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Gao Q, Wei A, Chen F, Chen X, Ding W, Ding Z, Wu Z, Du R, Cao W. Enhancing PPARγ by HDAC inhibition reduces foam cell formation and atherosclerosis in ApoE deficient mice. Pharmacol Res 2020; 160:105059. [PMID: 32621955 DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2020.105059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2020] [Revised: 06/15/2020] [Accepted: 06/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Atherosclerosis (AS) is a risky cardiovascular disease with limited treatment options. Various pan or type-selective histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors are reportedly atheroprotective against atherosclerosis (AS); however, the key effectors and the main cellular processes that mediate the protective effects remain poorly defined. Here, we report that PPARγ (Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma), a transcription factor actively involved in lipid metabolism with strong tissue protective and anti-inflammation properties, is a critical mediator of the anti-AS effects by HDAC inhibition. We showed that a well-known pan-HDAC inhibitor TSA (Trichostatin A) reduced foam cell formation of macrophages that is accompanied by a marked elevation of PPARγ and its downstream cholesterol efflux transporter ABCA1 (ATP-binding membrane cassette transport protein A1) and ABCG1. In an AS model of ApoE-/- mice fed on high-fat diet, TSA treatment alleviated AS lesions, similarly increased PPARγ and the downstream cholesterol transporters and mitigated the induction of inflammatory cytokine TNFα and IL-1β. Exploring the potential cause of PPARγ elevation revealed that TSA induced the acetylation of C/EBPα (CCAAT enhancer binding protein alpha), the upstream regulator of PPARγ, through which it increased PPARγ transactivation. More importantly, we generated a strain of PPARγ/ApoE double knockout mice and demonstrated that lack of PPARγ abrogated the protective effects of TSA on foam cell formation of peritoneal macrophages and the AS pathogenesis. Taken together, these results unravel that C/EBPα and PPARγ are the HDAC-sensitive components of an epigenetic signaling pathway mediating foam cell formation and AS development, and suggest that targeting C/EBPα/PPARγ axis by HDAC inhibitors possesses therapeutic potentials in retarding the progression of AS and the related cardiovascular diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qi Gao
- Center for Organ Fibrosis and Remodeling, Jiangsu Key Lab of Molecular Medicine, Nanjing University Medical School, Nanjing, 210093, China
| | - Ai Wei
- Center for Organ Fibrosis and Remodeling, Jiangsu Key Lab of Molecular Medicine, Nanjing University Medical School, Nanjing, 210093, China
| | - Fang Chen
- Center for Organ Fibrosis and Remodeling, Jiangsu Key Lab of Molecular Medicine, Nanjing University Medical School, Nanjing, 210093, China
| | - Xingren Chen
- Center for Organ Fibrosis and Remodeling, Jiangsu Key Lab of Molecular Medicine, Nanjing University Medical School, Nanjing, 210093, China
| | - Wenwen Ding
- Center for Organ Fibrosis and Remodeling, Jiangsu Key Lab of Molecular Medicine, Nanjing University Medical School, Nanjing, 210093, China
| | - Zhiquan Ding
- Center for Organ Fibrosis and Remodeling, Jiangsu Key Lab of Molecular Medicine, Nanjing University Medical School, Nanjing, 210093, China
| | - Zhiwei Wu
- Center for Organ Fibrosis and Remodeling, Jiangsu Key Lab of Molecular Medicine, Nanjing University Medical School, Nanjing, 210093, China
| | - Ronghui Du
- Center for Organ Fibrosis and Remodeling, Jiangsu Key Lab of Molecular Medicine, Nanjing University Medical School, Nanjing, 210093, China.
| | - Wangsen Cao
- Center for Organ Fibrosis and Remodeling, Jiangsu Key Lab of Molecular Medicine, Nanjing University Medical School, Nanjing, 210093, China.
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Hanouna G, Tang E, Perez J, Vandermeersch S, Haymann JP, Baud L, Letavernier E. Preventing Calpain Externalization by Reducing ABCA1 Activity with Probenecid Limits Melanoma Angiogenesis and Development. J Invest Dermatol 2019; 140:445-454. [PMID: 31425704 DOI: 10.1016/j.jid.2019.06.148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2018] [Revised: 05/23/2019] [Accepted: 06/17/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Calpains, intracellular proteases specifically inhibited by calpastatin, play a major role in neoangiogenesis involved in tumor invasiveness and metastasis. They are partly exteriorized via the ATP-binding cassette transporter A1(ABCA1) transporter, but the importance of this process in tumor growth is still unknown. The aim of our study was to investigate the role of extracellular calpains in a model of melanoma by blocking their extracellular activity or exteriorization. In the first approach, a B16-F10 model of melanoma was developed in transgenic mice expressing high extracellular levels of calpastatin. In these mice, tumor growth was inhibited by ∼ 3-fold compared with wild-type animals. In vitro cytotoxicity assays and in vivo tumor studies have demonstrated that this protection was associated with a defect in tumor neoangiogenesis. Similarly, in wild-type animals given probenecid to blunt ABCA1 activity, melanoma tumor growth was inhibited by ∼ 3-fold. Again, this response was associated with a defect in neoangiogenesis. In vitro studies confirmed that probenecid limited endothelial cell migration and capillary formation from vascular explants. The observed reduction in fibronectin cleavage under these conditions is potentially involved in the response. Collectively, these studies demonstrate that probenecid, by blunting ABCA1 activity and thereby calpain exteriorization, limits melanoma tumor neoangiogenesis and invasiveness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guillaume Hanouna
- Sorbonne Universités, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Univ Paris 06, UMR_S 1155 and Inflammation-Immunopathology-Biotherapy Department (DHU i2B), Paris, France; Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, UMR_S 1155, Paris, France
| | - Ellie Tang
- Sorbonne Universités, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Univ Paris 06, UMR_S 1155 and Inflammation-Immunopathology-Biotherapy Department (DHU i2B), Paris, France; Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, UMR_S 1155, Paris, France
| | - Joëlle Perez
- Sorbonne Universités, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Univ Paris 06, UMR_S 1155 and Inflammation-Immunopathology-Biotherapy Department (DHU i2B), Paris, France; Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, UMR_S 1155, Paris, France
| | - Sophie Vandermeersch
- Sorbonne Universités, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Univ Paris 06, UMR_S 1155 and Inflammation-Immunopathology-Biotherapy Department (DHU i2B), Paris, France; Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, UMR_S 1155, Paris, France
| | - Jean-Philippe Haymann
- Sorbonne Universités, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Univ Paris 06, UMR_S 1155 and Inflammation-Immunopathology-Biotherapy Department (DHU i2B), Paris, France; Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, UMR_S 1155, Paris, France; Assistance Publique - Hôpitaux de Paris, Hôpital Tenon, Paris, France
| | - Laurent Baud
- Sorbonne Universités, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Univ Paris 06, UMR_S 1155 and Inflammation-Immunopathology-Biotherapy Department (DHU i2B), Paris, France; Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, UMR_S 1155, Paris, France; Assistance Publique - Hôpitaux de Paris, Hôpital Tenon, Paris, France
| | - Emmanuel Letavernier
- Sorbonne Universités, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Univ Paris 06, UMR_S 1155 and Inflammation-Immunopathology-Biotherapy Department (DHU i2B), Paris, France; Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, UMR_S 1155, Paris, France; Assistance Publique - Hôpitaux de Paris, Hôpital Tenon, Paris, France.
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Zhai YJ, Wu MM, Linck VA, Zou L, Yue Q, Wei SP, Song C, Zhang S, Williams CR, Song BL, Zhang ZR, Ma HP. Intracellular cholesterol stimulates ENaC by interacting with phosphatidylinositol‑4,5‑bisphosphate and mediates cyclosporine A-induced hypertension. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2019; 1865:1915-1924. [PMID: 31109455 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2018.08.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2018] [Revised: 08/04/2018] [Accepted: 08/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
We have previously shown that blockade of ATP-binding cassette transporter A1 (ABCA1) with cyclosporine A (CsA) stimulates the epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) in cultured distal nephron cells. Here we show that CsA elevated systolic blood pressure in both wild-type and apolipoprotein E (ApoE) knockout (KO) mice to a similar level. The elevated systolic blood pressure was completely reversed by inhibition of cholesterol (Cho) synthesis with lovastatin. Inside-out patch-clamp data show that intracellular Cho stimulated ENaC in cultured distal nephron cells by interacting with phosphatidylinositol‑4,5‑bisphosphate (PIP2), an ENaC activator. Confocal microscopy data show that both α‑ENaC and PIP2 were localized in microvilli via a Cho-dependent mechanism. Deletion of membrane Cho reduced the levels of γ‑ENaC in the apical membrane. Reduced ABCA1 expression and elevated intracellular Cho were observed in old mice, compared to young mice. In parallel, cell-attached patch-clamp data from the split-open cortical collecting ducts (CCD) show that ENaC activity was significantly increased in old mice. These data suggest that elevation of intracellular Cho due to blockade of ABCA1 stimulates ENaC, which may contribute to CsA-induced hypertension. This study also implies that reduced ABCA1 expression may mediate age-related hypertension by increasing ENaC activity via elevation of intracellular Cho.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Jia Zhai
- Department of Physiology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Ming-Ming Wu
- Department of Physiology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA; Department of Cardiology, Clinic Pharmacy, Harbin Medical University Cancer Hospital, Institute of Metabolic Disease, Heilongjiang Academy of Medical Science, Key Laboratories of Education Ministry for Myocardial Ischemia Mechanism and Treatment, Harbin 150081, China
| | - Valerie A Linck
- Department of Physiology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Li Zou
- Department of Physiology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Qiang Yue
- Department of Physiology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Shi-Peng Wei
- Department of Internal Medicine, Medical College of Georgia at Augusta University, Augusta, GA 30912, USA
| | - Chang Song
- Department of Physiology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Shuai Zhang
- Department of Physiology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Clintoria R Williams
- Department of Physiology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Bin-Lin Song
- Department of Physiology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA; Department of Cardiology, Clinic Pharmacy, Harbin Medical University Cancer Hospital, Institute of Metabolic Disease, Heilongjiang Academy of Medical Science, Key Laboratories of Education Ministry for Myocardial Ischemia Mechanism and Treatment, Harbin 150081, China
| | - Zhi-Ren Zhang
- Department of Cardiology, Clinic Pharmacy, Harbin Medical University Cancer Hospital, Institute of Metabolic Disease, Heilongjiang Academy of Medical Science, Key Laboratories of Education Ministry for Myocardial Ischemia Mechanism and Treatment, Harbin 150081, China.
| | - He-Ping Ma
- Department of Physiology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA.
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Okabe A, Urano Y, Itoh S, Suda N, Kotani R, Nishimura Y, Saito Y, Noguchi N. Adaptive responses induced by 24S-hydroxycholesterol through liver X receptor pathway reduce 7-ketocholesterol-caused neuronal cell death. Redox Biol 2013; 2:28-35. [PMID: 24371802 PMCID: PMC3871289 DOI: 10.1016/j.redox.2013.11.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2013] [Accepted: 11/15/2013] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Lipid peroxidation products have been known to induce cellular adaptive responses and enhance tolerance against subsequent oxidative stress through up-regulation of antioxidant compounds and enzymes. 24S-hydroxycholesterol (24SOHC) which is endogenously produced oxysterol in the brain plays an important role in maintaining brain cholesterol homeostasis. In this study, we evaluated adaptive responses induced by brain-specific oxysterol 24SOHC in human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells. Cells treated with 24SOHC at sub-lethal concentrations showed significant reduction in cell death induced by subsequent treatment with 7-ketocholesterol (7KC) in both undifferentiated and retinoic acid-differentiated SH-SY5Y cells. These adaptive responses were also induced by other oxysterols such as 25-hydroxycholesterol and 27-hydroxycholesterol which are known to be ligands of liver X receptor (LXR). Co-treatment of 24SOHC with 9-cis retinoic acid, a retinoid X receptor ligand, enhanced the adaptive responses. Knockdown of LXRβ by siRNA diminished the adaptive responses induced by 24SOHC almost completely. The treatment with 24SOHC induced the expression of LXR target genes, such as ATP-binding cassette transporter A1 (ABCA1) and G1 (ABCG1). The 24SOHC-induced adaptive responses were significantly attenuated by siRNA for ABCG1 but not by siRNA for ABCA1. Taken together, these results strongly suggest that 24SOHC at sub-lethal concentrations induces adaptive responses via transcriptional activation of LXR signaling pathway, thereby protecting neuronal cells from subsequent 7KC-induced cytotoxicity. 24SOHC induces adaptive responses against 7KC-induced cell death in neuronal cells. Co-treatment of 24SOHC with 9cRA, an RXR ligand enhances adaptive responses. Knockdown of LXRβ suppresses 24SOHC-induced adaptive responses. ABCG1 is involved in LXR-mediated adaptive responses by 24SOHC.
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Key Words
- 24S-hydroxycholesterol
- 24SOHC, 24S-hydroxycholesterol
- 7-ketocholesterol
- 7KC, 7-ketocholesterol
- 9cRA, 9-cis retinoic acid
- ABCA1, ATP-binding cassette transporter A1
- ABCG1, ATP-binding cassette transporter G1
- AD, Alzheimer's disease
- ATP-binding cassette transporter G1
- Adaptive responses
- CYP46A1, cholesterol 24-hydroxylase
- Cell death
- FITC, fluorescein isothiocyanate
- HDL, high-density lipoprotein
- LDH, lactate dehydrogenase
- LXR, liver X receptor
- Liver X receptor
- MAP2, microtubule-associated protein 2
- MTT, 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide
- NC, negative control
- PI, propidium iodide
- RXR, retinoid X receptor
- atRA, all-trans retinoic acid
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Yasuomi Urano
- Corresponding authors. Tel.: +81 774 65 6260; fax: +81 774 65 6262.
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Noriko Noguchi
- Corresponding authors. Tel.: +81 774 65 6260; fax: +81 774 65 6262.
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Zhao GJ, Tang SL, Lv YC, Ouyang XP, He PP, Yao F, Chen WJ, Lu Q, Tang YY, Zhang M, Fu Y, Zhang DW, Yin K, Tang CK. Antagonism of betulinic acid on LPS-mediated inhibition of ABCA1 and cholesterol efflux through inhibiting nuclear factor-kappaB signaling pathway and miR-33 expression. PLoS One 2013; 8:e74782. [PMID: 24086374 PMCID: PMC3783495 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0074782] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2013] [Accepted: 08/06/2013] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
ATP-binding cassette transporter A1 (ABCA1) is critical in exporting cholesterol from macrophages and plays a protective role in the development of atherosclerosis. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of betulinic acid (BA), a pentacyclic triterpenoid, on ABCA1 expression and cholesterol efflux, and to further determine the underlying mechanism. BA promoted ABCA1 expression and cholesterol efflux, decreased cellular cholesterol and cholesterol ester content in LPS-treated macrophages. Furthermore, we found that BA promoted ABCA1 expression via down-regulation of miR-33s. The inhibition of LPS-induced NF-κB activation further decreased miR-33s expression and enhanced ABCA1 expression and cholesterol efflux when compared with BA only treatment. In addition, BA suppressed IκB phosphorylation, p65 phosphorylation and nuclear translocation, and the transcription of NF-κB-dependent related gene. Moreover, BA reduced atherosclerotic lesion size, miR-33s levels and NF-κB activation, and promoted ABCA1 expression in apoE−/− mice. Taken together, these results reveal a novel mechanism for the BA-mediated ABCA1 expression, which may provide new insights for developing strategies for modulating vascular inflammation and atherosclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guo-Jun Zhao
- Institute of Cardiovascular Research, Key Laboratory for Atherosclerology of Hunan Province, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan, China
- Department of Histology and Embryology, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan, China
| | - Shi-Lin Tang
- Institute of Cardiovascular Research, Key Laboratory for Atherosclerology of Hunan Province, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan, China
| | - Yun-Cheng Lv
- Institute of Cardiovascular Research, Key Laboratory for Atherosclerology of Hunan Province, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan, China
| | - Xin-Ping Ouyang
- Institute of Cardiovascular Research, Key Laboratory for Atherosclerology of Hunan Province, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan, China
| | - Ping-Ping He
- Institute of Cardiovascular Research, Key Laboratory for Atherosclerology of Hunan Province, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan, China
- School of Nursing, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan, China
| | - Feng Yao
- Institute of Cardiovascular Research, Key Laboratory for Atherosclerology of Hunan Province, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan, China
| | - Wu-Jun Chen
- Institute of Cardiovascular Research, Key Laboratory for Atherosclerology of Hunan Province, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan, China
| | - Qian Lu
- Institute of Cardiovascular Research, Key Laboratory for Atherosclerology of Hunan Province, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan, China
| | - Yan-Yan Tang
- Institute of Cardiovascular Research, Key Laboratory for Atherosclerology of Hunan Province, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan, China
| | - Min Zhang
- Institute of Cardiovascular Research, Key Laboratory for Atherosclerology of Hunan Province, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan, China
| | - Yuchang Fu
- Department of Nutrition Sciences, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, United States of America
| | - Da-Wei Zhang
- Department of Pediatrics and Group on the Molecular and Cell Biology of Lipids, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - Kai Yin
- Institute of Cardiovascular Research, Key Laboratory for Atherosclerology of Hunan Province, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan, China
- * E-mail: (KY); (C-KT)
| | - Chao-Ke Tang
- Institute of Cardiovascular Research, Key Laboratory for Atherosclerology of Hunan Province, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan, China
- * E-mail: (KY); (C-KT)
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Ontsouka EC, Huang X, Stieger B, Albrecht C. Characteristics and functional relevance of apolipoprotein-A1 and cholesterol binding in mammary gland tissues and epithelial cells. PLoS One 2013; 8:e70407. [PMID: 23936200 PMCID: PMC3729845 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0070407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2013] [Accepted: 06/18/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Cholesterol in milk is derived from the circulating blood through a complex transport process involving the mammary alveolar epithelium. Details of the mechanisms involved in this transfer are unclear. Apolipoprotein-AI (apoA-I) is an acceptor of cellular cholesterol effluxed by the ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter A1 (ABCA1). We aimed to 1) determine the binding characteristics of (125)I-apoA-I and (3)H-cholesterol to enriched plasma membrane vesicles (EPM) isolated from lactating and non-lactating bovine mammary glands (MG), 2) optimize the components of an in vitro model describing cellular (3)H-cholesterol efflux in primary bovine mammary epithelial cells (MeBo), and 3) assess the vectorial cholesterol transport in MeBo using Transwell(®) plates. The amounts of isolated EPM and the maximal binding capacity of (125)I-apoA-I to EPM differed depending on the MG's physiological state, while the kinetics of (3)H-cholesterol and (125)I-apoA-I binding were similar. (3)H-cholesterol incorporated maximally to EPM after 25±9 min. The time to achieve the half-maximum binding of (125)I-apoA-I at equilibrium was 3.3±0.6 min. The dissociation constant (KD) of (125)I-apoA-I ranged between 40-74 nmol/L. Cholesterol loading to EPM increased both cholesterol content and (125)I-apoA-I binding. The ABCA1 inhibitor Probucol displaced (125)I-apoA-I binding to EPM and reduced (3)H-cholesterol efflux in MeBo. Time-dependent (3)H-cholesterol uptake and efflux showed inverse patterns. The defined binding characteristics of cholesterol and apoA-I served to establish an efficient and significantly shorter cholesterol efflux protocol that had been used in MeBo. The application of this protocol in Transwell(®) plates with the upper chamber mimicking the apical (milk-facing) and the bottom chamber corresponding to the basolateral (blood-facing) side of cells showed that the degree of (3)H-cholesterol efflux in MeBo differed significantly between the apical and basolateral aspects. Our findings support the importance of the apoA-I/ABCA1 pathway in MG cholesterol transport and suggest its role in influencing milk composition and directing cholesterol back into the bloodstream.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edgar Corneille Ontsouka
- Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
- Swiss National Center of Competence in Research, NCCR TransCure, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Xiao Huang
- Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
- Swiss National Center of Competence in Research, NCCR TransCure, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Bruno Stieger
- Swiss National Center of Competence in Research, NCCR TransCure, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, University Hospital Zurich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Christiane Albrecht
- Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
- Swiss National Center of Competence in Research, NCCR TransCure, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
- * E-mail:
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