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Anis A, Alhamidi A, Bashir Z, Alam MA, Al-Zahrani SM. Mouldable Conductive Plastic with Optimised Mechanical Properties. Polymers (Basel) 2024; 16:311. [PMID: 38337199 DOI: 10.3390/polym16030311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2023] [Revised: 01/17/2024] [Accepted: 01/19/2024] [Indexed: 02/12/2024] Open
Abstract
This paper investigates making an injection mouldable conductive plastic formulation that aims for conductivity into the electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding range, with good mechanical properties (i.e., stiffness, strength, and impact resistance). While conductivity in the range (electrostatic charge dissipation) and EMI shielding have been attained by incorporating conductive fillers such as carbon black, metals powders, and new materials, such as carbon nanotubes (CNTs), this often occurs with a drop in tensile strength, elongation-to-break resistance, and impact resistance. It is most often the case that the incorporation of high modulus fillers leads to an increase in modulus but a drop in strength and impact resistance. In this work, we have used short carbon fibres as the conductive filler and selected a 50/50 PBT/rPET (recycled PET) for the plastic matrix. Carbon fibres are cheaper than CNTs and graphenes. The PBT/rPET has low melt viscosity and crystallises sufficiently fast during injection moulding. To improve impact resistance, a styrene-ethylene-butadiene-styrene (SEBS) rubber toughening agent was added to the plastic. The PBT/rPET had very low-impact resistance and the SEBS provided rubber toughening to it; however, the rubber caused a drop in the tensile modulus and strength. The short carbon fibre restored the modulus and strength, which reached higher value than the PBT/rPET while providing the conductivity. Scanning electron microscope pictures showed quite good bonding of the current filler (CF) to the PBT/rPET. An injection mouldable conductive plastic with high conductivity and raised modulus, strength, and impact resistance could be made.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arfat Anis
- SABIC Polymer Research Center (SPRC), Chemical Engineering Department, King Saud University, Riyadh 11421, Saudi Arabia
| | - Abdullah Alhamidi
- SABIC Polymer Research Center (SPRC), Chemical Engineering Department, King Saud University, Riyadh 11421, Saudi Arabia
| | - Zahir Bashir
- Catenated Carbon Consultancy Ltd., 192 Wake Green Road, Birmingham B13 9QE, UK
| | - Mohammad Asif Alam
- Center of Excellence for Research in Engineering Materials (CEREM), King Saud University, Riyadh 11421, Saudi Arabia
| | - Saeed M Al-Zahrani
- SABIC Polymer Research Center (SPRC), Chemical Engineering Department, King Saud University, Riyadh 11421, Saudi Arabia
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Sales-Contini RCM, Costa HMS, Bernardi HH, Menezes WMM, Silva FJG. Mechanical Strength and Surface Analysis of a Composite Made from Recycled Carbon Fibre Obtained via the Pyrolysis Process for Reuse in the Manufacture of New Composites. Materials (Basel) 2024; 17:423. [PMID: 38255591 PMCID: PMC10817289 DOI: 10.3390/ma17020423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2023] [Revised: 01/04/2024] [Accepted: 01/12/2024] [Indexed: 01/24/2024]
Abstract
This work aims to obtain recycled carbon fibre and develop an application for this new material. The carbon fibres were obtained by recycling aerospace prepreg waste via the pyrolysis process. The recycled fibres were combined with an Araldite LH5052/Aradur LY5053 epoxy resin/hardener system using manual lay-up and vacuum bagging processes. For comparison, the same resin/hardener system was used to produce a composite using commercial carbon fibre. The recycled and commercial composites were subjected to flexural, tensile and Mode I testing. Fracture aspects were analysed via scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The pyrolysis process did not affect the fibre surface as no degradation was observed. The fracture aspect showed a mixture of failure in the recycled composite laminate and interlaminar/translaminar failure near the surface of the commercial composite caused by flexural stress. Flexural and tensile tests showed a loss of mechanical strength due to the recycling process, but the tensile values were twice as high. The sand ladder platform was the project chosen for the development of a product made with recycled carbon fibres. The product was manufactured using the same manufacturing process as the specimens and tested with a 1243 kg car. The method chosen to design, manufacture and test the prototype sand ladder platform made of recycled carbon fibre was appropriate and gave satisfactory results in terms of high mechanical strength to bending and ease of use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rita C. M. Sales-Contini
- Technological College of São José dos Campos-Professor Jessen Vidal, Centro Paula Souza, Avenida Cesare Mansueto Giulio Lattes, 1350 Distrito Eugênio de Melo, São José dos Campos 12247-014, SP, Brazil; (H.H.B.); (W.M.M.M.)
- Department of Aeronautics, Laboratory of New Concepts in Aeronautics, Aeronautics Institute of Technology, Praça Marechal Eduardo Gomes 50, Vila das Acácias, São José dos Campos 12228-900, SP, Brazil;
- Instituto Superior de Engenharia do Porto, Polytechnic of Porto, Rua Dr. António Bernardino de Almeida, 4249-015 Porto, Portugal;
| | - Hugo M. S. Costa
- Department of Aeronautics, Laboratory of New Concepts in Aeronautics, Aeronautics Institute of Technology, Praça Marechal Eduardo Gomes 50, Vila das Acácias, São José dos Campos 12228-900, SP, Brazil;
| | - Heide H. Bernardi
- Technological College of São José dos Campos-Professor Jessen Vidal, Centro Paula Souza, Avenida Cesare Mansueto Giulio Lattes, 1350 Distrito Eugênio de Melo, São José dos Campos 12247-014, SP, Brazil; (H.H.B.); (W.M.M.M.)
| | - William M. M. Menezes
- Technological College of São José dos Campos-Professor Jessen Vidal, Centro Paula Souza, Avenida Cesare Mansueto Giulio Lattes, 1350 Distrito Eugênio de Melo, São José dos Campos 12247-014, SP, Brazil; (H.H.B.); (W.M.M.M.)
| | - Francisco J. G. Silva
- Instituto Superior de Engenharia do Porto, Polytechnic of Porto, Rua Dr. António Bernardino de Almeida, 4249-015 Porto, Portugal;
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Ursache Ș, Cerbu C, Hadăr A. Characteristics of Carbon and Kevlar Fibres, Their Composites and Structural Applications in Civil Engineering-A Review. Polymers (Basel) 2023; 16:127. [PMID: 38201792 PMCID: PMC10780615 DOI: 10.3390/polym16010127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2023] [Revised: 12/21/2023] [Accepted: 12/25/2023] [Indexed: 01/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Kevlar and carbon fibres and fabrics have won a leading place in the structure market, although such materials are not cheap, and are increasingly used for reinforcing and strengthening structural elements in the civil engineering, automotive, aerospace and military industries, due to their superior mechanical properties, especially in terms of strength. The mechanical characteristics of such composite materials must be known in order to numerically simulate the mechanical behaviour of such structures in terms of the distribution of stresses and strains. It has also become a necessity to understand the effects of reinforcement with both types of fibres (carbon fibres and Kevlar fibres) on the mechanical properties, especially on the impact properties of such composites. This review aims to expose the main advantages and disadvantages of the hybridization of carbon and Kevlar fibres. For this reason, an overview is presented concerning the main characteristics (tensile strength, flexural strength, impact strength, coefficient of thermal expansion and so on) for carbon and Kevlar fibres and also for hybrid Kevlar-carbon composite materials to aid in the design of such hybrid composite materials. Finally, some civil construction rehabilitation and consolidation applications of the composites reinforced with carbon fibre, Kevlar fibre or with hybrid Kevlar-carbon fabrics are highlighted in the last part of the paper.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ștefania Ursache
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Transilvania University of Brasov, B-dul Eroilor No. 29, 500036 Brasov, Romania;
| | - Camelia Cerbu
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Transilvania University of Brasov, B-dul Eroilor No. 29, 500036 Brasov, Romania;
| | - Anton Hadăr
- Department of Strength of Materials, Faculty of Industrial Engineering and Robotics, National University of Science and Technology Politehnica Bucharest, 313 Splaiul Independentei, 060042 Bucharest, Romania;
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Crameri S, Stojcevski F, Usma-Mansfield C. An Experimental Investigation of the Mechanical Performance of EPS Foam Core Sandwich Composites Used in Surfboard Design. Polymers (Basel) 2023; 15:2703. [PMID: 37376349 DOI: 10.3390/polym15122703] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2023] [Revised: 06/09/2023] [Accepted: 06/14/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Surfboard manufacturing has begun to utilise Expanded Polystyrene as a core material; however, surf literature relatively ignores this material. This manuscript investigates the mechanical behaviour of Expanded Polystyrene (EPS) sandwich composites. An epoxy resin matrix was used to manufacture ten sandwich-structured composite panels with varying fabric reinforcements (carbon fibre, glass fibre, PET) and two foam densities. The flexural, shear, fracture, and tensile properties were subsequently compared. Under common flexural loading, all composites failed via compression of the core, which is known in surfing terms as creasing. However, crack propagation tests indicated a sudden brittle failure in the E-glass and carbon fibre facings and progressive plastic deformation for the recycled polyethylene terephthalate facings. Testing showed that higher foam density increased the flex and fracture mechanical properties of composites. Overall, the plain weave carbon fibre presented the highest strength composite facing, while the single layer of E-glass was the lowest strength composite. Interestingly, the double-bias weave carbon fibre with a lower-density foam core presented similar stiffness behaviour to standard E-glass surfboard materials. The double-biased carbon also improved the flexural strength (+17%), material toughness (+107%), and fracture toughness (+156%) of the composite compared to E-glass. These findings indicate surfboard manufacturers can utilise this carbon weave pattern to produce surfboards with equal flex behaviour, lower weight and improved resistance to damage in regular loading.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sam Crameri
- School of Engineering, Deakin University, Geelong, VIC 3216, Australia
| | - Filip Stojcevski
- School of Engineering, Deakin University, Geelong, VIC 3216, Australia
- Institute for Frontier Materials, Deakin University, Geelong, VIC 3216, Australia
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Belliveau R, Landry B, LaPlante G. Comparative study of the mechanical properties of woven and unidirectional fibres in discontinuous long-fibre composites. J Thermoplast Compos Mater 2023; 36:2372-2389. [PMID: 37275339 PMCID: PMC10235529 DOI: 10.1177/08927057221091084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Discontinuous long-fibre (DLF) composites can be made with randomly oriented unidirectional pre-impregnated composite chips. High fibre volume fraction unidirectional fibre chips provide good mechanical properties to the DLF composite architecture, which enables this material to contribute to bridging the gap between continuous-fibre and randomly-oriented short-fibre composites. However, it is well known that unidirectional fibres have highly anisotropic in-plane behaviour, which causes weak points in the parts when chips are oriented at unfavourable angles. This can be problematic since chips are randomly oriented in DLF composites. To overcome this problem, this research utilizes woven fibre chips instead of unidirectional fibre chips to fabricate DLF composites. Woven fibres diminish the potential for weak points due to their more homogenized in-plane mechanical properties. For comparison purposes, compression moulded carbon/PEI samples were made from both unidirectional chips and 5HS woven chips. Bending and tensile tests following ASTM guidelines were performed to compare both types of fibre arrangement. The results show that woven fibre chips increase the mechanical properties of the DLF composites and reduce their variability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Réjean Belliveau
- Département de génie mécanique, Université de Moncton, NB, Canada
| | - Benoit Landry
- Département de génie mécanique, Université de Moncton, NB, Canada
| | - Gabriel LaPlante
- Département de génie mécanique, Université de Moncton, NB, Canada
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Peñas-Caballero M, Chemello E, Grande AM, Hernández Santana M, Verdejo R, Lopez-Manchado MA. Poly(methyl methacrylate) as Healing Agent for Carbon Fibre Reinforced Epoxy Composites. Polymers (Basel) 2023; 15:polym15051114. [PMID: 36904356 PMCID: PMC10006897 DOI: 10.3390/polym15051114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2023] [Revised: 02/16/2023] [Accepted: 02/20/2023] [Indexed: 02/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Self-healing materials offer a potential solution to the problem of damage to fibre-reinforced plastics (FRPs) by allowing for the in-service repair of composite materials at a lower cost, in less time, and with improved mechanical properties compared to traditional repair methods. This study investigates for the first time the use of poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) as a self-healing agent in FRPs and evaluates its effectiveness both when blended with the matrix and when applied as a coating to carbon fibres. The self-healing properties of the material are evaluated using double cantilever beam (DCB) tests for up to three healing cycles. The blending strategy does not impart a healing capacity to the FRP due to its discrete and confined morphology; meanwhile, coating the fibres with the PMMA results in healing efficiencies of up to 53% in terms of fracture toughness recovery. This efficiency remains constant, with a slight decrease over three subsequent healing cycles. It has been demonstrated that spray coating is a simple and scalable method of incorporating a thermoplastic agent into an FRP. This study also compares the healing efficiency of specimens with and without a transesterification catalyst and finds that the catalyst does not increase the healing efficiency, but it does improve the interlaminar properties of the material.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mónica Peñas-Caballero
- Institute of Polymer Science and Technology (ICTP), CSIC, C/Juan de la Cierva, 3, 28006 Madrid, Spain
| | - Enrico Chemello
- Department of Aerospace Science and Technology, Politecnico di Milano, Via La Masa 34, 20156 Milan, Italy
| | - Antonio Mattia Grande
- Department of Aerospace Science and Technology, Politecnico di Milano, Via La Masa 34, 20156 Milan, Italy
| | | | - Raquel Verdejo
- Institute of Polymer Science and Technology (ICTP), CSIC, C/Juan de la Cierva, 3, 28006 Madrid, Spain
| | - Miguel A. Lopez-Manchado
- Institute of Polymer Science and Technology (ICTP), CSIC, C/Juan de la Cierva, 3, 28006 Madrid, Spain
- Correspondence:
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Narayanan S, Zhang Y, Aslani F. Prediction Models of Shielding Effectiveness of Carbon Fibre Reinforced Cement-Based Composites against Electromagnetic Interference. Sensors (Basel) 2023; 23:2084. [PMID: 36850681 PMCID: PMC9966255 DOI: 10.3390/s23042084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2023] [Revised: 02/09/2023] [Accepted: 02/09/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
With the rapid development of communication technology as well as a rapid rise in the usage of electronic devices, a growth of concerns over unintentional electromagnetic interference emitted by these devices has been witnessed. Pioneer researchers have deeply studied the relationship between the shielding effectiveness and a few mixed design parameters for cementitious composites incoporating carbon fibres by conducting physical experiments. This paper, therefore, aims to develop and propose a series of prediction models for the shielding effectiveness of cementitious composites involving carbon fibres using frequency and mixed design parameters, such as the water-to-cement ratio, fibre content, sand-to-cement ratio and aspect ratio of the fibres. A multi-variable non-linear regression model and a backpropagation neural network (BPNN) model were developed to meet the different accuracy requirements as well as the complexity requirements. The results showed that the regression model reached an R2 of 0.88 with a root mean squared error (RMSE) of 2.3 dB for the testing set while the BPNN model had an R2 of 0.96 with an RMSE of 2.64 dB. Both models exhibited a sufficient prediction accuracy, and the results also supported that both the regression and the BPNN model are reasonable for such estimation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shilpa Narayanan
- Materials and Structures Innovation Group, School of Engineering, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA 6009, Australia
| | - Yifan Zhang
- Materials and Structures Innovation Group, School of Engineering, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA 6009, Australia
| | - Farhad Aslani
- Materials and Structures Innovation Group, School of Engineering, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA 6009, Australia
- School of Engineering, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, WA 6027, Australia
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Novosel A, Sedlar T, Miklečić J, Turkulin H, Lučić L, Mihulja G, Živković V. Analysis of Bonding Mechanisms of Various Implants and Adhesives in Laminated Oak-Wood Elements. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:polym14245373. [PMID: 36559740 PMCID: PMC9782044 DOI: 10.3390/polym14245373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2022] [Revised: 11/29/2022] [Accepted: 12/03/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
This study analysed the bonding mechanisms and strength between wood and non-wood implants in producing laminated oak-wood beams. The suitability of different types of adhesives, namely for load-bearing and general purpose, was also analysed. Three different types of non-wood implants-carbon fibres, glass fibres, and aluminium were glued with epoxy resin (ER), thermoplastic 1-k polyurethane adhesives (PUR), structural polyurethane adhesives (PUR 2 and PUR 3), and polyvinyl acetate (PVAc) adhesives and bonds were tested for shear strength (SS) according to ISO 6238:2018. Results of the bond quality expressed as the ultimate load to failure and displacement were recorded using the universal mechanical testing machine in combination with the digital image correlation (DIC) method. Before the shear test, all the samples were conditioned in dry and wet climatic conditions. Test results indicated that the application of PUR adhesives for bonding carbon and glass fibres with oak wood could sufficiently replace two-component ER, which is generally recommended for such purposes but is very challenging to utilise in industrial conditions. PVAc adhesives proved efficient only for combination with AL implants and in dry conditions. Aluminium sheets were shown to require surface pre-treatment, such as sanding and degreasing or a different type of adhesive to achieve sufficient adhesion.
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Arivazhagan M, Kannan P, Maduraiveeran G. Gold Nanoclusters Dispersed on Gold Dendrite-Based Carbon Fibre Microelectrodes for the Sensitive Detection of Nitric Oxide in Human Serum. Biosensors (Basel) 2022; 12:bios12121128. [PMID: 36551095 PMCID: PMC9776376 DOI: 10.3390/bios12121128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2022] [Revised: 11/22/2022] [Accepted: 11/29/2022] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Herein, gold nanoclusters (Au NC) dispersed on gold dendrite (Au DS)-based flexible carbon fibre (AuNC@AuDS|CF) microelectrodes are developed using a one-step electrochemical approach. The as-fabricated AuNC@AuDS|CF microelectrodes work as the prospective electrode materials for the sensitive detection of nitric oxide (NO) in a 0.1 M phosphate buffer (PB) solution. Carbon microfibre acts as an efficient matrix for the direct growth of AuNC@AuDS without any binder/extra reductant. The AuNC@AuDS|CF microelectrodes exhibit outstanding electrocatalytic activity towards NO oxidation, which is ascribed to their large electrochemical active surface area (ECSA), high electrical conductivity, and high dispersion of Au nanoclusters. As a result, the AuNC@AuDS|CF microelectrodes attain a rapid response time (3 s), a low limit of detection (LOD) (0.11 nM), high sensitivity (66.32 µA µM cm-2), a wide linear range (2 nM-7.7 µM), long-term stability, good reproducibility, and a strong anti-interference capability. Moreover, the present microsensor successfully tested for the discriminating detection of NO in real human serum samples, revealing its potential practicability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mani Arivazhagan
- Materials Electrochemistry Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Kattankulathur, Chennai 603203, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Palanisamy Kannan
- College of Biological, Chemical Sciences and Engineering, Jiaxing University, Jiaxing 314001, China
| | - Govindhan Maduraiveeran
- Materials Electrochemistry Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Kattankulathur, Chennai 603203, Tamil Nadu, India
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Bondy M, Mohammadkhani P, Magliaro J, Altenhof W. Elevated Strain Rate Characterization of Compression Molded Direct/In-Line Compounded Carbon Fibre/Polyamide 66 Long Fibre Thermoplastic. Materials (Basel) 2022; 15:7667. [PMID: 36363258 PMCID: PMC9656942 DOI: 10.3390/ma15217667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2022] [Revised: 10/24/2022] [Accepted: 10/27/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Compression molded direct compounded carbon fibre D-LFT was evaluated at quasi-static strain rates through uniaxial tension tests (including a specimen size study) and a variation of the ISO 6603-2 puncture test. No significant size effects were observed for the modulus or strength obtained from tensile specimens with four gauge lengths (6.25 mm to 57 mm). Failure strain decreased by 27.5%/29.9%, respectively, across the gauge length range for the 0°/90° directions. Intermediate strain rate (10 s-1 to 200 s-1) characterization was completed through uniaxial tension tests on a novel apparatus and ISO 6603-2 puncture tests. Intermediate rate tensile tests showed minimal rate sensitivity for the 0°/90° directions. Initial stiffness was 50% higher for ISO 6603-2 impact tests compared to quasi-static tests. Displacement at the onset of fracture was 95% lower for impact tests compared to quasi-static loading. The peak force/displacement at peak force were reduced for impact tests (21% and 20%, respectively) compared to quasi-static testing.
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Skórczewska K, Lewandowski K, Wilczewski S. Novel Composites of Poly(vinyl chloride) with Carbon Fibre/Carbon Nanotube Hybrid Filler. Materials (Basel) 2022; 15:5625. [PMID: 36013761 PMCID: PMC9415811 DOI: 10.3390/ma15165625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2022] [Revised: 08/12/2022] [Accepted: 08/15/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
This article presents the results of studies of poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) composites modified with a hybrid carbon filler of carbon fibres (CFs) and multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs). The hybrid filler was produced by a solvent method, using poly(vinyl acetate) (PVAc) as an adhesive. The proportion of components in the hybrid filler with CF-CNT-PVAc was 50:2.5:1, respectively. The obtained hybrid filler was evaluated by SEM, TG, and Raman spectroscopy. The PVC composites were produced by extrusion with proportions of the hybrid filler as 1 wt%, 5 wt%, or 10 wt%. Thermal stability by the TG method, mechanical properties, and the glass transition temperature (Tg) by the DMA and DSC methods were determined. The composite structure was evaluated by SEM and Raman spectroscopy. The effect of the hybrid filler on electrical properties was investigated by studying the cross and surface resistivity. It was concluded that, aside from a substantial increase in the elastic modulus, no substantial improvement in the PVC/CF/CNT composites' mechanical properties was observed; however, slight increases in thermal stability and Tg were noted. The addition of the hybrid filler contributed to a substantial change in the composites' electrical properties. SEM observations demonstrated improved CNT dispersibility in the matrix, however, without a completely homogeneous coverage of CF by CNT.
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Abstract
Aims Due to their radiolucency and favourable mechanical properties, carbon fibre nails may be a preferable alternative to titanium nails for oncology patients. We aim to compare the surgical characteristics and short-term results of patients who underwent intramedullary fixation with either a titanium or carbon fibre nail for pathological long-bone fracture. Methods This single tertiary-institutional, retrospectively matched case-control study included 72 patients who underwent prophylactic or therapeutic fixation for pathological fracture of the humerus, femur, or tibia with either a titanium (control group, n = 36) or carbon fibre (case group, n = 36) intramedullary nail between 2016 to 2020. Patients were excluded if intramedullary fixation was combined with any other surgical procedure/fixation method. Outcomes included operating time, blood loss, fluoroscopic time, and complications. Fisher’s exact test and Mann-Whitney U test were used for categorical and continuous outcomes, respectively. Results Patients receiving carbon nails as compared to those receiving titanium nails had higher blood loss (median 150 ml (interquartile range (IQR) 100 to 250) vs 100 ml (IQR 50 to 150); p = 0.042) and longer fluoroscopic time (median 150 seconds (IQR 114 to 182) vs 94 seconds (IQR 58 to 124); p = 0.001). Implant complications occurred in seven patients (19%) in the titanium group versus one patient (3%) in the carbon fibre group (p = 0.055). There were no notable differences between groups with regard to operating time, surgical wound infection, or survival. Conclusion This pilot study demonstrates a non-inferior surgical and short-term clinical profile supporting further consideration of carbon fibre nails for pathological fracture fixation in orthopaedic oncology patients. Given enhanced accommodation of imaging methods important for oncological surveillance and radiation therapy planning, as well as high tolerances to fatigue stress, carbon fibre implants possess important oncological advantages over titanium implants that merit further prospective investigation. Level of evidence: III, Retrospective study Cite this article: Bone Jt Open 2022;3(8):648–655.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caleb M Yeung
- Division of Orthopaedic Oncology, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Abhiram R Bhashyam
- Division of Orthopaedic Oncology, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Olivier Q Groot
- Division of Orthopaedic Oncology, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Nelson Merchan
- Division of Orthopaedic Oncology, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Erik T Newman
- Division of Orthopaedic Oncology, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Kevin A Raskin
- Division of Orthopaedic Oncology, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Santiago A Lozano-Calderón
- Division of Orthopaedic Oncology, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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Majko J, Vaško M, Handrik M, Sága M. Tensile Properties of Additively Manufactured Thermoplastic Composites Reinforced with Chopped Carbon Fibre. Materials (Basel) 2022; 15:ma15124224. [PMID: 35744280 PMCID: PMC9227464 DOI: 10.3390/ma15124224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2022] [Revised: 05/26/2022] [Accepted: 06/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
3D printing allows controlled deposition of composite components, which the user defines by the modification of the printing parameters. The article demonstrates that all observed printing parameters (infill type, infill orientation) influence the tensile test results of nylon reinforced with chopped carbon fiber. The highest tensile strength obtains specimens with the maximum number of walls around the circumference. The plastic region of the tensile diagram differs significantly with the change of material orientation in the structure, as the specimens with material deposited 45/−45 to the load axis have four times greater tensile strains and 20% higher tensile stresses than 0/90. The assessment of results reveals the significant difference between deformations at break and permanent deformations. In addition, the permanent lateral strain reaches up to 20%. Finally, the article consists of a brief assessment of the printing parameters (printing time, weight) of individual series. The future modelling in FEA software requires additional experiments to verify the viscoelastic properties of the material.
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Seward O, Cepero-Mejías F, Fairclough JPA, Kerrigan K. Development of a Novel Friction Model for Machining Simulations in Unidirectional Composite Materials. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:polym14050847. [PMID: 35267670 PMCID: PMC8912857 DOI: 10.3390/polym14050847] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2022] [Revised: 02/04/2022] [Accepted: 02/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Constant coefficients of friction (COFs) are currently used in the literature to describe the contact mechanics between tool and workpiece for finite element (FE) machining simulation of carbon fibre-reinforced polymers (CFRPs). However, these are solely based on closed-loop tribology experimentation, which insufficiently represent machining conditions. To overcome this gap in the knowledge, this work proposes a novel experimental open-loop tribological testing method to produce a dynamic FE friction model for CFRP machining simulations. The newly proposed dynamic friction model is based on a function of fibre angle, contact pressure and slip rate, and it has been validated to both experimental results and constant COF FE simulations. The main aim of this article is to create a link between machining, tribology and FE simulation, by implementing cutting-edge tribological testing that results in highly accurate FE simulations. This dynamic model has been shown to improve the accuracy of open-loop tribological simulations, giving confidence in future implantation in CFRP machining simulations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oscar Seward
- AMRC with Boeing, Advanced Manufacturing Park, Wallis Way, Catcliff, Rotherham S60 5TZ, UK; (F.C.-M.); (K.K.)
- Industrial Doctorate Centre in Machining Science, The University of Sheffield, Sir Frederick Mappin Building, Mappin Street, Sheffield S1 3JD, UK
- Correspondence:
| | - Fernando Cepero-Mejías
- AMRC with Boeing, Advanced Manufacturing Park, Wallis Way, Catcliff, Rotherham S60 5TZ, UK; (F.C.-M.); (K.K.)
- Industrial Doctorate Centre in Machining Science, The University of Sheffield, Sir Frederick Mappin Building, Mappin Street, Sheffield S1 3JD, UK
| | - J. Patrick A. Fairclough
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Sheffield, Sir Frederick Mappin Building, Mappin Street, Sheffield S1 3JD, UK;
| | - Kevin Kerrigan
- AMRC with Boeing, Advanced Manufacturing Park, Wallis Way, Catcliff, Rotherham S60 5TZ, UK; (F.C.-M.); (K.K.)
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15
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Saeed K, McIlhagger A, Harkin-Jones E, McGarrigle C, Dixon D, Archer E. Elastic Modulus and Flatwise (Through-Thickness) Tensile Strength of Continuous Carbon Fibre Reinforced 3D Printed Polymer Composites. Materials (Basel) 2022; 15:1002. [PMID: 35160944 DOI: 10.3390/ma15031002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2021] [Revised: 01/20/2022] [Accepted: 01/21/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Additively manufactured composite specimens exhibit anisotropic properties, meaning that the elastic response changes with respect to orientation. Both in-plane and out-of-plane mechanical properties are important for designing purpose. Recent studies have characterised the in-plane performance. In this study, however, through-thickness tensile strength of 3D polymer composites were determined by printing of continuous carbon fibre reinforced thermoplastic polyamide-based composite, manufactured using a Markforged Two 3D printer. This paper discusses sample fabrication and geometry, adhesive used, and testing procedure. Test standards used to determine out-of-plane properties are tedious as most of the premature failures occur between the specimens and the tabs. Two types of samples were printed according to ASTM flatwise tension standard and the results were compared to determine the geometry effect on the interlaminar strength. This test method consists of subjecting the printed sample to a uniaxial tensile force normal to the plane. With this method, the acceptable failure modes for tensile strength must be internal to the structure, not between the sample and the end tabs. Micro-computed tomography (µCT) was carried out to observe the porosity. Surface behaviour was studied using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) to see the voids and the distribution of the fibres in the samples. The results showed consistent values for tensile strength and elastic modulus for Araldite glue after initial trials (with some other adhesives) to determine a suitable choice of adhesive for bonding the samples with the tabs. Circular specimens have higher tensile strength and elastic modulus as compared to rectangular specimens.
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16
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Karuppannan Gopalraj S, Deviatkin I, Horttanainen M, Kärki T. Life Cycle Assessment of a Thermal Recycling Process as an Alternative to Existing CFRP and GFRP Composite Wastes Management Options. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:polym13244430. [PMID: 34960982 PMCID: PMC8706011 DOI: 10.3390/polym13244430] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2021] [Revised: 11/25/2021] [Accepted: 12/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
There are forecasts for the exponential increase in the generation of carbon fibre-reinforced polymer (CFRP) and glass fibre-reinforced polymer (GFRP) composite wastes containing valuable carbon and glass fibres. The recent adoption of these composites in wind turbines and aeroplanes has increased the amount of end-of-life waste from these applications. By adequately closing the life cycle loop, these enormous volumes of waste can partly satisfy the global demand for their virgin counterparts. Therefore, there is a need to properly dispose these composite wastes, with material recovery being the final target, thanks to the strict EU regulations for promoting recycling and reusing as the highest priorities in waste disposal options. In addition, the hefty taxation has almost brought about an end to landfills. These government regulations towards properly recycling these composite wastes have changed the industries’ attitudes toward sustainable disposal approaches, and life cycle assessment (LCA) plays a vital role in this transition phase. This LCA study uses climate change results and fossil fuel consumptions to study the environmental impacts of a thermal recycling route to recycle and remanufacture CFRP and GFRP wastes into recycled rCFRP and rGFRP composites. Additionally, a comprehensive analysis was performed comparing with the traditional waste management options such as landfill, incineration with energy recovery and feedstock for cement kiln. Overall, the LCA results were favourable for CFRP wastes to be recycled using the thermal recycling route with lower environmental impacts. However, this contradicts GFRP wastes in which using them as feedstock in cement kiln production displayed more reduced environmental impacts than those thermally recycled to substitute virgin composite production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sankar Karuppannan Gopalraj
- Fiber Composite Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineering, LUT University, P.O. Box 20, 53850 Lappeenranta, Finland;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +358-417-511-736
| | - Ivan Deviatkin
- Department of Sustainability Science, LUT University, P.O. Box 20, 53850 Lappeenranta, Finland; (I.D.); (M.H.)
| | - Mika Horttanainen
- Department of Sustainability Science, LUT University, P.O. Box 20, 53850 Lappeenranta, Finland; (I.D.); (M.H.)
| | - Timo Kärki
- Fiber Composite Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineering, LUT University, P.O. Box 20, 53850 Lappeenranta, Finland;
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17
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Nuhiji B, Bower MP, Proud WAE, Burpo SJ, Day RJ, Scaife RJ, Swait T. The Effects of Absorbing Materials on the Homogeneity of Composite Heating by Microwave Radiation. Materials (Basel) 2021; 14:ma14237362. [PMID: 34885514 PMCID: PMC8658570 DOI: 10.3390/ma14237362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2021] [Revised: 11/25/2021] [Accepted: 11/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
When cured in a microwave, flat thin composite panels can experience even heat distribution throughout the laminate. However, as load and geometric complexity increase, the electromagnetic field and resulting heat distribution is altered, making it difficult to cure the composite homogeneously. Materials that absorb and/or reflect incident electromagnetic radiation have the potential to influence how the field behaves, and therefore to tailor and improve the uniformity of heat distribution. In this study, an absorber was applied to a composite with non-uniform geometry to increase heating in the location which had previously been the coldest position, transforming it into the hottest. Although this result overshot the desired outcome of temperature uniformity, it shows the potential of absorbing materials to radically change the temperature distribution, demonstrating that with better regulation of the absorbing effect, a uniform temperature distribution is possible even in non-uniform composite geometries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Betime Nuhiji
- Advanced Manufacturing Research Centre, University of Sheffield, Wallis Way, Catcliffe, Rotherham S60 5TZ, UK; (M.P.B.); (W.A.E.P.); (R.J.S.); (T.S.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Matthew P. Bower
- Advanced Manufacturing Research Centre, University of Sheffield, Wallis Way, Catcliffe, Rotherham S60 5TZ, UK; (M.P.B.); (W.A.E.P.); (R.J.S.); (T.S.)
| | - William A. E. Proud
- Advanced Manufacturing Research Centre, University of Sheffield, Wallis Way, Catcliffe, Rotherham S60 5TZ, UK; (M.P.B.); (W.A.E.P.); (R.J.S.); (T.S.)
| | | | - Richard J. Day
- Faculty of Arts, Science and Technology, Wrexham Glyndŵr University, Plas Coch, Mold Road, Wrexham LL11 2AW, UK;
| | - Richard J. Scaife
- Advanced Manufacturing Research Centre, University of Sheffield, Wallis Way, Catcliffe, Rotherham S60 5TZ, UK; (M.P.B.); (W.A.E.P.); (R.J.S.); (T.S.)
| | - Timothy Swait
- Advanced Manufacturing Research Centre, University of Sheffield, Wallis Way, Catcliffe, Rotherham S60 5TZ, UK; (M.P.B.); (W.A.E.P.); (R.J.S.); (T.S.)
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18
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Pappa EJ, Quinn JA, Murray JJ, Davidson JR, Ó Brádaigh CM, McCarthy ED. Experimental Study on the Interlaminar Fracture Properties of Carbon Fibre Reinforced Polymer Composites with a Single Embedded Toughened Film. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:polym13234103. [PMID: 34883607 PMCID: PMC8659136 DOI: 10.3390/polym13234103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2021] [Revised: 11/14/2021] [Accepted: 11/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
In this study, two types of single polymer films have been inserted in a composite laminate to examine their toughening effects on mechanical properties. The first is a thermoplastic polyurethane (PU) film, and the second is an adhesive epoxy film featuring a polyester net. The laminates were manufactured either using a co-curing (CC) process or a secondary bonding (SB) process used for the epoxy film. Mode I and mode II interlaminar fracture toughness were measured for laminates manufactured by both processes and compared with the corresponding reference laminate toughness. A significant increase in both mode I and mode II toughness resulted when introducing a single PU film, approximately 290% and 50%, respectively. Similarly, the epoxy film improved the interlaminar fracture properties; the CC process produced an increase of 175% for mode II toughness, while the SB adhesive film showed an increase of 75% for mode II toughness.
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19
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Hashim MKR, Majid MSA, Jamir MRM, Kasim FH, Sultan MTH, Shah AUM, Ahmad KA, Basri AA. The Effect of Stacking Sequence on Fatigue Behaviour of Hybrid Pineapple Leaf Fibre/Carbon-Fibre-Reinforced Epoxy Composites. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:polym13223936. [PMID: 34833235 PMCID: PMC8619359 DOI: 10.3390/polym13223936] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2021] [Revised: 09/19/2021] [Accepted: 09/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
This study examined the fatigue behaviour of pineapple leaf fibre/carbon hybrid laminate composites under various stacking sequences. The vacuum infusion technique was used to fabricate the symmetric quasi-isotropic oriented laminates, in which the stacking was varied. The laminate was tested under static and fatigue tensile load according to ASTM D3039-76 and ASTM D3479-96, respectively. Maximum tensile strength and modulus of 119.34 MPa and 6.86 GPa, respectively, were recorded for the laminate with external PALF ply and internal carbon ply oriented at [± 45°2, 0°/90°2]s (PCCP_45090). The fatigue tests showed that PCCP_45090 and CPPC_09045 (with internal PALF ply and external carbon ply oriented at [0°/90°2, ± 45°2]s) exhibited a higher useful life, especially at the high-stress level of the ultimate tensile strength. The normalised stress against the number of cycles showed that the stacking sequences of different ply orientations affected the fatigue behaviour more than the stacking sequences of the material. The laminate stacking sequence significantly affected the hysteresis energy and stiffness evolution. The scanning electron microscopy images showed that the fatigue failure modes included fibre pull-out, fibre breakage, matrix cracking, debonding, and delamination. The study concluded that PCCP_45090 exhibited an outstanding fatigue performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohd Khairul Rabani Hashim
- Faculty of Mechanical Engineering Technology, Universiti Malaysia Perlis (UniMAP), Kangar 02100, Malaysia
- Faculty of Chemical Engineering Technology, Universiti Malaysia Perlis (UniMAP), Kangar 02100, Malaysia
| | - Mohd Shukry Abdul Majid
- Faculty of Mechanical Engineering Technology, Universiti Malaysia Perlis (UniMAP), Kangar 02100, Malaysia
- Frontier Materials Research, Centre of Excellence (FrontMate), Universiti Malaysia Perlis (UniMAP), Kangar 02100, Malaysia
| | - Mohd Ridzuan Mohd Jamir
- Faculty of Mechanical Engineering Technology, Universiti Malaysia Perlis (UniMAP), Kangar 02100, Malaysia
- Frontier Materials Research, Centre of Excellence (FrontMate), Universiti Malaysia Perlis (UniMAP), Kangar 02100, Malaysia
| | - Farizul Hafiz Kasim
- Faculty of Chemical Engineering Technology, Universiti Malaysia Perlis (UniMAP), Kangar 02100, Malaysia
| | - Mohamed Thariq Hameed Sultan
- Department of Aerospace Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang 43400, Malaysia
- Laboratory of Biocomposite Technology, Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products (INTROP), Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang 43400, Malaysia
- Aerospace Malaysia Innovation Centre (944751-A), Prime Minister's Department, MIGHT Partnership Hub, Jalan Impact, Cyberjaya 63000, Malaysia
| | - Ain Umaira Md Shah
- Department of Aerospace Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang 43400, Malaysia
| | - Kamarul Arifin Ahmad
- Department of Aerospace Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang 43400, Malaysia
| | - Adi Azriff Basri
- Department of Aerospace Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang 43400, Malaysia
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20
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Grisin B, Carosella S, Middendorf P. Dry Fibre Placement: The Influence of Process Parameters on Mechanical Laminate Properties and Infusion Behaviour. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:3853. [PMID: 34771408 DOI: 10.3390/polym13213853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2021] [Revised: 10/08/2021] [Accepted: 10/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Within the dry fibre placement (DFP) process, spread and pre-bindered carbon fibre rovings are automatically processed into dry textile preforms using 2-D and 3-D laying systems. The aim was to automate existing hand lay-up processes, reducing the complexity, increasing robustness, and facilitating the handling of the DFP technology. Process reliability, low waste rates, and flexible production are demonstrated. In this publication, the influences of the process parameters, 2 mm wide gaps and the percentage of 90° plies in the laminate, are investigated with regard to the mechanical properties, the permeability, and the infusion times in the preform z-direction (thickness). The effects on stiffness and strength are compared for several use cases. An approach to determine the infusion times as a function of the laminate thickness, the ply structure, and 2 mm wide gaps is demonstrated and analysed using vacuum-assisted process (VAP) infusion tests. The investigations are performed with carbon fibre tows (24 k), a reactive epoxy-based binder system, and a thermoset infusion resin system.
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21
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Bostan L, Hosseinaei O, Fourné R, Herrmann AS. Upscaling of lignin precursor melt spinning by bicomponent spinning and its use for carbon fibre production. Philos Trans A Math Phys Eng Sci 2021; 379:20200334. [PMID: 34510930 DOI: 10.1098/rsta.2020.0334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/18/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Upscaling lignin-based precursor fibre production is an essential step in developing bio-based carbon fibre from renewable feedstock. The main challenge in upscaling of lignin fibre production by melt spinning is its melt behaviour and rheological properties, which differ from common synthetic polymers used in melt spinning. Here, a new approach in melt spinning of lignin, using a spin carrier system for producing bicomponent fibres, has been introduced. An ethanol extracted lignin fraction from LignoBoost process of commercial softwood kraft black liquor was used as feedstock. After additional heat treatment, melt spinning was performed in a pilot-scale spinning unit. For the first time, biodegradable polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) was used as a spin carrier to enable the spinning of lignin by improving the required melt strength. PVA-sheath/lignin-core bicomponent fibres were manufactured. Afterwards, PVA was dissolved by washing with water. Pure lignin fibres were stabilized and carbonized, and tensile properties were measured. The measured properties, tensile modulus of 81.1 ± 3.1 GPa and tensile strength of 1039 ± 197 MPa, are higher than the majority of lignin-based carbon fibres reported in the literature. This new approach can significantly improve the melt spinning of lignin and solve problems related to poor spinnability of lignin and results in the production of high-quality lignin-based carbon fibres. This article is part of the theme issue 'Bio-derived and bioinspired sustainable advanced materials for emerging technologies (part 2)'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lars Bostan
- Fibre and Material Development Department, Faserinstitut Bremen e.V, 28359 Bremen, Germany
| | - Omid Hosseinaei
- RISE Innventia AB, RISE Research Institutes of Sweden, 11486 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Renate Fourné
- FOURNÉ Maschinenbau GmbH, 53347 Alfter-Impekoven, Germany
| | - Axel S Herrmann
- Fibre and Material Development Department, Faserinstitut Bremen e.V, 28359 Bremen, Germany
- Faculty of Production Engineering, University of Bremen, 28359 Bremen, Germany
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22
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Karuppannan Gopalraj S, Kärki T. A Finite Element Study to Investigate the Mechanical Behaviour of Unidirectional Recycled Carbon Fibre/Glass Fibre-Reinforced Epoxy Composites. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:3192. [PMID: 34578093 DOI: 10.3390/polym13183192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2021] [Revised: 09/09/2021] [Accepted: 09/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Recycled carbon fibre–reinforced epoxy (rCF/EP) composites and recycled glass fibre–reinforced epoxy (rGF/EP) composites were numerically investigated to examine their mechanical properties, such as uniaxial tensile and impact resistance, using finite element (FE) methods. The recycled composites possess unidirectional, long and continuous fibre arrangements. A commercially available Abaqus/CAE software was used to perform an explicit non-linear analysis with a macroscale modelling approach, assuming the recycled composites as both homogenous and isotropic hardening. Five composite types were subjected to a numerical study based on the recycled fibre’s volume fraction (40 and 60%) of rCF/EP and rGF/EP, along with (100%) fibreless cured epoxy samples. The materials were defined as elastoplastic with a continuum ductile damage (DUCTCRT) model. The experimental tensile test results were processed and calibrated as primary input data for the developed FE models. The numerical tensile results, maximum principal stress and logarithmic strain were validated with their respective experimental results. The stress–strain curves of both results possess a high accuracy, supporting the developed FE model. The numerical impact tests examined the von Mises stress distribution and found an exponential decrease in the stiffness of the composite types as their strength decreased, with the 60% rCF/EP sample being the stiffest. The model was sensitive to the mesh size, hammer velocity and simulation time step. Additionally, the total internal energy and plastic dissipation energy were measured, but were higher than the experimentally measured energies, as the FE models eliminated the defects from the recycled process, such as a poor fibre wettability to resin, fibre bundle formation in rCFs and char formation in rGFs. Overall, the developed FE models predicted the results for a defect-free rCF/EP and rGF/EP composite. Hence, the adopted modelling techniques can validate the experimental results of recycled composites with complex mechanical properties and damage behaviours in tensile and impact loading conditions.
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Salahuddin B, Faisal SN, Baigh TA, Alghamdi MN, Islam MS, Song B, Zhang X, Gao S, Aziz S. Carbonaceous Materials Coated Carbon Fibre Reinforced Polymer Matrix Composites. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:2771. [PMID: 34451310 DOI: 10.3390/polym13162771] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2021] [Revised: 08/16/2021] [Accepted: 08/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Carbon fibre reinforced polymer composites have high mechanical properties that make them exemplary engineered materials to carry loads and stresses. Coupling fibre and matrix together require good understanding of not only fibre morphology but also matrix rheology. One way of having a strongly coupled fibre and matrix interface is to size the reinforcing fibres by means of micro- or nanocarbon materials coating on the fibre surface. Common coating materials used are carbon nanotubes and nanofibres and graphene, and more recently carbon black (colloidal particles of virtually pure elemental carbon) and graphite. There are several chemical, thermal, and electrochemical processes that are used for coating the carbonous materials onto a carbon fibre surface. Sizing of fibres provides higher interfacial adhesion between fibre and matrix and allows better fibre wetting by the surrounded matrix material. This review paper goes over numerous techniques that are used for engineering the interface between both fibre and matrix systems, which is eventually the key to better mechanical properties of the composite systems.
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24
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Hao S, He L, Liu J, Liu Y, Rudd C, Liu X. Recovery of Carbon Fibre from Waste Prepreg via Microwave Pyrolysis. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:1231. [PMID: 33920308 PMCID: PMC8068930 DOI: 10.3390/polym13081231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2021] [Revised: 03/30/2021] [Accepted: 04/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Management of waste from carbon fibre composites has become a significant societal issue as the application of composite grows across many industries. In this study, carbon fibres (CF) were successfully recovered from cured carbon fibre/epoxy (CF/EP) prepreg under microwave pyrolysis at 450, 550 and 650 °C followed by oxidation of any residual char. The recovered fibres were investigated for their tensile properties, surface morphologies and the elements/functional groups presented on the surface. The chemical compositions of gaseous and oil pyrolysis products were also analysed. The microwave pyrolysis effectively pyrolyzed the epoxy (EP) resin. Char residue remained on the fibre surface and the amount of char reduced as the pyrolysis temperature increased. Compared to virgin fibres, the recovered fibre suffered from a strength reduction by less than 20%, and this reduction could be mitigated by reducing the pyrolysis temperature. The surface of recovered fibre remained clean and smooth, while the profile of elements and functional groups at the surface were similar to those of virgin fibres. The main gaseous products were CO, H2, CO2 and CH4, whilst the liquid product stream included phenolic and aromatic compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siqi Hao
- Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Nottingham Ningbo China, Ningbo 315100, China; (S.H.); (L.H.); (J.L.); (Y.L.)
- New Material Institute, University of Nottingham Ningbo China, Ningbo 315100, China
| | - Lizhe He
- Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Nottingham Ningbo China, Ningbo 315100, China; (S.H.); (L.H.); (J.L.); (Y.L.)
| | - Jiaqi Liu
- Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Nottingham Ningbo China, Ningbo 315100, China; (S.H.); (L.H.); (J.L.); (Y.L.)
| | - Yuhao Liu
- Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Nottingham Ningbo China, Ningbo 315100, China; (S.H.); (L.H.); (J.L.); (Y.L.)
| | - Chris Rudd
- James Cook University (JCU), Singapore 387380, Singapore;
| | - Xiaoling Liu
- Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Nottingham Ningbo China, Ningbo 315100, China; (S.H.); (L.H.); (J.L.); (Y.L.)
- New Material Institute, University of Nottingham Ningbo China, Ningbo 315100, China
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25
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Moise C, Rachmani L, Mihai G, Lazar O, Enăchescu M, Naveh N. Pulsed Laser Deposition of SWCNTs on Carbon Fibres: Effect of Deposition Temperature. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:1138. [PMID: 33918350 DOI: 10.3390/polym13071138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2021] [Revised: 03/27/2021] [Accepted: 03/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Single wall carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) were grown on either sized or desized carbon fabric in a self-designed reactor by Pulsed Laser Deposition (PLD). The uniqueness of the PLD system lies, among other things, in the ability to keep the substrate at a low temperature, compared to the 1100 °C needed for the SWCNTs synthesis, thus, rendering it undamaged. Samples were placed at different positions on a cold finger (CF), where a temperature gradient develops, in the range 25–565 °C. The chemical composition and morphology of desized and surface treatments, as well as SWCNTs grown on carbon fibres, were verified by Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) equipped with Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy (EDX), while the quality of SWCNTs was proven by confocal micro-Raman Spectroscopy and High-Resolution Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy (HR-STEM). Fibres covered with SWCNTs by PLD were characterized using contact angle and the surface free energy was calculated. A micro-droplet pull-out test was used to evaluate the effect of SWCNTs over interfacial properties of a carbon-epoxy composite. A 20% increase in interfacial shear strength (IFSS) was observed by deposition at 290 °C, compared to the commercial carbon fibre sizing. The carbon fibres kept their tensile properties due to the low deposition temperatures.
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Hashim MKR, Abdul Majid MS, Jamir MRM, Kasim FH, Sultan MTH. The Effect of Stacking Sequence and Ply Orientation on the Mechanical Properties of Pineapple Leaf Fibre (PALF)/Carbon Hybrid Laminate Composites. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:455. [PMID: 33572609 DOI: 10.3390/polym13030455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2020] [Revised: 01/14/2021] [Accepted: 01/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
In this paper, the effects of stacking sequence and ply orientation on the mechanical properties of pineapple leaf fibre (PALF)/carbon hybrid laminate composites were investigated. The hybrid laminates were fabricated using a vacuum infusion technique in which the stacking sequences and ply orientations were varied, which were divided into the categories of cross-ply symmetric, angle-ply symmetric, and symmetric quasi-isotropic. The results of tensile and flexural tests showed that the laminate with interior carbon plies and ply orientation [0°, 90°] exhibited the highest tensile strength (187.67 MPa) and modulus (5.23 GPa). However, the highest flexural strength (289.46 MPa) and modulus (4.82 GPa) were recorded for the laminate with exterior carbon plies and the same ply orientation. The fracture behaviour of the laminates was determined by using scanning electron microscopy, and the results showed that failure usually initiated at the weakest PALF layer. The failure modes included fibre pull-out, fibre breaking, matrix crack, debonding, and delamination.
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Vaško M, Sága M, Majko J, Vaško A, Handrik M. Impact Toughness of FRTP Composites Produced by 3D Printing. Materials (Basel) 2020; 13:ma13245654. [PMID: 33322382 PMCID: PMC7764614 DOI: 10.3390/ma13245654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2020] [Revised: 12/07/2020] [Accepted: 12/09/2020] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
The additive manufacturing represents a new production method of composites reinforced with a continuous fibre. In recent times, the material produced by this new manufacturing method constituted a replacement for conventional materials-e.g., steel in many technical areas. As the research on FRTP composites is currently under way, the purpose of this article is to add information to the mosaic of studies in this research area. The scientific articles published until now have focused especially on mechanical testing, such as tensile and bending mechanical testing and their assessment. Therefore, the authors decided to carry out and assess the impact test of the FRTP composites produced by 3D printing because this area offers a large extent of research activities. We observed the influence of the reinforcement in the form of the micro-fibre carbon in the thermoplastic (Onyx) or a continuous reinforcement fibre in the lamina on the specimen's behaviour during the impact load processes. The results of the experimental measurements show that the presence of a continuous fibre in the structure significantly affects the strength of the printed specimens; however, the design process of the printed object has to take into account the importance of selecting a suitable fibre type. The selection of a suitable strategy for arranging the fibre in the lamina and the direction of the impact load against the position of the fibre seem to be very important parameters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Milan Vaško
- Department of Applied Mechanics, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Žilina, Univerzitná 8215/1, 010 26 Žilina, Slovakia; (M.V.); (M.S.); (M.H.)
| | - Milan Sága
- Department of Applied Mechanics, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Žilina, Univerzitná 8215/1, 010 26 Žilina, Slovakia; (M.V.); (M.S.); (M.H.)
| | - Jaroslav Majko
- Department of Applied Mechanics, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Žilina, Univerzitná 8215/1, 010 26 Žilina, Slovakia; (M.V.); (M.S.); (M.H.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +421-41-513-2965
| | - Alan Vaško
- Department of Materials Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Žilina, Univerzitná 8215/1, 010 26 Žilina, Slovakia;
| | - Marián Handrik
- Department of Applied Mechanics, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Žilina, Univerzitná 8215/1, 010 26 Žilina, Slovakia; (M.V.); (M.S.); (M.H.)
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Dhakal HN, Sain M. Enhancement of Mechanical Properties of Flax-Epoxy Composite with Carbon Fibre Hybridisation for Lightweight Applications. Materials (Basel) 2019; 13:ma13010109. [PMID: 31881745 PMCID: PMC6981686 DOI: 10.3390/ma13010109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2019] [Revised: 12/19/2019] [Accepted: 12/20/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The effect of unidirectional (UD) carbon fibre hybridisation on the tensile properties of flax fibre epoxy composite was investigated. Composites containing different fibre ply orientations were fabricated using vacuum infusion with a symmetrical ply structure of 0/+45/−45/90/90/−45/+45/0. Tensile tests were performed to characterise the tensile performance of plain flax/epoxy, carbon/flax/epoxy, and plain carbon/epoxy composite laminates. The experimental results showed that the carbon/flax fibre hybrid system exhibited significantly improved tensile properties over plain flax fibre composites, increasing the tensile strength from 68.12 MPa for plain flax/epoxy composite to 517.66 MPa (670% increase) and tensile modulus from 4.67 GPa for flax/epoxy to 18.91 GPa (305% increase) for carbon/flax hybrid composite. The failure mechanism was characterised by examining the fractured surfaces of tensile tested specimens using environmental scanning electron microscopy (E-SEM). It was evidenced that interactions between hybrid ply interfaces and strain to failure of the reinforcing fibres were the critical factors for governing tensile properties and failure modes of hybrid composites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hom Nath Dhakal
- Advanced Materials and Manufacturing (AMM) Research Group, School of Mechanical and Design Engineering, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth PO1 3DJ, UK
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +44(0)-23-9284-2582
| | - Mohini Sain
- Center for Biocomposites and Biomaterials Processing, Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3B3, Canada;
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Cawley DT, Alzakri A, Fujishiro T, Kieser DC, Tavalaro C, Boissiere L, Obeid I, Pointillart V, Vital JM, Gille O. Carbon-fibre cage reconstruction in anterior cervical corpectomy for multilevel cervical spondylosis: mid-term outcomes. J Spine Surg 2019; 5:251-258. [PMID: 31380479 DOI: 10.21037/jss.2019.03.08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Background Mid-term clinical and radiological evaluation of a carbon-fiber cage in multilevel cervical spondylosis (MCS). Anterior cervical corpectomy and fusion (ACCF) using titanium mesh cages (TMC) has shown satisfactory outcomes, but with subsidence of up to 20%. Conventional long-fiber carbon fiber cages have shown a safe profile in discectomy/fusion (ACDF) but with minimal data in the setting of corpectomy. Methods Retrospective review of a single centre multi-surgeon cohort of MCS patients from 2007-2012. Follow-up period was a minimum of 3.5 years, mean 6 years. Outcomes included peri-operative, clinical [Nurick, European Myelopathy, Visual Analogue Scores (VAS), modified Japanese Orthopaedic Association (mJOA) scores and radiographic (C2C7, Cobb & ROM angles)]. Results A total of 102 consecutive patients were included. Mean length of stay was 5.5 (SD 3.5) days, blood loss 322 (SD 358) mL and operative time 98 (SD 31) min. Corpectomy levels included 72 single-level ACCF and 30 multiple ACCF. Fourteen had peri-operative complications. Three patients required early cage revisions. Mean pain scores improved from VAS neck 4.6 to 2.6 (P<0.01) and VAS arm 5.1 to 2.0 (P<0.01). Mean Nurick score improved from 1.2 to 0.4/4 (P<0.01). Mean follow-up EMS was 15.9/18 and mJOA was 14.0/17. Seventy follow-up radiographs were obtained. Flexion-extension angulation differences of >3 mm across the instrumented level were present in 5 patients, all of which displayed fusion of either grade 1 or 2. 7 had C2C7 kyphosis. Severe subsidence (>3 mm) was seen in 9 cases (13%). Conclusions Mid-term outcomes of this carbon-fiber cage indicate that it is safe and durable for the treatment of MCS with a similar radiological profile to that of TMC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Derek T Cawley
- l'Institut de la Colonne Vertébrale, Surgery Unit 1, 7ème étage, CHU Tripode Pellegrin, Bordeaux, France.,Department of Trauma & Orthopaedic Surgery, Tallaght University Hospital, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Abdulmajeed Alzakri
- l'Institut de la Colonne Vertébrale, Surgery Unit 1, 7ème étage, CHU Tripode Pellegrin, Bordeaux, France.,Orthopaedic Department, College of Medicine, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Takashi Fujishiro
- l'Institut de la Colonne Vertébrale, Surgery Unit 1, 7ème étage, CHU Tripode Pellegrin, Bordeaux, France.,Osaka Medical College, Takatsuki, Japan
| | - David C Kieser
- l'Institut de la Colonne Vertébrale, Surgery Unit 1, 7ème étage, CHU Tripode Pellegrin, Bordeaux, France.,Department of Orthopaedic Surgery and Musculoskeletal Medicine, Christchurch, New Zealand
| | - Celeste Tavalaro
- l'Institut de la Colonne Vertébrale, Surgery Unit 1, 7ème étage, CHU Tripode Pellegrin, Bordeaux, France
| | - Louis Boissiere
- l'Institut de la Colonne Vertébrale, Surgery Unit 1, 7ème étage, CHU Tripode Pellegrin, Bordeaux, France
| | - Ibrahim Obeid
- l'Institut de la Colonne Vertébrale, Surgery Unit 1, 7ème étage, CHU Tripode Pellegrin, Bordeaux, France
| | - Vincent Pointillart
- l'Institut de la Colonne Vertébrale, Surgery Unit 1, 7ème étage, CHU Tripode Pellegrin, Bordeaux, France
| | - Jean Marc Vital
- l'Institut de la Colonne Vertébrale, Surgery Unit 1, 7ème étage, CHU Tripode Pellegrin, Bordeaux, France
| | - Olivier Gille
- l'Institut de la Colonne Vertébrale, Surgery Unit 1, 7ème étage, CHU Tripode Pellegrin, Bordeaux, France
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Kamps JH, Henderson LC, Scheffler C, van der Heijden R, Simon F, Bonizzi T, Verghese N. Electrolytic Surface Treatment for Improved Adhesion between Carbon Fibre and Polycarbonate. Materials (Basel) 2018; 11:E2253. [PMID: 30424559 PMCID: PMC6267207 DOI: 10.3390/ma11112253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2018] [Revised: 10/31/2018] [Accepted: 11/06/2018] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
To achieve good mechanical properties of carbon fibre-reinforced polycarbonate composites, the fibre-matrix adhesion must be dialled to an optimum level. The electrolytic surface treatment of carbon fibres during their production is one of the possible means of adapting the surface characteristics of the fibres. The production of a range of tailored fibres with varying surface treatments (adjusting the current, potential, and conductivity) was followed by contact angle, inverse gas chromatography and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy measurements, which revealed a significant increase in polarity and hydroxyl, carboxyl, and nitrile groups on the fibre surface. Accordingly, an increase in the fibre-matrix interaction indicated by a higher interfacial shear strength was observed with the single fibre pull-out force-displacement curves. The statistical analysis identified the correlation between the process settings, fibre surface characteristics, and the performance of the fibres during single fibre pull-out testing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Henk Kamps
- SABIC, Plasticslaan 1, 4612PX Bergen op Zoom, The Netherlands.
| | - Luke C Henderson
- Institute for Frontier Materials, Carbon Nexus, Deakin University, 75 Pigdons Rd, Waurn Ponds, VIC 3216, Australia.
| | - Christina Scheffler
- Leibniz-Institut für Polymerforschung Dresden e.V. (IPF), Hohe Straße 6, 01069 Dresden, Germany.
| | | | - Frank Simon
- Leibniz-Institut für Polymerforschung Dresden e.V. (IPF), Hohe Straße 6, 01069 Dresden, Germany.
| | - Teena Bonizzi
- SABIC Technology Center, 6160 AL Geleen, The Netherlands.
| | - Nikhil Verghese
- SABIC Technology Center, Sugar Land, Houston, TX 77478, USA.
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Charles ADM, Rider AN. Triblock Copolymer Toughening of a Carbon Fibre-Reinforced Epoxy Composite for Bonded Repair. Polymers (Basel) 2018; 10:E888. [PMID: 30960813 PMCID: PMC6403887 DOI: 10.3390/polym10080888] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2018] [Revised: 07/31/2018] [Accepted: 08/07/2018] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Epoxy resins are the most widely used systems for structural composite applications; however, they lack fracture toughness, impact strength and peel strength due to high cross-linking densities. Use of conventional toughening agents to combat this can lead to reductions in mechanical, thermal and processability properties desirable for bonded composite applications. In this work, an asymmetric triblock copolymer of poly(styrene)⁻b⁻poly(butadiene)⁻b⁻poly(methylmethacrylate) was used to modify an epoxy resin system, with the materials processed using both vacuum bag and positive pressure curing techniques. Interlaminar fracture toughness testing showed improvements in initiation fracture toughness of up to 88%, accompanied by a 6 °C increase in glass transition temperature and manageable reductions in gel-time. Shear testing resulted in a 121% increase in ultimate shear strain with only an 8% reduction in shear strength. Performance improvements were attributed to nano-structuring within the toughened resin system, giving rise to matrix cavitation and dissipation of crack front strain energy upon loading.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew D M Charles
- Aerospace Division, Defence Science and Technology Group, Fishermans Bend 3207, Australia.
| | - Andrew N Rider
- Aerospace Division, Defence Science and Technology Group, Fishermans Bend 3207, Australia.
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Abstract
Elemental carbon has been known from time immemorial in its forms of diamond and graphite, while the Industrial Revolution was powered by coal. The molecular structures of diamond and graphite were established following the inception of X-ray crystallography while the complex natures of charcoal and coal have been investigated for 100 years. Recent developments in activated charcoal are described in an article in this issue of Science Progress. However, no-one could have guessed that carbon would have presented such structural surprises as those of C60 fullerene, carbon nanotubes, and graphene. Materials science has benefited from the discovery of carbon fibres, and our understanding of the spectroscopy and bonding in the simplest carbon molecule, C2, has reached new depths.
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Abstract
BACKGROUND Currently, a range of 'off-the-shelf' ankle foot orthoses are used in clinical practice, of various functions and designs. Their use relates to immediate control over mild conditions. OBJECTIVES To investigate the properties of carbon fibre ankle foot orthoses at different percentage layups and provide a comparison of these through assessment of the (1) elastic properties, (2) deflection about the ankle (including the calculation of stiffness) and (3) failure under compressive forces (dorsiflexion). STUDY DESIGN Experimental, bench test. METHODS Literature was reviewed to derive a suitable bench test for mechanical testing of ankle foot orthoses. Two universal Instron machines were used to apply the necessary forces. A pilot device was utilised to establish the range of forces appropriate to confirm the setup chosen was effective. Each test was then carried out on nine ankle foot orthoses (3 × 3 different percentage layups). RESULTS All nine devices had their elastic properties deduced. Stiffness exhibited greater resistance in tension, with angular deflection being greatest in the 'Lite' set and least in the Rigid. Failure occurred mainly due to fracture, proximally on the strut; however, this was not consistent among the devices. CONCLUSION Results confirmed the properties expected of carbon fibre ankle foot orthoses were consistent. This can now be related to functionality and therefore specific device prescription options. Clinical relevance This article attempts to increase the understanding and develop the area of mechanically testing ankle foot orthoses. This was achieved by comparing carbon fibre at different percentage layups on an identical design and their resultant structural properties. This article outlines a clear and simple setup for obtaining repeatable results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Conor Sheehan
- National Centre for Prosthetics and Orthotics, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK
| | - Elaine Figgins
- National Centre for Prosthetics and Orthotics, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK
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Schneider K, Lieboldt M, Liebscher M, Fröhlich M, Hempel S, Butler M, Schröfl C, Mechtcherine V. Mineral-Based Coating of Plasma-Treated Carbon Fibre Rovings for Carbon Concrete Composites with Enhanced Mechanical Performance. Materials (Basel) 2017; 10:E360. [PMID: 28772719 DOI: 10.3390/ma10040360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2017] [Revised: 03/13/2017] [Accepted: 03/24/2017] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Surfaces of carbon fibre roving were modified by means of a low temperature plasma treatment to improve their bonding with mineral fines; the latter serving as an inorganic fibre coating for the improved mechanical performance of carbon reinforcement in concrete matrices. Variation of the plasma conditions, such as gas composition and treatment time, was accomplished to establish polar groups on the carbon fibres prior to contact with the suspension of mineral particles in water. Subsequently, the rovings were implemented in a fine concrete matrix and their pull-out performance was assessed. Every plasma treatment resulted in increased pull-out forces in comparison to the reference samples without plasma treatment, indicating a better bonding between the mineral coating material and the carbon fibres. Significant differences were found, depending on gas composition and treatment time. Microscopic investigations showed that the samples with the highest pull-out force exhibited carbon fibre surfaces with the largest areas of hydration products grown on them. Additionally, the coating material ingresses into the multifilament roving in these specimens, leading to better force transfer between individual carbon filaments and between the entire roving and surrounding matrix, thus explaining the superior mechanical performance of the specimens containing appropriately plasma-treated carbon roving.
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Behr M, Rix J, Landes B, Barton B, Billovits G, Hukkanen E, Patton J, Wang W, Keane D, Weigand S. High-temperature tensile cell for in situ real-time investigation of carbon fibre carbonization and graphitization processes. J Synchrotron Radiat 2016; 23:1379-1389. [PMID: 27787243 DOI: 10.1107/s1600577516014181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2016] [Accepted: 09/05/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
A new high-temperature fibre tensile cell is described, developed for use at the Advanced Photon Source at Argonne National Laboratory to enable the investigation of the carbonization and graphitization processes during carbon fibre production. This cell is used to heat precursor fibre bundles to temperatures up to ∼2300°C in a controlled inert atmosphere, while applying tensile stress to facilitate formation of highly oriented graphitic microstructure; evolution of the microstructure as a function of temperature and time during the carbonization and higher-temperature graphitization processes can then be monitored by collecting real-time wide-angle X-ray diffraction (WAXD) patterns. As an example, the carbonization and graphitization behaviour of an oxidized polyacrylonitrile fibre was studied up to a temperature of ∼1750°C. Real-time WAXD revealed the gradual increase in microstructure alignment with the fibre axis with increasing temperature over the temperature range 600-1100°C. Above 1100°C, no further changes in orientation were observed. The overall magnitude of change increased with increasing applied tensile stress during carbonization. As a second example, the high-temperature graphitizability of PAN- and pitch-derived commercial carbon fibres was studied. Here, the magnitude of graphitic microstructure evolution of the pitch-derived fibre far exceeded that of the PAN-derived fibres at temperatures up to ∼2300°C, indicating its facile graphitizability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Behr
- Core Research and Development, The Dow Chemical Company, Midland, MI 48667, USA
| | - James Rix
- DND-CAT Synchrotron Research Center, Northwestern University, APS/ANL 432-A004, 9700 South Cass Avenue, Argonne, IL 60439, USA
| | - Brian Landes
- Core Research and Development, The Dow Chemical Company, Midland, MI 48667, USA
| | - Bryan Barton
- Core Research and Development, The Dow Chemical Company, Midland, MI 48667, USA
| | - Gerry Billovits
- Core Research and Development, The Dow Chemical Company, Midland, MI 48667, USA
| | - Eric Hukkanen
- Core Research and Development, The Dow Chemical Company, Midland, MI 48667, USA
| | - Jasson Patton
- Core Research and Development, The Dow Chemical Company, Midland, MI 48667, USA
| | - Weijun Wang
- Core Research and Development, The Dow Chemical Company, Midland, MI 48667, USA
| | - Denis Keane
- DND-CAT Synchrotron Research Center, Northwestern University, APS/ANL 432-A004, 9700 South Cass Avenue, Argonne, IL 60439, USA
| | - Steven Weigand
- DND-CAT Synchrotron Research Center, Northwestern University, APS/ANL 432-A004, 9700 South Cass Avenue, Argonne, IL 60439, USA
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Corradi M, Righetti L, Borri A. Bond Strength of Composite CFRP Reinforcing Bars in Timber. Materials (Basel) 2015; 8:4034-4049. [PMID: 28793423 PMCID: PMC5455648 DOI: 10.3390/ma8074034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2015] [Revised: 06/16/2015] [Accepted: 06/29/2015] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The use of near-surface mounted (NSM) fibre-reinforced polymer (FRP) bars is an interesting method for increasing the shear and flexural strength of existing timber members. This article examines the behaviour of carbon FRP (CFRP) bars in timber under direct pull-out conditions. The objective of this experimental program is to investigate the bond strength between composite bars and timber: bars were epoxied into small notches made into chestnut and fir wood members using a commercially-available epoxy system. Bonded lengths varied from 150 to 300 mm. Failure modes, stress and strain distributions and the bond strength of CFRP bars have been evaluated and discussed. The pull-out capacity in NSM CFRP bars at the onset of debonding increased with bonded length up to a length of 250 mm. While CFRP bar’s pull-out was achieved only for specimens with bonded lengths of 150 and 200 mm, bar tensile failure was mainly recorded for bonded lengths of 250 and 300 mm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Corradi
- Department of Mechanical and Construction Engineering, Northumbria University, 212 Wynne-Jones Building, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 8ST, UK.
- Department of Engineering, University of Perugia, 92 Via Duranti, Perugia 06125, Italy.
| | - Luca Righetti
- Department of Mechanical and Construction Engineering, Northumbria University, 209 Wynne-Jones Building, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 8ST, UK.
| | - Antonio Borri
- Department of Engineering, University of Perugia, 92 Via Duranti, Perugia 06125, Italy.
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