostic procedures. No objective signs or evidence related to a work accident or stroke was obtained from the medical records. She has been followed up with the diagnosis of lymphangitis, thrombophlebitis and repeated cellulities since 2001, and the infection had been caused by intentional insertion of glass pieces into her left arm. The reason why she was unable to use her left arm was because of contraction related to the repeated soft tissue infection rather than the claimed work accident. This case was not only trying the medical personnel to make errors and confusion, but also attempting to mislead the judgment. Therefore, in forensic cases, medical history of patient must be evaluated carefully.

Identification of violence in Turkish health care settings

This study sought to investigate the contributing factors to and frequency of violence against health care workers (HCWs) working in western Turkey. The population is composed of a random sample of 1,209 HCWs from 34 health care workplaces. Written questionnaires were given to HCWs at all sites, where staff were instructed to register all types of violence they had experienced. In all, 49.5% of HCWs reported having experienced verbal, physical, or verbal and physical violence, with this total being made up of 39.6% men and 60.4% women. A larger percentage (69.6%) of general practitioners reported experiencing verbal abuse and physical violence by patients and patients' family members or friends. Younger workers, inexperienced staff, and those in emergency services were more likely to report violence. Violence directed toward HCWs is a common occupational hazard. Public health authorities should plan preventive interventions based on the findings of this study.

Predictive accuracy of sexing the mandible by ramus flexure

Loth & Henneberg (Am J Phys Anthrop 99 (1996) 473) described a single morphological indicator of sexual dimorphism, namely the presence or absence of flexure on the posterior border of the mandible, with a predictive accuracy of 90.6-99.0%. In the other studies, which have criticized mandibular ramus flexure as sex indicator in adult and fossils specimens by the same method, the accuracy of sexing was found between 59.0% and 80.4% which is well below the reported 90.6-99.0% (Am J Phys Anthrop 107 (1998) 363; Am J Phys Anthrop 111 (2000) 573; Am J Phys Anthrop 111 (2000) 429; Homo 53 (2002) 97). It was indicated that the method sexed males more reliably than females and consistency was low. In the current blind test, 120 mandibles from forensic cases were examined for the presence or absence of mandibular ramus flexure. Virtually identical results were obtained when a second observer examined the same sample of mandibles. The results were then compared to records of the same cases resulting in 85.8% accuracy for the total sample. A marked difference was observed between sexes where the ramus shape was diagnostic for 92.6% of the males but for only 60.0% of the females (p < 0.001). When mandibles with excessive tooth loss (more than two molars missing) (n = 35) were removed from the sample (in normative sample), the overall predictive value increased to 90.6% (95.6% accuracy in males and 70.6% in females). Our results confirm that there are marked differences between the sexes in the predictive accuracy and this indicator is better in mandibles without molar tooth loss as mentioned by Loth & Henneberg. They also pointed out that the tooth loss is a potential source of error. On the other hand, in this study, there were no sexing errors when mandibles which ramus shape scores -1, 0 and +1 were extracted from the normative sample as the "sex indeterminate group". This study suggests that further assessment should be made only when both rami are available for observation, and the mandible shows either bilateral flexure (+2) or bilateral non-flexure (-2). The consideration of this new categorization can also be useful when using Loth & Henneberg's method.

Stature and sex estimate using foot and shoe dimensions

The aim of the study was to develop a formula to estimate the stature and sex of an individual using foot and shoe dimensions. To this aim the stature, right and left shoe sizes, and maximum and minimum feet length and width measurements of a target group of 569 individuals were taken. The group was composed of 294 males and 275 females. The highest correlation coefficient was found in length measurements. A notable difference between males and females existed with regard to both right and left foot and shoe length and width averages and shoe sizes (p < 0.001). Among the group, a significant correlation was found in regard to stature and right shoe length (r = 0.591, p < 0.001), with the correlation between stature and right foot length and stature and right shoe length being 0.579 (p < 0.001); as for the female group, there was a significant correlation between stature and right foot length and stature and right shoe length (r = 0.460, p < 0.001). Thus the regression formula obtained are as follows: for the right side: sex = 69.169 + 0.173 (maximum foot length) - 0.368 (maximum foot width) - 0.820 (shoe length) + 0.224 (shoe width) - 1.280 (shoe number). For the left side: sex = 69.551 + 0.276 (maximum foot length) - 0.504 (maximum foot width) - 0.739 (shoe length) + 0.344 (shoe width) - 1.360 (shoe number). In application of the formula, if sex is lower than 0.50, the shoe belongs to a male, if higher, then to female. The formula which was obtained in regression analysis in order to estimate the stature when the measurements of shoe and foot were known. For the right side, stature = 47.93 + 1.083 (maximum foot length) + 0.788 (shoe length) 1.813 (shoe number) (SEE:31.410). For the left side: stature = 47.33 + 1.139 (maximum foot length) + 0.593 (shoe length) x 1.924 (shoe number) (SEE:31.607). It was understood that foot and shoe sizes are a criteria to estimate the stature of a person that there was a strong relationship between foot and shoe length and width and that these can be used to aid estimation. It was found that in sex estimate, foot and shoe lengths are better in helping the estimate than width measurements, and that the use of shoe measurements rather than bare foot measurements are better to obtain meaningful results.

First Confirmation of Phytophthora quercina on Oaks in Asia

During surveys of forests in the Asian Region of Turkey in 1999, 2000, and 2001, mature trees of several oak species were observed to have symptoms of decline, including thinning of the crown, yellowing and wilting of leaves, dieback of branches, and growth of epicormic shoots on branches and the main trunk. Observations over time confirmed a slow progress of tree mortality. To isolate Phytophthora spp. that might be associated with the decline, samples of rhizosphere soil including fine roots with necrotic lesions, were collected from around the bases of individual trees. Young leaflets from Quercus robur, Q. petraea, and Q. hartwissiana were used in a bioassay to bait flooded soil subsamples. After 3 to 5 days, baits were transferred to plates of PARPNH, a medium selective for Phytophthora spp. (1). Phytophthora spp. were recovered from 38 of 51 sites investigated (75%). In all, 10 species of Phytophthora were isolated; P. quercina was detected most frequently and was obtained from 29 (57%) sampled sites. Identification of isolates of P. quercina was based on comparisons of cultural and morphological characteristics to the description of the holotype (2) and to authentic cultures. Slight differences from the description of the holotype were observed for the size of sporangia, oogonia, and chlamydospores. On V8 agar most of the colonies showed an optimal radial growth at 22.5°C, with a growth rate ranging from 4.5 to 5.6 mm per day. Isolates from Turkey showed a lower optimal temperature and a higher growth rate compared with European strains. Recent studies have shown that many Phytophthora species, including P. quercina, occur in declining oak stands in Europe. In pathogenicity tests of infested soil, P. quercina isolates proved to be one of the more pathogenic species to roots of young Q. robur plants (2). Previously, P. quercina was only found in Europe. New hosts species for P. quercina include Q. hartwissiana, Q. frainetto, and the endemic species Q. vulcanica. Observations suggest that P. quercina is widespread in Turkey and occurs within the natural range of oak, which raises the question of the role of P. quercina in the oak decline syndrome. References: (1) T. Jung et al. Eur. J. For. Pathol. 26:253, 1996. (2) T. Jung et al. Mycol. Res. 103:785, 1999.