1
|
Shaw TM, Dettle ST, Mejia A, Hayes JM, Simmons HA, Basu P, Kuhn JH, Ramuta MD, Warren CJ, Jahrling PB, O'Connor DH, Huang L, Zaeem M, Seo J, Slukvin II, Brown ME, Bailey AL. Isolation of Diverse Simian Arteriviruses Causing Hemorrhagic Disease. Emerg Infect Dis 2024; 30:721-731. [PMID: 38526136 PMCID: PMC10977827 DOI: 10.3201/eid3004.231457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/26/2024] Open
Abstract
Genetically diverse simian arteriviruses (simarteriviruses) naturally infect geographically and phylogenetically diverse monkeys, and cross-species transmission and emergence are of considerable concern. Characterization of most simarteriviruses beyond sequence analysis has not been possible because the viruses fail to propagate in the laboratory. We attempted to isolate 4 simarteriviruses, Kibale red colobus virus 1, Pebjah virus, simian hemorrhagic fever virus, and Southwest baboon virus 1, by inoculating an immortalized grivet cell line (known to replicate simian hemorrhagic fever virus), primary macaque cells, macrophages derived from macaque induced pluripotent stem cells, and mice engrafted with macaque CD34+-enriched hematopoietic stem cells. The combined effort resulted in successful virus isolation; however, no single approach was successful for all 4 simarteriviruses. We describe several approaches that might be used to isolate additional simarteriviruses for phenotypic characterization. Our results will expedite laboratory studies of simarteriviruses to elucidate virus-host interactions, assess zoonotic risk, and develop medical countermeasures.
Collapse
|
2
|
Shaw TM, Maloney SM, Nennig K, Ramuta MD, Norton A, Ibarra R, Kuehnert P, Brinton M, Faaberg K, Kuhn JH, O'Connor DH, Warren CJ, Bailey AL. Ectopic expression of murine CD163 enables cell-culture isolation of lactate dehydrogenase-elevating virus 63 years after its discovery. J Virol 2023; 97:e0093023. [PMID: 37792000 PMCID: PMC10617578 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00930-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2023] [Accepted: 08/08/2023] [Indexed: 10/05/2023] Open
Abstract
IMPORTANCE Mouse models of viral infection play an especially large role in virology. In 1960, a mouse virus, lactate dehydrogenase-elevating virus (LDV), was discovered and found to have the peculiar ability to evade clearance by the immune system, enabling it to persistently infect an individual mouse for its entire lifespan without causing overt disease. However, researchers were unable to grow LDV in culture, ultimately resulting in the demise of this system as a model of failed immunity. We solve this problem by identifying the cell-surface molecule CD163 as the critical missing component in cell-culture systems, enabling the growth of LDV in immortalized cell lines for the first time. This advance creates abundant opportunities for further characterizing LDV in order to study both failed immunity and the family of viruses to which LDV belongs, Arteriviridae (aka, arteriviruses).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Teressa M Shaw
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison School of Medicine and Public Health , Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Sara M Maloney
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison School of Medicine and Public Health , Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Kylie Nennig
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison School of Medicine and Public Health , Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Mitchell D Ramuta
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison School of Medicine and Public Health , Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Andrew Norton
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison School of Medicine and Public Health , Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Rodrigo Ibarra
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison School of Medicine and Public Health , Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Paul Kuehnert
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison School of Medicine and Public Health , Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Margo Brinton
- Department of Biology, Georgia State University , Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Kay Faaberg
- Virus and Prion Research Unit, USA Department of Agriculture, National Animal Disease Center , Ames, Iowa, USA
| | - Jens H Kuhn
- Integrated Research Facility at Fort Detrick, Division of Clinical Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Fort Detrick , Frederick, Maryland, USA
| | - David H O'Connor
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison School of Medicine and Public Health , Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Cody J Warren
- Department of Veterinary Biosciences, The Ohio State University , Columbus, Ohio, USA
| | - Adam L Bailey
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison School of Medicine and Public Health , Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Li R, Ma H, Qiao S, Zhang G. Potential arteriviral spillover: An emerging threat to public health? Front Microbiol 2023; 14:1156327. [PMID: 36937260 PMCID: PMC10017848 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2023.1156327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2023] [Accepted: 02/17/2023] [Indexed: 03/06/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Rui Li
- Key Laboratory of Animal Immunology of the Ministry of Agriculture, Henan Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Immunology, Henan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Zhengzhou, China
- *Correspondence: Rui Li
| | - Hongfang Ma
- School of Physical Education and Health Administration, Henan Finance University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Songlin Qiao
- Key Laboratory of Animal Immunology of the Ministry of Agriculture, Henan Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Immunology, Henan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Gaiping Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Immunology of the Ministry of Agriculture, Henan Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Immunology, Henan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Zhengzhou, China
- Gaiping Zhang
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Cai Y, Yu S, Fang Y, Bollinger L, Li Y, Lauck M, Postnikova EN, Mazur S, Johnson RF, Finch CL, Radoshitzky SR, Palacios G, Friedrich TC, Goldberg TL, O’Connor DH, Jahrling PB, Kuhn JH. Development and Characterization of a cDNA-Launch Recombinant Simian Hemorrhagic Fever Virus Expressing Enhanced Green Fluorescent Protein: ORF 2b' Is Not Required for In Vitro Virus Replication. Viruses 2021; 13:v13040632. [PMID: 33917085 PMCID: PMC8067702 DOI: 10.3390/v13040632] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2021] [Revised: 03/23/2021] [Accepted: 03/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Simian hemorrhagic fever virus (SHFV) causes acute, lethal disease in macaques. We developed a single-plasmid cDNA-launch infectious clone of SHFV (rSHFV) and modified the clone to rescue an enhanced green fluorescent protein-expressing rSHFV-eGFP that can be used for rapid and quantitative detection of infection. SHFV has a narrow cell tropism in vitro, with only the grivet MA-104 cell line and a few other grivet cell lines being susceptible to virion entry and permissive to infection. Using rSHFV-eGFP, we demonstrate that one cricetid rodent cell line and three ape cell lines also fully support SHFV replication, whereas 55 human cell lines, 11 bat cell lines, and three rodent cells do not. Interestingly, some human and other mammalian cell lines apparently resistant to SHFV infection are permissive after transfection with the rSHFV-eGFP cDNA-launch plasmid. To further demonstrate the investigative potential of the infectious clone system, we introduced stop codons into eight viral open reading frames (ORFs). This approach suggested that at least one ORF, ORF 2b’, is dispensable for SHFV in vitro replication. Our proof-of-principle experiments indicated that rSHFV-eGFP is a useful tool for illuminating the understudied molecular biology of SHFV.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yingyun Cai
- Integrated Research Facility at Fort Detrick, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Fort Detrick, Frederick, MD 21702, USA; (Y.C.); (S.Y.); (L.B.); (E.N.P.); (S.M.); (R.F.J.); (C.L.F.); (P.B.J.)
| | - Shuiqing Yu
- Integrated Research Facility at Fort Detrick, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Fort Detrick, Frederick, MD 21702, USA; (Y.C.); (S.Y.); (L.B.); (E.N.P.); (S.M.); (R.F.J.); (C.L.F.); (P.B.J.)
| | - Ying Fang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA; (Y.F.); (Y.L.)
| | - Laura Bollinger
- Integrated Research Facility at Fort Detrick, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Fort Detrick, Frederick, MD 21702, USA; (Y.C.); (S.Y.); (L.B.); (E.N.P.); (S.M.); (R.F.J.); (C.L.F.); (P.B.J.)
| | - Yanhua Li
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA; (Y.F.); (Y.L.)
| | - Michael Lauck
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI 53705, USA; (M.L.); (T.C.F.); (D.H.O.)
| | - Elena N. Postnikova
- Integrated Research Facility at Fort Detrick, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Fort Detrick, Frederick, MD 21702, USA; (Y.C.); (S.Y.); (L.B.); (E.N.P.); (S.M.); (R.F.J.); (C.L.F.); (P.B.J.)
| | - Steven Mazur
- Integrated Research Facility at Fort Detrick, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Fort Detrick, Frederick, MD 21702, USA; (Y.C.); (S.Y.); (L.B.); (E.N.P.); (S.M.); (R.F.J.); (C.L.F.); (P.B.J.)
| | - Reed F. Johnson
- Integrated Research Facility at Fort Detrick, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Fort Detrick, Frederick, MD 21702, USA; (Y.C.); (S.Y.); (L.B.); (E.N.P.); (S.M.); (R.F.J.); (C.L.F.); (P.B.J.)
- Emerging Infectious Pathogens Section, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Fort Detrick, Frederick, MD 21702, USA
| | - Courtney L. Finch
- Integrated Research Facility at Fort Detrick, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Fort Detrick, Frederick, MD 21702, USA; (Y.C.); (S.Y.); (L.B.); (E.N.P.); (S.M.); (R.F.J.); (C.L.F.); (P.B.J.)
| | - Sheli R. Radoshitzky
- United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Fort Detrick, Frederick, MD 21702, USA; (S.R.R.); (G.P.)
| | - Gustavo Palacios
- United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Fort Detrick, Frederick, MD 21702, USA; (S.R.R.); (G.P.)
| | - Thomas C. Friedrich
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI 53705, USA; (M.L.); (T.C.F.); (D.H.O.)
| | - Tony L. Goldberg
- Department of Pathobiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA;
| | - David H. O’Connor
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI 53705, USA; (M.L.); (T.C.F.); (D.H.O.)
- Wisconsin National Primate Research Center, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI 53715, USA
| | - Peter B. Jahrling
- Integrated Research Facility at Fort Detrick, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Fort Detrick, Frederick, MD 21702, USA; (Y.C.); (S.Y.); (L.B.); (E.N.P.); (S.M.); (R.F.J.); (C.L.F.); (P.B.J.)
- Emerging Infectious Pathogens Section, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Fort Detrick, Frederick, MD 21702, USA
| | - Jens H. Kuhn
- Integrated Research Facility at Fort Detrick, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Fort Detrick, Frederick, MD 21702, USA; (Y.C.); (S.Y.); (L.B.); (E.N.P.); (S.M.); (R.F.J.); (C.L.F.); (P.B.J.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-301-631-7245
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Cornish JP, Moore IN, Perry DL, Lara A, Minai M, Promeneur D, Hagen KR, Virtaneva K, Paneru M, Buechler CR, O'Connor DH, Bailey AL, Cooper K, Mazur S, Bernbaum JG, Pettitt J, Jahrling PB, Kuhn JH, Johnson RF. Clinical Characterization of Host Response to Simian Hemorrhagic Fever Virus Infection in Permissive and Refractory Hosts: A Model for Determining Mechanisms of VHF Pathogenesis. Viruses 2019; 11:E67. [PMID: 30650570 DOI: 10.3390/v11010067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2018] [Revised: 12/27/2018] [Accepted: 01/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Simian hemorrhagic fever virus (SHFV) causes a fulminant and typically lethal viral hemorrhagic fever (VHF) in macaques (Cercopithecinae: Macaca spp.) but causes subclinical infections in patas monkeys (Cercopithecinae: Erythrocebus patas). This difference in disease course offers a unique opportunity to compare host responses to infection by a VHF-causing virus in biologically similar susceptible and refractory animals. Patas and rhesus monkeys were inoculated side-by-side with SHFV. Unlike the severe disease observed in rhesus monkeys, patas monkeys developed a limited clinical disease characterized by changes in complete blood counts, serum chemistries, and development of lymphadenopathy. Viral RNA was measurable in circulating blood 2 days after exposure, and its duration varied by species. Infectious virus was detected in terminal tissues of both patas and rhesus monkeys. Varying degrees of overlap in changes in serum concentrations of interferon (IFN)-γ, monocyte chemoattractant protein (MCP)-1, and interleukin (IL)-6 were observed between patas and rhesus monkeys, suggesting the presence of common and species-specific cytokine responses to infection. Similarly, quantitative immunohistochemistry of livers from terminal monkeys and whole blood flow cytometry revealed varying degrees of overlap in changes in macrophages, natural killer cells, and T-cells. The unexpected degree of overlap in host response suggests that relatively small subsets of a host's response to infection may be responsible for driving hemorrhagic fever pathogenesis. Furthermore, comparative SHFV infection in patas and rhesus monkeys offers an experimental model to characterize host⁻response mechanisms associated with viral hemorrhagic fever and evaluate pan-viral hemorrhagic fever countermeasures.
Collapse
|
6
|
Buechler C, Semler M, Baker DA, Newman C, Cornish JP, Chavez D, Guerra B, Lanford R, Brasky K, Kuhn JH, Johnson RF, O'Connor DH, Bailey AL. Subclinical Infection of Macaques and Baboons with A Baboon Simarterivirus. Viruses 2018; 10:v10120701. [PMID: 30544677 PMCID: PMC6316555 DOI: 10.3390/v10120701] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2018] [Revised: 12/05/2018] [Accepted: 12/06/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Simarteriviruses (Arteriviridae: Simarterivirinae) are commonly found at high titers in the blood of African monkeys but do not cause overt disease in these hosts. In contrast, simarteriviruses cause severe disease in Asian macaques upon accidental or experimental transmission. Here, we sought to better understand the host-dependent drivers of simarterivirus pathogenesis by infecting olive baboons (n = 4) and rhesus monkeys (n = 4) with the simarterivirus Southwest baboon virus 1 (SWBV-1). Surprisingly, none of the animals in our study showed signs of disease following SWBV-1 inoculation. Three animals (two rhesus monkeys and one olive baboon) became infected and sustained high levels of SWBV-1 viremia for the duration of the study. The course of SWBV-1 infection was highly predictable: plasma viremia peaked between 1 × 107 and 1 × 108 vRNA copies/mL at 3–10 days post-inoculation, which was followed by a relative nadir and then establishment of a stable set-point between 1 × 106 and 1 × 107 vRNA copies/mL for the remainder of the study (56 days). We characterized cellular and antibody responses to SWBV-1 infection in these animals, demonstrating that macaques and baboons mount similar responses to SWBV-1 infection, yet these responses are ineffective at clearing SWBV-1 infection. SWBV-1 sequencing revealed the accumulation of non-synonymous mutations in a region of the genome that corresponds to an immunodominant epitope in the simarterivirus major envelope glycoprotein GP5, which likely contribute to viral persistence by enabling escape from host antibodies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Connor Buechler
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Wisconsin⁻Madison, Madison, WI 53711, USA.
- Wisconsin National Primate Research Center, Madison, WI 53711, USA..
| | - Matthew Semler
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Wisconsin⁻Madison, Madison, WI 53711, USA.
- Wisconsin National Primate Research Center, Madison, WI 53711, USA..
| | - David A Baker
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Wisconsin⁻Madison, Madison, WI 53711, USA.
- Wisconsin National Primate Research Center, Madison, WI 53711, USA..
| | - Christina Newman
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Wisconsin⁻Madison, Madison, WI 53711, USA.
- Wisconsin National Primate Research Center, Madison, WI 53711, USA..
| | - Joseph P Cornish
- Emerging Viral Pathogens Section, Laboratory of Immunoregulation, Division of Intramural Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Frederick, MD 20896, USA.
| | - Deborah Chavez
- Texas Biomedical Research Institute, Southwest National Primate Research Center, San Antonio, TX 78227, USA.
| | - Bernadette Guerra
- Texas Biomedical Research Institute, Southwest National Primate Research Center, San Antonio, TX 78227, USA.
| | - Robert Lanford
- Texas Biomedical Research Institute, Southwest National Primate Research Center, San Antonio, TX 78227, USA.
| | - Kathy Brasky
- Texas Biomedical Research Institute, Southwest National Primate Research Center, San Antonio, TX 78227, USA.
| | - Jens H Kuhn
- Integrated Research Facility at Fort Detrick, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Fort Detrick, Frederick, MD 21702, USA.
| | - Reed F Johnson
- Emerging Viral Pathogens Section, Laboratory of Immunoregulation, Division of Intramural Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Frederick, MD 20896, USA.
| | - David H O'Connor
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Wisconsin⁻Madison, Madison, WI 53711, USA.
- Wisconsin National Primate Research Center, Madison, WI 53711, USA..
| | - Adam L Bailey
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Wisconsin⁻Madison, Madison, WI 53711, USA.
- Wisconsin National Primate Research Center, Madison, WI 53711, USA..
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University in St. Louis School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Han M, Kim CY, Rowland RRR, Fang Y, Kim D, Yoo D. Biogenesis of non-structural protein 1 (nsp1) and nsp1-mediated type I interferon modulation in arteriviruses. Virology 2014; 458-459:136-50. [PMID: 24928046 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2014.04.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2014] [Revised: 03/03/2014] [Accepted: 04/22/2014] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Type I interferons (IFNs-α/β) play a key role for the antiviral state of host, and the porcine arterivirus; porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV), has been shown to down-regulate the production of IFNs during infection. Non-structural protein (nsp) 1 of PRRSV has been identified as a viral IFN antagonist, and the nsp1α subunit of nsp1 has been shown to degrade the CREB-binding protein (CBP) and to inhibit the formation of enhanceosome thus resulting in the suppression of IFN production. The study was expanded to other member viruses in the family Arteriviridae: equine arteritis virus (EAV), murine lactate dehydrogenase-elevating virus (LDV), and simian hemorrhagic fever virus (SHFV). While PRRSV-nsp1 and LDV-nsp1 were auto-cleaved to produce the nsp1α and nsp1β subunits, EAV-nsp1 remained uncleaved. SHFV-nsp1 was initially predicted to be cleaved to generate three subunits (nsp1α, nsp1β, and nsp1γ), but only two subunits were generated as SHFV-nsp1αβ and SHFV-nsp1γ. The papain-like cysteine protease (PLP) 1α motif in nsp1α remained inactive for SHFV, and only the PLP1β motif of nsp1β was functional to generate SHFV-nsp1γ subunit. All subunits of arterivirus nsp1 were localized in the both nucleus and cytoplasm, but PRRSV-nsp1β, LDV-nsp1β, EAV-nsp1, and SHFV-nsp1γ were predominantly found in the nucleus. All subunits of arterivirus nsp1 contained the IFN suppressive activity and inhibited both interferon regulatory factor 3 (IRF3) and NF-κB mediated IFN promoter activities. Similar to PRRSV-nsp1α, CBP degradation was evident in cells expressing LDV-nsp1α and SHFV-nsp1γ, but no such degradation was observed for EAV-nsp1. Regardless of CBP degradation, all subunits of arterivirus nsp1 suppressed the IFN-sensitive response element (ISRE)-promoter activities. Our data show that the nsp1-mediated IFN modulation is a common strategy for all arteriviruses but their mechanism of action may differ from each other.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mingyuan Han
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 2001 South Lincoln Avenue, Urbana, IL 61802, USA
| | - Chi Yong Kim
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 2001 South Lincoln Avenue, Urbana, IL 61802, USA
| | - Raymond R R Rowland
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine and Pathobiology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA
| | - Ying Fang
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine and Pathobiology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA
| | - Daewoo Kim
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 2001 South Lincoln Avenue, Urbana, IL 61802, USA
| | - Dongwan Yoo
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 2001 South Lincoln Avenue, Urbana, IL 61802, USA.
| |
Collapse
|