Intraflagellar Transport Particles Participate Directly in Cilium-Generated Signaling in Chlamydomonas

Primary cilia are widely used for signal transduction during development and in homeostasis and are assembled and maintained by intraflagellar transport (IFT). Here, we have dissected the role of IFT in signaling within the flagella (structural and functional counterparts of cilia) of the biflagellated green alga Chlamydomonas. Using a conditional IFT mutant enables us to deplete the IFT machinery from intact, existing flagella. We identify a cGMP-dependent protein kinase (CrPKG) within flagella as the substrate of a protein tyrosine kinase activated by flagellar adhesion during fertilization. We demonstrate that flagellar adhesion stimulates association of CrPKG with a new flagellar compartment. Moreover, formation of the compartment requires IFT, and IFT particles themselves are part of the compartment. Our results lead to a model in which the IFT machinery is required not only for assembling cilia and flagella but also for organizing a signaling pathway within the organelles during cilium-generated signaling.

Molecular characterization of a membrane-bound cGMP dependent protein kinase from the silk moth Bombyx mori

The cGMP signalling pathway has been suggested to be involved in the signal transduction of various physiological functions in insects; olfaction, antidiuresis and eclosion. However, the cGMP signalling mechanism has remained elusive. We isolated two cDNAs of the cGMP dependent protein kinase, designated BmPKG-Ialpha and BmPKG-Ibeta. The deduced amino acid sequences indicate that both BmPKG-Ialpha and BmPKG-Ibeta appear to consist of an amino terminal region, a cGMP binding domain and a protein kinase domain. Transcripts of BmPKG-Ialpha and BmPKG-Ibeta were detected in various tissues: flight muscles, antennae, midgut, legs, head, thoracic ganglia and Malphighian tubules. Recombinant BmPKG-Ialpha bound to lipid membranes, while BmPKG-Ialpha with a deleted amino terminal region failed to bind to lipid membranes.

Biochemical evidence for a cGMP-regulated protein kinase in Pharbitis nil

It is known that the level of cGMP is modulated in response to a number of stimuli in plant cells but intracellular events distal to cGMP metabolism are not clear. Cyclic GMP-dependent protein kinase (Pk-G) is a major effector of cGMP action in animals and yeasts. We wanted to determine whether such kinase is present in plant cells. A soluble protein kinase was isolated from seedlings of Pharbitis nil and purified following purification methods including anion-exchange and affinity-chromatography. The enzyme consists of a single polypeptide of M(r) 70 kDa as determined by SDS-PAGE. From conventional modulators only cyclic GMP, when applied in low concentration, was able to accelerate the enzyme activity in the presence of histones. The enzyme autophosphorylated on serine and threonine residues and phosphorylated some substrates only on serine residues. Mixture of histones and histones H2B, H3 were the best phosphate acceptors. The process of autophosphorylation was accelerated by a low concentration of cGMP and reduced by high concentration of this second messenger. Antibodies raised against catalytic domain of animals Pk-G I alpha and beta cross-reacted with protein kinase from Pharbitis nil tissue. These data, taken together, demonstrate the presence of functional enzyme, which activity is regulated by cGMP and allow to classify this protein kinase as a member of the second messenger regulated group of enzymes.

Regulation of body size and behavioral state of C. elegans by sensory perception and the EGL-4 cGMP-dependent protein kinase

The growth and behavior of higher organisms depend on the accurate perception and integration of sensory stimuli by the nervous system. We show that defects in sensory perception in C. elegans result in abnormalities in the growth of the animal and in the expression of alternative behavioral states. Our analysis suggests that sensory neurons modulate neural or neuroendocrine functions, regulating both bodily growth and behavioral state. We identify genes likely to be required for these functions downstream of sensory inputs. Here, we characterize one of these genes as egl-4, which we show encodes a cGMP-dependent protein kinase. We demonstrate that this cGMP-dependent kinase functions in neurons of C. elegans to regulate multiple developmental and behavioral processes including the orchestrated growth of the animal and the expression of particular behavioral states.

Purification and molecular characterization of cGMP-dependent protein kinase from Apicomplexan parasites. A novel chemotherapeutic target

The trisubstituted pyrrole 4-[2-(4-fluorophenyl)-5-(1-methylpiperidine-4-yl)-1H-pyrrol-3-yl]pyridine (Compound 1) inhibits the growth of Eimeria spp. both in vitro and in vivo. The molecular target of Compound 1 was identified as cGMP-dependent protein kinase (PKG) using a tritiated analogue to purify a approximately 120-kDa protein from lysates of Eimeria tenella. This represents the first example of a protozoal PKG. Cloning of PKG from several Apicomplexan parasites has identified a parasite signature sequence of nearly 300 amino acids that is not found in mammalian or Drosophila PKG and which contains an additional, third cGMP-binding site. Nucleotide cofactor regulation of parasite PKG is remarkably different from mammalian enzymes. The activity of both native and recombinant E. tenella PKG is stimulated 1000-fold by cGMP, with significant cooperativity. Two isoforms of the parasite enzyme are expressed from a single copy gene. NH(2)-terminal sequence of the soluble isoform of PKG is consistent with alternative translation initiation within the open reading frame of the enzyme. A larger, membrane-associated isoform corresponds to the deduced full-length protein sequence. Compound 1 is a potent inhibitor of both soluble and membrane-associated isoforms of native PKG, as well as recombinant enzyme, with an IC(50) of <1 nm.

Guanosine 3':5'-cyclic monophosphate-dependent particulate protein kinase activity from yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae)

Continuing our studies on cGMP in growing yeast we detected a particulate cGMP dependent protein kinase (Pk-G), which was solubilized by detergents and NaCl. It achieves maximum activity at 25 degrees C and pH = 6.8, high concentrations of substrate proteins or cGMP produce saturation. Casein and histones are appropriate substrates, phosphatase-pretreated histone H-2a provokes outstandingly high activity. Pk-G differs from cAMP-dependent protein kinase (Pk-A) with respect to pH optimum, temperature tolerance above 50 degrees C, and stability. Partial purification is achieved by chromatography with DEAE-cellulose, Sepharose, and cGMP-substituted Sepharose. The latter step also markedly removes Pk-A. At least three proteins with Pk-G-activity and high cGMP-affinity are separated by polyacrylamide-gel-electrophoresis. Their apparent molecular masses, as deduced from comigrating marker proteins, differ considerably from those of other Pk-G's, but also of Pk-A's.

Regulation of ciliary beat frequency by both PKA and PKG in bovine airway epithelial cells

Ciliary beating is required for the maintenance of lung mucociliary transport. We investigated the role of cyclic nucleotide-dependent protein kinases in stimulating ciliary beat frequency (CBF) in bovine bronchial epithelial cells (BBECs). cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA) activity and cGMP-dependent protein kinase (PKG) activity were distinguished after DEAE-Sephacel chromatography of BBEC extracts. cAMP levels and PKA activity are increased in BBECs stimulated with 0.01-1 mM isoproterenol, with a corresponding increase in CBF. cGMP levels and PKG activity are increased in BBECs stimulated with 0.1-10 microM sodium nitroprusside, with a corresponding increase in CBF. Direct protein kinase-activating analogs of cAMP and cGMP (dibutyryl cAMP and 8-bromo-cGMP, respectively) also activate their specific kinases and stimulate CBF. Preincubation of BBECs with inhibitors of PKA or PKG [KT-5720 or Rp-8-(p-chlorophenylthio)-guanosine 3',5'-cyclic monophosphothioate] results in the inhibition of specific kinase activity as well as in the inhibition of CBF. These studies suggest that the activation of either PKA or PKG can lead to the stimulation of CBF in bovine airway epithelium.

Ligand-induced conformational changes in cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases and cyclic nucleotide-dependent protein kinases

Three methods have been used to assess the conformational effects associated with ligand binding to two unrelated cyclic nucleotide receptor proteins: the cGMP-binding, cGMP-specific phosphodiesterase (cGB-PDE or PDE5A) and the cGMP-dependent protein kinase (PKG). The methods should be applicable to other proteins and to other types of modification such as phosphorylation. The procedures use either ion-exchange chromatography, size-exclusion chromatography, or native gel electrophoresis of these proteins in the absence and presence of regulatory ligands. Measurements from these respective approaches allow documentation of changes in the quaternary structure, surface electronegativity, and relative compactness (Stokes radius) of the protein molecule. The combined data allow the changes in protein conformation to be quantitated in terms of alterations in the axial ratio or length/width dimension of the molecule. The methods can be applied to partially purified proteins and to proteins that are available in limited quantities. Conformational changes due to stable modifications of proteins can be potentially examined in crude extracts of intact cells. Each of the methods can be tailored to optimize resolution of a particular protein under a variety of conditions. Activity measurements, Coomassie brilliant blue or silver staining of gels, radioautography, or Western blot analysis can be used for detection of the protein.

Cyclic GMP-dependent protein kinase activation in the absence of negative inotropic effects in the rat ventricle

1. It has been suggested that activation of cyclic GMP-dependent protein kinase (PKG) is a necessary step in the chain of events leading to the production of negative inotropy by muscarinic receptor agonists in mammalian ventricles, and that some cyclic GMP-elevating agents, such as sodium nitroprusside (SNP), fail to exert a negative inotropic effect because they elevate cyclic GMP levels in a pool that does not activate the kinase. This hypothesis was tested in the present study by monitoring the effects of carbachol, SNP and atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) on contractility, cyclic GMP content and PKG activity in rat intact ventricular preparations and freshly isolated ventricular cardiomyocytes. 2. The presence of PKG in both the intact vehicle and in isolated ventricular cardiomyocytes was confirmed by MonoQ anion exchange chromatography and Western blotting. The elution profile indicated that the conditions of the PKG assay were selective for measuring PKG activity. 3. Carbachol induced a marked negative inotropic effect in intact, perfused hearts and ventricular strips in the presence of isoproterenol. The negative inotropic effect of carbachol was not associated with significant changes in cyclic GMP content or PKG activity in intact ventricular tissue, or in PKG activity in isolated cardiomyocytes. 4. SNP and ANP significantly increased cyclic GMP levels and activated PKG in intact ventricular preparations. Both drugs also activated PKG in isolated cardiomyocytes. However, neither drug had any negative inotropic effect in isoprenaline-stimulated perfused hearts and ANP did not change the contractility of isoprenaline-stimulated isolated cardiomyocytes. 5. The results of this study demonstrate that the negative inotropic effects of muscarinic receptor agonists can occur in the absence of significant activation of PKG. Conversely, marked increases in ventricular cyclic GMP content and PKG activity caused by SNP or ANP were not accompanied by a negative inotropic effect. 6. These results suggest that increases in cyclic GMP levels and activation of PKG do not play important roles in the regulation of rat ventricular contractility by muscarinic receptor agonists.

Endogenous type II cGMP-dependent protein kinase exists as a dimer in membranes and can Be functionally distinguished from the type I isoforms

In mammalian tissues two types of cGMP-dependent protein kinase (cGK) have been identified. In contrast to the dimeric cGK I, cGK II purified from pig intestine was shown previously to behave as a monomer. However, recombinant rat cGK II was found to have hydrodynamic parameters indicative of a homodimer. Chemical cross-linking studies showed that pig cGK II in intestinal membranes has a dimeric structure as well. However, after purification, cGK II was found to be partly proteolyzed into C-terminal monomeric fragments. Phosphorylation studies in rat intestinal brush borders revealed that the potency of cGMP analogs to stimulate or inhibit native cGK II in vitro (i.e. 8-(4-chlorophenylthio)-cGMP > cGMP > beta-phenyl-1,N2-etheno-8-bromo-cGMP > beta-phenyl-1,N2-etheno-cGMP and Rp-8-(4-chlorophenylthio)-cGMPs > Rp-beta-phenyl-1, N2-etheno-8-bromo-cGMPs, respectively) correlated well with their potency to stimulate or inhibit cGK II-mediated Cl- secretion across intestinal epithelium but differed strikingly from their potency to affect cGK I activity. These data show that the N terminus of cGK II is involved in dimerization and that endogenous cGK II displays a distinct activation/inhibition profile with respect to cGMP analogs, which permits a pharmacological dissection between cGK II- and cGK I-mediated physiological processes.

Biochemical properties and cellular localization of the Drosophila DG1 cGMP-dependent protein kinase

The protein encoded by the Drosophila cGMP-dependent protein kinase gene, DG1, was expressed in Sf9 cells. cGMP (10 microM) stimulated histone H2B phosphorylation by the DG1 protein kinase 20-fold. Maximal activity was observed at 40-50 mM Mg2+. The concentrations of cGMP, cAMP, cIMP, 8-bromo-cGMP, and 8-bromo-cAMP that gave 50% activation were 0.19 +/- 0.06, 11.7 +/- 2.8, 5.3 +/- 1.5, 0.04 +/- 0. 01, and 0.62 +/- 0.06 microM, respectively. cGMP activation was cooperative with a Hill coefficient (nH) of 1.28 +/- 0.10, whereas activation by cAMP was not cooperative. DG1 kinase expressed in Sf9 cells was found to be a dimer with an amino-terminal dimerization domain. It also autophosphorylated in a reaction stimulated by cGMP and cAMP. Immunoadsorbed DG1 protein from fly extracts was also capable of autophosphorylation, and this assay was used to quantitate the DG1 kinase in extracts from heads and bodies of adults and whole embryos. Activity was highest in heads of either sex and male bodies, intermediate in female bodies, and lowest in embryos. These results were in accord with DG1 mRNA abundance. Tissue distribution of the DG1 kinase was investigated by immunohistochemistry. In embryos, specific immunoreactivity was observed in large cells scattered along the anterior-posterior axis at stage 13. Prominent staining of adult heads was restricted to the proximal level of the lamina cortex.

Fast and slow cyclic nucleotide-dissociation sites in cAMP-dependent protein kinase are transposed in type Ibeta cGMP-dependent protein kinase

Both cyclic GMP-dependent protein kinase (cGK) and cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase (cAK) contain two distinct cyclic nucleotide-binding sites referred to as fast and slow sites based on cyclic nucleotide dissociation behavior. In cAK, the fast site lies amino-terminal to the slow site, and sequence homologies between cAK and cGK have suggested similar positioning for the sites in cGK. Recombinant human type Ibeta cGK (wild type (WT) cGK) was overexpressed, and the properties of purified WT cGK and native type Ibeta cGK were similar. cGK was mutated singly at Thr-193 (T193A, T193V, and T193S) and Thr-317 (T317A, T317V, and T317S), which have been predicted to provide cGMP specificity in the cGMP-binding sites of cGK; a double mutant (T193A/T317A) was produced also. Compared with WT cGK, half-maximal activation (Ka) of mutant cGKs by cGMP was increased 2- (T317A), 27- (T193A), or 63-fold (T193A/T317A), but the Ka for cAMP of these mutants was essentially unchanged. The T193A and T193V mutants had a large increase in the rate of the slow component of [3H]cGMP dissociation, but in the T317A and T317V mutants, there was no change in the slow component. The T193S and T317S mutants had only minor effects on [3H]cGMP dissociation, thus establishing the importance of the hydroxyl group of Thr-193 and -317 for cGMP binding to cGK. Thus, in type Ibeta cGK, the slow cGMP-binding site is identified as the amino-terminal site in contrast to the order assigned to the fast and slow cAMP-binding sites of cAK.

Differential regulation of distinct types of gap junction channels by similar phosphorylating conditions

Studies on physiological modulation of intercellular communication mediated by protein kinases are often complicated by the fact that cells express multiple gap junction proteins (connexins; Cx). Changes in cell coupling can be masked by simultaneous opposite regulation of the gap junction channel types expressed. We have examined the effects of activators and inhibitors of protein kinase A (PKA), PKC, and PKG on permeability and single channel conductance of gap junction channels composed of Cx45, Cx43, or Cx26 subunits. To allow direct comparison between these Cx, SKHep1 cells, which endogenously express Cx45, were stably transfected with cDNAs coding for Cx43 or Cx26. Under control conditions, the distinct types of gap junction channels could be distinguished on the basis of their permeability and single channel properties. Under various phosphorylating conditions, these channels behaved differently. Whereas agonists/antagonist of PKA did not affect permeability and conductance of all gap junction channels, variable changes were observed under PKC stimulation. Cx45 channels exhibited an additional conductance state, the detection of the smaller conductance states of Cx43 channels was favored, and Cx26 channels were less often observed. In contrast to the other kinases, agonists/antagonist of PKG affected permeability and conductance of Cx43 gap junction channels only. Taken together, these results show that distinct types of gap junction channels are differentially regulated by similar phosphorylating conditions. This differential regulation may be of physiological importance during modulation of cell-to-cell communication of more complex cell systems.

Expression, purification, and characterization of the cGMP-dependent protein kinases I beta and II using the baculovirus system

Detailed studies of differences in distinct cGMP kinase isoforms are highly dependent on expression of large amounts of these enzyme isoforms that are not easily purified by conventional methods. Here cGMP-dependent protein kinases, the type I beta soluble form from human placenta, and the type II membrane-associated form from rat intestine, were each expressed in a baculovirus/Sf9 cell system and purified in milligram amounts by affinity chromatography. The expressed recombinant proteins displayed characteristics like those of their native counterparts. cGK I beta was expressed as a 76 kDa protein predominantly found in the cytosol fraction, whereas cGK II was expressed as an 86 kDa protein predominantly associated with the membrane fraction. The apparent Ka and Vmax of cGMP for activation of cGK I beta were 0.5 microM and 3.4 mumol/min/mg, and for cGK II were 0.04 microM and 1.8 mumol/min/mg.

Isotype-specific activation of cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator-chloride channels by cGMP-dependent protein kinase II

Type II cGMP-dependent protein kinase (cGKII) isolated from pig intestinal brush borders and type I alpha cGK (cGKI) purified from bovine lung were compared for their ability to activate the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR)-Cl- channel in excised, inside-out membrane patches from NIH-3T3 fibroblasts and from a rat intestinal cell line (IEC-CF7) stably expressing recombinant CFTR. In both cell models, in the presence of cGMP and ATP, cGKII was found to mimic the effect of the catalytic subunit of cAMP-dependent protein kinase (cAK) on opening CFTR-Cl-channels, albeit with different kinetics (2-3-min lag time, reduced rate of activation). By contrast, cGKI or a monomeric cGKI catalytic fragment was incapable of opening CFTR-Cl- channels and also failed to potentiate cGKII activation of the channels. The cAK activation but not the cGKII activation was blocked by a cAK inhibitor peptide. The slow activation by cGKII could not be ascribed to counteracting protein phosphatases, since neither calyculin A, a potent inhibitor of phosphatase 1 and 2A, nor ATP gamma S (adenosine 5'-O-(thiotriphosphate)), producing stable thiophosphorylation, was able to enhance the activation kinetics. Channels preactivated by cGKII closed instantaneously upon removal of ATP and kinase but reopened in the presence of ATP alone. Paradoxically, immunoprecipitated CFTR or CF-2, a cloned R domain fragment of CFTR (amino acids 645-835) could be phosphorylated to a similar extent with only minor kinetic differences by both isotypes of cGK. Phosphopeptide maps of CF-2 and CFTR, however, revealed very subtle differences in site-specificity between the cGK isoforms. These results indicate that cGKII, in contrast to cGKI alpha, is a potential activator of chloride transport in CFTR-expressing cell types.

Cloning, expression, and in situ localization of rat intestinal cGMP-dependent protein kinase II

The cDNA for a membrane-associated cGMP-dependent protein kinase (cGK II) was cloned from rat intestine using reverse transcriptase PCR and oligonucleotide primers encoding two conserved motifs of known cGMP-dependent protein kinases and subsequently by screening a rat intestine cDNA library. A full-length clone encodes a protein of 761 amino acids with an estimated size of 87 kDa. Sequences of eight peptides from purified pig intestinal mucosa cGK II were found in the derived amino acid sequence of this clone, identifying it as rat intestinal cGK II. Phylogenetic analysis showed that rat intestinal cGK II is less related to mammalian cGK I than to the Drosophila DG1 gene product and most closely related to a recently cloned mouse brain CGKII isoform. Like several other cGK sequences, that of cGK II contained a leucine/isoleucine heptad repeat motif that has been implicated in dimer formation in cGK I. Expression of cGK II cDNA in HEK 293 cells followed by subcellular fractionation revealed cGK II localization in the cell particulate fraction, consistent with the membrane association of endogenous rat cGK II. On Northern blots, the major cGK II poly(A) RNA form was 4.8 kb, with minor forms of 6.2 and 3.1 kb. The cGK II RNA was highly expressed in rat intestinal mucosa and was 20 times less abundant in rat brain and kidney. The localization of endogenous cGK II RNA in rat small intestine was shown by in situ hybridization to be in villous epithelial cells and to some extent in crypt cells.

High-affinity binding and localization of the cyclic GMP-dependent protein kinase with the intermediate filament protein vimentin

The major receptor protein for cyclic GMP (cGMP) in smooth muscle is the cGMP-dependent protein kinase (cGMP kinase). The more abundant I alpha isoform (subunit M(r) congruent to 78,000) of this enzyme mediates the effects of cGMP to relax contracted vascular smooth muscle preparations. In this study, we have addressed the hypothesis that the cGMP kinase is anchored to intracellular proteins which might serve to target cGMP kinase to protein substrates. Using a gel overlay technique, immunoprecipitation, and a fluorescence binding assay for cGMP kinase, we have identified vimentin as a high-affinity and specific binding protein for cGMP kinase. Binding of cGMP kinase to vimentin is reversible and stoichiometric (one cGMP kinase dimer/vimentin dimer) with a KD of approximately 49 nM. The site of high-affinity binding between cGMP kinase and vimentin did not appear to be localized to the catalytic domain of the kinase since vimentin phosphorylated by cGMP kinase and peptide substrates for cGMP kinase did not compete for high-affinity binding. Neither the proteolytically-derived 69-kDa catalytic fragment nor the 8-kDa N-terminal fragment bound vimentin with high affinity, suggesting that the cGMP kinase dimer was necessary for the interaction. Vimentin was readily phosphorylated in vitro with the dimer, but not the monomeric 69-kDa catalytic fragment even though the monomeric 69-kDa fragment was catalytically active toward other substrates such as histone F2b and peptides. This suggests that the high-affinity interaction between cGMP kinase and vimentin occurs at the N-terminal region, thus allowing the interaction between the phosphorylation site of vimentin and the catalytic site of cGMP kinase to occur.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Expression of cGMP-dependent protein kinase in Escherichia coli

Cyclic GMP-dependent protein kinase (cGMP kinase) is involved in the relaxation of smooth muscle. The enzyme has been cloned and expressed in eukaryotic cell lines but so far not in prokaryotic cells. Three vectors were constructed for the expression of I alpha cGMP kinase in Escherichia coli. Transformation with the pET3a/cgk vector which uses the T7 RNA polymerase/promotor system resulted in efficient accumulation of cGMP kinase. Most of the protein was in an insoluble and catalytic inactive form. Various solubilization and refolding conditions did not yield an active enzyme. A small fraction of the cGMP kinase was present in the soluble cell extract. This fraction bound cGMP with high affinity but had no cGMP stimulated kinase activity. To prevent aggregation two additional vectors were constructed. (I) A bacterial leader sequence, which directs the export of proteins into the periplasmic space, was fused to the amino-terminus of the cGMP kinase. (II) A gram/gram+ shuttle vector for expression under the control of the tac promotor was used. Both constructs directed the synthesis of an insoluble and inactive cGMP kinase. These results suggest that large amounts of cGMP kinase can be expressed in E. coli, but mainly in an insoluble and inactive form. In contrast to eukaryotic cells, bacteria may lack systems for correct protein folding and/or posttranslational modification that are crucial for the productive folding and/or activation of cGMP kinase.