Post-spawning feed deprivation effects on testicular and ovarian maturation in the neotropical cichlid fish Cichlasoma dimerus

Many teleost fishes can withstand long feed deprivation periods, either due to an eventual lack of food or because of their behavior during reproduction and/or parental care. In this work, the effects of total food restriction on the oogenesis, spermatogenesis, and reproductive hormones of the neotropical cichlid fish Cichlasoma dimerus were studied. Specifically, different pairs were isolated after having a spawning event and were feed-deprived or daily fed for 3 weeks. After that period, gonadal histology, messenger levels of genes related to reproduction (gonadotropin-releasing hormone 1, gonadotropins, and insulin-like growth factor 1) and 11-ketotestosterone plasma levels were evaluated in both groups. Food restriction did not affect the reproductive axis in females since follicular maturation and gene expression showed no differences with respect to controls. However, in males, food restriction showed a stimulatory effect on the reproductive axis, reflected in a greater number of spermatozoa in their seminiferous lobes and spermatic ducts, and in an increase in follicle stimulating hormone messenger expression. Despite the negative effect reported for many fish species, C. dimerus seems to redirect their energy reserves towards gonadal development when faced with to a feed deprivation period.

Irradiation dose does not affect male reproductive organ size, sperm storage, and female remating propensity in Ceratitis capitata

The Mediterranean fruit fly Ceratitis capitata is a globally invasive pest, often controlled with the sterile insect technique (SIT). For the SIT, mass-rearing of the target insect followed by irradiation are imperatives. Sterile males are often less able to inhibit female remating and transfer less number of sperm, and even irradiation could affect male reproductive organs, with consequences for their ability to inhibit female remating. On the other hand, male age could affect their ability to modulate female response after mating. Here, we evaluated the quality of the genetic sexing strain Vienna-8-tsl mass-reared in Bioplanta San Juan, Argentina, under laboratory conditions, with regard to: (i) the ability of sterile males irradiated at 100 or 140 Gy to inhibit female remating, in the same day and at 24 h of first copulation; (ii) the ability of 3, 4 or 5 day-old sterile males to inhibit female remating at 24 h of first copulation, and (iii) the effect of a reduction in irradiation doses on the number of sperm stored by females and reproductive organ size in virgin males. Sterile males were better able than wild males to inhibit female remating in the same day of first copulation and as able as wild males 1 day after first copulation. Male age did not affect their ability to inhibit female receptivity. Number of sperm stored by females, testes size and ectodermal accessory glands size were not affected by male identity, while sterile 100 Gy males had larger mesodermal accessory glands than control lab males. A reduction in irradiation dose does not impact any variable measured, except for percentage of sperm-depleted females: females mated with sterile 100 Gy males had lower probabilities to store sperm. The results showed here are very encouraging for tsl Vienna 8 strain reared in Argentina and are discussed in comparison with previous studies in C. capitata female remating with dissimilar results.

Assessing the reproductive biology of the Greenland shark (Somniosus microcephalus)

The Greenland shark (Somniosus microcephalus, Squaliformes: Somniosidae) is a long-lived Arctic top predator, which in combination with the high historical and modern fishing pressures, has made it subject to increased scientific focus in recent years. Key aspects of reproduction are not well known as exemplified by sparse and contradictory information e.g. on birth size and number of pups per pregnancy. This study represents the first comprehensive work on Greenland shark reproductive biology based on data from 312 specimens collected over the past 60 years. We provide guidelines quantifying reproductive parameters to assess specific maturation stages, as well as calculate body length-at-maturity (TL50) which was 2.84±0.06 m for males and 4.19±0.04 m for females. From the available information on the ovarian fecundity of Greenland sharks as well as a meta-analysis of Squaliform reproductive parameters, we estimate up to 200-324 pups per pregnancy (depending on maternal size) with a body length-at-birth of 35-45 cm. These estimates remain to be verified by future observations from gravid Greenland sharks.

Morphological and Developmental Traits of the Binucleation of Male Accessory Gland Cells in the Benthic Water Bug, Aphelocheirus vittatus (Hemiptera: Aphelochiridae)

The male accessory glands (MAGs) in insects are pair(s) of internal reproductive organs that produce and secrete the plasma component of seminal fluid. In various insects, MAG size is important for male reproductive success because the fluid provides physiologically active substances and/or nutrients to females to control sperm as well as female reproductive behaviors. Although the MAG epithelial cells in most insect species are standard mononucleate cells, those in some insect taxa are binucleate due to incomplete cytokinesis (e.g., Drosophila [Fallén] [Diptera: Drosophilidae]) or cell fusion (e.g., Cimex [Linnaeus] [Hemiptera: Cimicidae]). In the case of Drosophila, the apicobasal position of the two nuclei relative to the epithelial plane changes from vertical to horizontal after nutrient intake, which allows the volume of the MAG cavity to expand effectively. On the other hand, in the case of Cimex, the positions of the two nuclei do not change apicobasally in response to feeding, but their position relative to the proximodistal axis varies depending on the tubular/spherical organ morphology. Here, we report that the MAG of the benthic water bug Aphelocheirus vittatus (Matsumura) (Hemiptera: Aphelochiridae) shows binucleation in all epithelial cells. Despite the phylogenetically close relationship between Aphelocheirus and Cimex, the MAG cells in Aphelocheirus showed a Drosophila-like apicobasal change in the position of the two nuclei in response to feeding. Furthermore, the cytological processes during binucleation are more similar to those in Drosophila (incomplete cytokinesis) than to those in Cimex (cell fusion). These results indicate that the physiological role and mechanism of binucleation in MAG cells changed during the evolution of Hemiptera.

Development and comparative morphology of the reproductive system in different aged males of the drywood termite Cryptotermes brevis (Blattaria, Isoptera, Kalotermitidae)

Termites are eusocial cockroaches, which have received great attention due to their diversity of reproductive strategies. Although these novelties allow new interpretations concerning the mating biology of these insects, studies highlighting the structure of the reproductive system are limited to some termite lineages. Here we provide the first comparative analysis of the reproductive system of a drywood termite, using different aged males of Cryptotermes brevis as models. This species represents an important structural pest in tropical regions, and most aspects of its reproductive biology remain unknown, especially on males. The reproductive apparatus of C. brevis is equipped with paired testes, composed of seven testicular lobes, in which developing spermatozoa are located. The basal portion of the lobes connects to the vasa deferentia and transport spermatozoa to a pair of enlarged chambers, the seminal vesicles. These structures join in a median ejaculatory duct, which opens to the external region through a retractile penis. Spermatozoa were observed in all C. brevis males, exhibiting elongated morphology and measuring about 10 μm in length/4 μm in width. Compared with last-instar nymphs and alates, functional kings showed enlarged testes and seminal vesicles, as well as an intense secretory activity towards the lumen of the latter structures. Histochemical tests evidenced strongly PAS and xylidine Ponceau positive reactions of the secretion only in functional kings, indicating the occurrence of glycoproteins. Thus, we suggest that morphophysiological changes establish during the maturation of the reproductive system in C. brevis.

Low temperature-induced aberrations in male and female reproductive organ development cause flower abortion in chickpea

Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is susceptible to low temperature (LT) at reproductive stage. LT causes flower abortion and delays pod set in chickpea until terminal drought becomes an issue, thereby decreasing yield potential. In chickpea, flower and anther/pollen development as well as LT-induced abnormalities on anther and pollen development are described inadequately. In the present manuscript, we report flower development stages, anther development stages, and aberrations in male gamete formation in chickpea under LT. Flower length was linearly correlated to flower and anther stages and can be used to predict these stages in chickpea. LT affected male gamete development in a flower/anther age-dependent manner where outcome ranged from no pollen formation to pollen sterility or no anther dehiscence to delayed dehiscence. In anthers, LT inhibited microsporogenesis, microgametogenesis, tapetum degeneration, breakage of septum and stomium, and induced pollen sterility. Whereas disruption of male function was the prime cause of abortion in flowers below vacuolated pollen stage, flower abortion was due to a combination of male and female reproductive functions in flowers with mature pollen. The study will help in elucidating mechanisms governing flower development, anther and pollen development, and tolerance/susceptibility to LT.

Why Do Normal Children Have Acromegalic Levels of IGF-I During Puberty?

CONTEXT

The rapid pubertal height growth is unique to humans, but why do we have it? Although the spurt contributes 13% to 15% to the final adult height, we hypothesized that the biological significance of the high acromegalic levels of GH and IGF-I, which are behind the pubertal growth spurt, might primarily occur to stimulate the reproductive organs.

EVIDENCE SYNTHESIS

Animal data have demonstrated that adult Igf1 and Igf2 gene knockout mice that survive show a dramatic reduction in the size of the reproductive organs and are infertile. In humans, case reports of mutations in the genes affecting the GH-IGF axis and growth (GH, GHRH, GH-R, STAT5b, IGF-I, IGF-II, IGF-1R, PAPPA2) are also characterized by delayed pubertal onset and micropenis. Furthermore, GH treatment will tend to normalize the penile size in patients with GH deficiency. Thus, the endocrine effects of high IGF-I levels might be needed for the transition of the sexual organs, including the secondary sex characteristics, from the "dormant" stages of childhood into fully functioning reproductive systems. The peak IGF-I levels, on average, occur 2 years after the peak height growth velocity, suggesting reasons other than longitudinal growth for the high IGF-I levels, and remain high in the years after the height spurt, when the reproductive systems become fully functional.

CONCLUSION

We suggest that the serum levels of IGF-I should be monitored in children with poor development of sexual organs, although it remains to be investigated whether GH should be added to sex steroids in the management of hypogonadism for some pubertal children (e.g., boys with micropenis).

Severe in utero under-virilization in a 46,XY patient with Silver-Russell syndrome with 11p15 loss of methylation

Background Silver-Russell syndrome (SRS) is characterized by growth retardation and variable features including macrocephaly, body asymmetry, and genital manifestations such as cryptorchidism in 46,XY patients. Case presentation The patient was born at 39 weeks with a birth weight of 1344 g. Subtle clitoromegaly warranted a thorough evaluation, which disclosed 46,XY karyotype, bilateral undescended testes, and a rudimentary uterus. Because of severe under-virilization, the patient was assigned as female. Failure to thrive, macrocephaly, and body asymmetry led to the diagnosis of SRS, confirmed by marked hypomethylation of H19/IGF2 intergenic differentially methylated region (IG-DMR). From age 9 years, progressive virilization occurred, which necessitated luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone analog (LHRHa) treatment. Gonadal resection at 15 years revealed immature testes with mostly Sertoli-cell-only tubules. Panel analysis for 46,XY-differences of sex development (DSD) failed to detect any pathogenic variants. Conclusions This is the second reported case of molecularly proven 46,XY SRS accompanied by severe under-virilization. SRS should be included in the differential diagnosis of 46,XY-DSD.

Macroscopic whole-mounts of the developing human fetal urogenital-genital tract: Indifferent stage to male and female differentiation

We present a detailed review of fetal development of the male and female human urogenital tract from 8 to 22 weeks gestation at the macroscopic and morphometric levels. Human fetal specimens were sexed based on macroscopic identification of fetal testes or ovaries, Wolffian or Müllerian structures and the presence of the SRY gene in the specimens at or near the indifferent stage (8-9 weeks). Specimens were photographed using a dissecting microscope with transmitted and reflected light. Morphometric measurements were taken of each urogenital organ. During this time period, development of the male and female urogenital tracts proceeded from the indifferent stage to differentiated organs. The kidneys, ureters, and bladder developed identically, irrespective of sex with the same physical dimensions and morphologic appearance. The penis, prostate and testis developed in males and the clitoris, uterus and ovary in females. Androgen-dependent growth certainly influenced size and morphology of the penile urethra and prostate, however, androgen-independent growth also accounted for substantial growth in the fetal urogenital tract including the clitoris.

Should 45,X/46,XY boys with no or mild anomaly of external genitalia be investigated and followed up?

OBJECTIVE

Few studies of patients with a 45,X/46,XY mosaicism have considered those with normal male phenotype. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the clinical outcome of 45,X/46,XY boys born with normal or minor abnormalities of external genitalia, notably in terms of growth and pubertal development.

METHODS

Retrospective longitudinal study of 40 patients followed between 1982 and 2017 in France.

RESULTS

Twenty patients had a prenatal diagnosis, whereas 20 patients had a postnatal diagnosis, mainly for short stature. Most patients had stunted growth, with abnormal growth spurt during puberty and a mean adult height of 158 ± 7.6 cm, i.e. -2.3 DS with correction for target height. Seventy percent of patients presented Turner-like syndrome features including cardiac (6/23 patients investigated) and renal malformations (3/19 patients investigated). Twenty-two patients had minor abnormalities of external genitalia. One patient developed a testicular embryonic carcinoma, suggesting evidence of partial gonadal dysgenesis. Moreover, puberty occurred spontaneously in 93% of patients but 71% (n = 5) of those evaluated at the end of puberty presented signs of declined Sertoli cell function (low inhibin B levels and increased FSH levels).

CONCLUSION

This study emphasizes the need to identify and follow-up 45,X/46,XY patients born with normal male phenotype until adulthood, as they present similar prognosis than those born with severe genital anomalies. Currently, most patients are diagnosed in adulthood with azoospermia, consistent with our observations of decreased testicular function at the end of puberty. Early management of these patients may lead to fertility preservation strategies.

AHR2 required for normal behavioral responses and proper development of the skeletal and reproductive systems in zebrafish

The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) is a conserved ligand-activated transcription factor required for proper vertebrate development and homeostasis. The inappropriate activation of AHR by ubiquitous pollutants can lead to adverse effects on wildlife and human health. The zebrafish is a powerful model system that provides a vertebrate data stream that anchors hypothesis at the genetic and cellular levels to observations at the morphological and behavioral level, in a high-throughput format. In order to investigate the endogenous functions of AHR, we generated an AHR2 (homolog of human AHR)-null zebrafish line (ahr2osu1) using the clustered, regulatory interspaced, short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)-Cas9 precision genome editing method. In zebrafish, 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) mediated toxicity requires AHR2. The AHR2-null line was resistant to TCDD-induced toxicity, indicating the line can be used to investigate the biological and toxicological functions of AHR2. The AHR2-null zebrafish exhibited decreased survival and fecundity compared to the wild type line. At 36 weeks, histological evaluations of the AHR2-null ovaries revealed a reduction of mature follicles when compared to wild type ovaries, suggesting AHR2 regulates follicle growth in zebrafish. AHR2-null adults had malformed cranial skeletal bones and severely damaged fins. Our data suggests AHR2 regulates some aspect(s) of neuromuscular and/or sensory system development, with impaired behavioral responses observed in larval and adult AHR2-null zebrafish. This study increases our understanding of the endogenous functions of AHR, which may help foster a better understanding of the target organs and molecular mechanisms involved in AHR-mediated toxicities.

Chilling effect on termination of reproductive diapause in Listronotus maculicollis (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Diapausing adults of the annual bluegrass weevil, Listronotus maculicollis, were collected from their hibernating sites at different times in autumn and winter, and subjected to different conditions to observe diapause termination by dissecting and measuring the reproductive organs. When diapausing weevils were maintained under laboratory cold conditions (10 h light at 6 °C:14 h dark at 4 °C) from early December to late March, the sizes of reproductive organs of both sexes increased or fluctuated slightly, and very few females had developing oocytes, suggesting that most adults did not resume development during the chilling period. When diapausing weevils (chilled for 40-83 days) were transferred to warm conditions (LD 14:10 and 21 °C) for different lengths of time, reproductive organ sizes in both sexes increased as chilling period prolonged, implying that chilling played an important role in diapause termination. Under field conditions, an apparent peak of reproductive development was observed on January 07 when 80% of males and 53% of females had resumed growth of reproductive organs. Diapausing weevils collected in September without chilling did not develop successfully despite exposure to warm conditions. In contrast, 87% of males and 93% of females collected from the field on January 21 had initiated reproductive development after 5 days of exposure to warm conditions, indicating the necessity of chilling for diapause termination. Male and female reproductive organ sizes increased faster and to a greater final size the longer the preceding chilling period was. The prolonged chilling period in the field resulted in more synchronized and advanced development in L. maculicollis when exposed to warm conditions.

Effects of Chronic Irradiation at Low Doses on Morphological Indicators of Reproductive System of Dysgenic Female Drosophila melanogaster

In this paper the contribution of chronic irradiation at low doses (0.42 mGy/h) and dysgenesis to changing morphological parameters (gonadal atrophy/sterility and ovarian reserve) of the reproductive system of female Drosophild melanogaster is rated. It is shown that the sterilizing effect of dysgenesis is enhanced predominantly by irradiation of the maternal line. The level of ovarian reserve of irradiated females depends on the type of dysgenic system. Unlike I-R females in whom the level of radiation-induced ovarian reserve does not differ from the control, both decrease (in P-M females) and increase (in H-E females) is observed in the ovariole number. The results indicate the important role of mobile genetic elements destabilizing the genome in the modification of reproductive functions of females exposed to chronic-action of low-intensity γ-radiation.

Overexpression of Anti-Müllerian Hormone Disrupts Gonadal Sex Differentiation, Blocks Sex Hormone Synthesis, and Supports Cell Autonomous Sex Development in the Chicken

The primary role of Anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) during mammalian development is the regression of Müllerian ducts in males. This highly conserved function is retained in birds and is supported by the high levels of AMH expression in developing testes. Mammalian AMH expression is regulated by a combination of transcription factors, the most important being Sry-type high-mobility-group box transcription factor-9 (SOX9). In the chicken embryo, however, AMH mRNA expression precedes that of SOX9, leading to the view that AMH may play a more central role in avian testicular development. To define its role in chicken gonadal development, AMH was overexpressed using the RCASBP viral vector. AMH caused the gonads of both sexes to develop as small and undeveloped structures at both embryonic and adult stages. Molecular analysis revealed that although female gonads developed testis-like cords, gonads lacked Sertoli cells and were incapable of steroidogenesis. A similar gonadal phenotype was also observed in males, with a complete loss of both Sertoli cells, disrupted SOX9 expression and gonadal steroidogenesis. At sexual maturity both sexes showed a female external phenotype but retained sexually dimorphic body weights that matched their genetic sexes. These data suggest that AMH does not operate as an early testis activator in the chicken but can affect downstream events, such as sex steroid hormone production. In addition, this study provides a unique opportunity to assess chicken sexual development in an environment of sex hormone deficiency, demonstrating the importance of both hormonal signaling and direct cell autonomous factors for somatic sex identity in birds.

[Therapeutic problems in disorders of sex development]

The compatibility between genetic, gonadal, genital, somatic and psychic sex should be present for the proper sexual development. If there is no such compatibility, disorders of sex development (DSD) appear. Medical procedure in such cases leads to many problems which mainly come from the lack of sufficient knowledge about the pathophysiology of the disorders. The main difficulties met by diagnostic and therapeutic team are: determination of the official sex, prediction of gender identity, hormonal activity of gonads and fertility, as well as the decision to undertake surgical procedures involving the genitals and gonads. Disorders of sex development lead also to psychological problems of patients and their families, because they disturb the proper social functioning.

Morphological outcomes of gynandromorphism in Lycaeides butterflies (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae)

The genitalia of male insects have been widely used in taxonomic identification and systematics and are potentially involved in maintaining reproductive isolation between species. Although sexual selection has been invoked to explain patterns of morphological variation in genitalia among populations and species, developmental plasticity in genitalia likely contributes to observed variation but has been rarely examined, particularly in wild populations. Bilateral gynandromorphs are individuals that are genetically male on one side of the midline and genetically female on the other, while mosaic gynandromorphs have only a portion of their body developing as the opposite sex. Gynandromorphs might offer unique insights into developmental plasticity because individuals experience abnormal cellular interactions at the genitalic midline. In this study, we compare the genitalia and wing patterns of gynandromorphic Anna and Melissa blue butterflies, Lycaeides anna (Edwards) (formerly L. idas anna) and L. melissa (Edwards) (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae), to the morphology of normal individuals from the same populations. Gynandromorph wing markings all fell within the range of variation of normal butterflies; however, a number of genitalic measurements were outliers when compared with normal individuals. From these results, we conclude that the gynandromorphs' genitalia, but not wing patterns, can be abnormal when compared with normal individuals and that the gynandromorphic genitalia do not deviate developmentally in a consistent pattern across individuals. Finally, genetic mechanisms are considered for the development of gynandromorphism in Lycaeides butterflies.

Analysis of the genitalia rotation in the male Anopheles funestus (Diptera: Culicidae)

Anopheles funestus is a major malaria vector in Africa. Insecticide resistance has developed in populations of this species in several African countries, prompting the need to develop additional vector control methods such as the sterile insect technique (SIT). This technique requires an understanding of those underlying physiological events that lead to sexual maturity of An. funestus males, the rotation of their genitalia in particular. The aim of this study was to qualitatively and quantitatively describe genital rotation in An. funestus males as it is an essential function of sexual maturation. Genital rotation of all the males reached its final rotation stage (135-180° rotation) 36 h post emergence at 23 ± 1 °C in laboratory colonised An. funestus males. These males had a comparable rotation rate to wild caught An. funestus at the same temperature setting. A temperature change (either 18 ± 1 °C or 29 ± 1 °C versus 23 ± 1 °C) significantly influenced the genital rotation rate such that this rate increased with increasing temperature. This information enhances our knowledge of the An. funestus male biology. This is important in terms of applying the sterile insect technique as the understanding and manipulation of the rate of sexual maturation in males has implications for the timing of sterile male release.

Delineating a conserved genetic cassette promoting outgrowth of body appendages

The acquisition of the external genitalia allowed mammals to cope with terrestrial-specific reproductive needs for internal fertilization, and thus it represents one of the most fundamental steps in evolution towards a life on land. How genitalia evolved remains obscure, and the key to understanding this process may lie in the developmental genetics that underpins the early establishment of the genital primordium, the genital tubercle (GT). Development of the GT is similar to that of the limb, which requires precise regulation from a distal signaling epithelium. However, whether outgrowth of the GT and limbs is mediated by common instructive signals remains unknown. In this study, we used comprehensive genetic approaches to interrogate the signaling cascade involved in GT formation in comparison with limb formation. We demonstrate that the FGF ligand responsible for GT development is FGF8 expressed in the cloacal endoderm. We further showed that forced Fgf8 expression can rescue limb and GT reduction in embryos deficient in WNT signaling activity. Our studies show that the regulation of Fgf8 by the canonical WNT signaling pathway is mediated in part by the transcription factor SP8. Sp8 mutants elicit appendage defects mirroring WNT and FGF mutants, and abolishing Sp8 attenuates ectopic appendage development caused by a gain-of-function β-catenin mutation. These observations indicate that a conserved WNT-SP8-FGF8 genetic cassette is employed by both appendages for promoting outgrowth, and suggest a deep homology shared by the limb and external genitalia.

Mammalian limbs and external genitalia are body appendages specialized for locomotion and internal fertilization, respectively. Despite their marked anatomical and functional differences, development of the limb and external genitalia appears to involve similar genetic controls, and some have suggested that regulatory mechanisms common to both might be evolutionarily linked. One essential aspect for appendage development is the establishment and maintenance of a separated proximodistal developmental axis apart from the main body axis, which is often instructed by a distal signaling epithelium. Herein, we adopted comprehensive mouse genetic approaches to investigate regulatory mechanisms underlying the distal signaling center in the limb and the GT, and uncovered a conserved genetic cassette that is utilized by both paired and unpaired appendages to establish a distal signaling center in the epithelium that mediates subsequent proximodistal outgrowth. Our results further suggested that the evolution of the external genital organ involved co-option of the same genetic program underpinning limb development.

Clinical and molecular aspects of androgen insensitivity

Androgen insensitivity describes the inability of cells to respond adequately to androgens. The clinical aspects are well characterized and described in the androgen insensitivity syndrome, where underandrogenization occurs despite normal to high levels of androgens. In 46,XY individuals, this is associated with a variable phenotype ranging from completely female to ambiguous genitalia and infertility in males with gynecomastia. Androgen action is facilitated by a single androgen receptor (AR), whose gene is localized on the X chromosome. However, the identification of mutations in the AR gene in patients with androgen insensitivity is variable, and chances are lower the more subtle the phenotype is. Therefore, other currently unknown mechanisms must be hypothesized to lead to the respective phenotype. The AR is a nuclear transcription factor, acting in concert with an array of only partly known cofactors serving as modulators of target gene transcription. The induced transcription pattern is highly tissue and cell specific, and in some tissues may lead to lasting changes of cell programming. Only one regulated gene APOD has currently been identified to serve as a clinical tool for the diagnosis of androgen insensitivity.

Specific morphogenetic events in mouse external genitalia sex differentiation are responsive/dependent upon androgens and/or estrogens

The objective of this study was to perform a comprehensive morphologic analysis of developing mouse external genitalia (ExG) and to determine specific sexual differentiation features that are responsive to androgens or estrogens. To eliminate sex steroid signaling postnatally, male and female mice were gonadectomized on the day of birth, and then injected intraperitoneally every other day with DES (200 ng/g), DHT (1 μg/g), or oil. On day-10 postnatal male and female ExG were dissected, fixed, embedded, serially sectioned and analyzed. We identified 10 sexually dimorphic anatomical features indicative of normal penile and clitoral differentiation in intact mice. Several (but not all) penile features were impaired or abolished as a result of neonatal castration. Those penile features remaining after neonatal castration were completely abolished with attendant clitoral development in androgen receptor (AR) mutant male mice (X(Tfm)/Y and X/Y AR-null) in which AR signaling is absent both pre- and postnatally. Administration of DHT to neonatally castrated males restored development of all 10 masculine features to almost normal levels. Neonatal ovariectomy of female mice had little effect on clitoral development, whereas treatment of ovariectomized female mice with DHT induced partial masculinization of the clitoris. Administration of DES to neonatally gonadectomized male and female mice elicited a spectrum of development abnormalities. These studies demonstrate that the presence or absence of androgen prenatally specifies penile versus clitoral identity. Differentiated penile features emerge postnatally and are sensitive to and dependent upon prenatal or pre- and postnatal androgen. Emergence of differentiated clitoral features occurs postnatally in either intact or ovariectomized females. It is likely that each penile and clitoral feature has a unique time-course of hormonal dependency/sensitivity.

Gestational and lactational exposure to bisphenol-A affects anxiety- and depression-like behaviors in mice

Bisphenol-A (BPA), an environmental endocrine disruptor, has attracted attention because of its adverse effects on the brain and behavioral development. Previous evidence indicates that perinatal exposure to low levels of BPA affects anxiety-like and cognitive behaviors in adult rodents. The present study aims to investigate the changes of anxiety- and depression-like behaviors of perinatally exposed mice in adulthood following the gestational (gestation days 7 to 20) or lactational (postnatal days 1 to 14) exposure to BPA (0.4 or 4 mg/kg/d). The results indicated that both gestational and lactational exposures to BPA increased anxiety and depression-like behavior in mice of both sexes. The females with gestational exposure exhibited an increased anxiety-like state in the four models tested, including the open field, dark-light transition task, mirrored maze, and elevated plus maze tasks. Furthermore, the females with lactational exposure and the males with gestational exposure exhibited an anxiogenic-like behavior in two models, whereas the males with lactational exposure exhibited an anxiogenic-like behavior only in the elevated plus maze test. The results of the forced swim task showed that gestational exposure markedly increased the immobile time in both sexes, and the same effect was induced by lactational exposure only with 4 mg/kg/d BPA. Furthermore, western blot analyses showed that both gestational and lactational exposures inhibited the expression of the AMPA receptor subunit GluR1 in the hippocampus and amygdala in mice of both sexes, whereas the level of the NMDA receptor subunit NR1 was increased in the amygdala following gestational exposure but was reduced in the hippocampus of the females with lactational exposure. These results suggest that both gestational and lactational exposures to BPA increased anxiety- and depression-like behaviors of adult mice of both sexes. In addition gestational exposure exhibited a stronger effect on anxiety-like state in females. The altered levels of AMPA and NMDA receptors in the hippocampus and amygdala may be associated with BPA-induced behavioral changes.

A novel severe N-terminal splice site KISS1R gene mutation causes hypogonadotropic hypogonadism but enables a normal development of neonatal external genitalia

BACKGROUND

Kisspeptin 1 receptor (KISS1R) gene mutations are rare but have recently become an important etiology of normosmic isolated hypogonadotropic hypogonadism (IHH).

OBJECTIVES

To characterize the genetic defect, the phenotype, and response to therapy of three IHH siblings with a novel severe KISS1R mutation.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Three siblings (16- and 22-year-old sisters and their 20-year-old brother) born to consanguineous parents with normal neonatal external genitalia presented with no pubertal development, normosmia, and a low response to GNRH stimulation. Homozygosity mapping, KISS1R gene sequencing, and RNA expression were performed.

RESULTS

The females' basal low estradiol level (50 pmol/l) failed to rise in response to human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG). The brother's low testosterone (1.87 nmol/l) responded to combined hCG and human menopausal gonadotropin (hCG) and HMG therapies, but the testes remained small (1-2 ml). Secondary sexual characteristics were attained by exogenous sex steroid replacement. SNP array studies revealed shared homozygosity for a chromosome 19 region encompassing KISS1R. Sequencing revealed a novel homozygous KISS1R mutation at the nt-1 canonical acceptor splice site of intron 1 in affected siblings. The mother (menarche at 14 years) was heterozygous. cDNA sequencing showed that the G>A mutation results in skipping of exon 2 and a premature stop codon at residue 151.

CONCLUSIONS

The novel severe N-terminal KISS1R splice site (c.245-1G>A) mutation results in IHH. Heterozygous female carriers may manifest a subtle fertile phenotype. The subnormal gonadal response to hCG in patients may implicate a direct role of KISS1R in gonadal function. The normal neonatal virilization in a male homozygous to this severe mutation challenges the hypothesis that KISS1R is required for fetal development of male external genitalia.

Estrogen dependent signaling in reproductive tissues - a role for estrogen receptors and estrogen related receptors

Estrogens play a fundamental role in the development and normal physiological function of multiple tissue systems and have been implicated in the ontogeny of cancers. The biological effects of estrogens are classically mediated via interaction with cognate nuclear receptors. The relative expression of ER subtypes/variants varies between cells within different tissues and this alters the response to natural and synthetic ligands. This review focuses on the role of estrogen and estrogen related receptors in reproductive tissues.

FOXO regulates organ-specific phenotypic plasticity in Drosophila

Phenotypic plasticity, the ability for a single genotype to generate different phenotypes in response to environmental conditions, is biologically ubiquitous, and yet almost nothing is known of the developmental mechanisms that regulate the extent of a plastic response. In particular, it is unclear why some traits or individuals are highly sensitive to an environmental variable while other traits or individuals are less so. Here we elucidate the developmental mechanisms that regulate the expression of a particularly important form of phenotypic plasticity: the effect of developmental nutrition on organ size. In all animals, developmental nutrition is signaled to growing organs via the insulin-signaling pathway. Drosophila organs differ in their size response to developmental nutrition and this reflects differences in organ-specific insulin-sensitivity. We show that this variation in insulin-sensitivity is regulated at the level of the forkhead transcription factor FOXO, a negative growth regulator that is activated when nutrition and insulin signaling are low. Individual organs appear to attenuate growth suppression in response to low nutrition through an organ-specific reduction in FOXO expression, thereby reducing their nutritional plasticity. We show that FOXO expression is necessary to maintain organ-specific differences in nutritional-plasticity and insulin-sensitivity, while organ-autonomous changes in FOXO expression are sufficient to autonomously alter an organ's nutritional-plasticity and insulin-sensitivity. These data identify a gene (FOXO) that modulates a plastic response through variation in its expression. FOXO is recognized as a key player in the response of size, immunity, and longevity to changes in developmental nutrition, stress, and oxygen levels. FOXO may therefore act as a more general regulator of plasticity. These data indicate that the extent of phenotypic plasticity may be modified by changes in the expression of genes involved in signaling environmental information to developmental processes.

The ability of an organism to respond to its environment is a defining quality of life. However, why are some characteristics or individuals sensitive to environmental change while others are not? We identified the mechanism that controls the response of growing organs to a particularly important environmental factor—developmental nutrition. In all animals, a decrease in developmental nutrition reduces final body and organ size. However, the size of some organs is less responsive to changes in nutrition than others. In a male fruit fly, it is the size of the genitals that is resistant to dietary restriction. This is achieved by the male fruit fly reducing expression of a key gene in their genitalia. This gene, FOXO, forms part of the insulin signaling system, which signals food levels to tissues in all animals. By lowering the production of FOXO, the genitalia are able to “ignore” hormonal signals that tell the rest of the body to grow slowly due to limited food. The ability of tissues to become insensitive to nutritional information is a characteristic of many tumors and also underlies type 2 diabetes. Our data may therefore provide insight into the origin and treatment of both conditions.

Sperm storage, sperm translocation and genitalia formation in females of the terrestrial isopod Armadillidium vulgare (Crustacea, Peracarida, Isopoda)

We investigated sperm storage, sperm transfer from the oviduct to the seminal receptacle, and formation of the cuticular genitalia in female Armadillidium vulgare using light and electron microscopy. Apolysis of the genitalia within the oviduct forms a circum-genital lumen. During insemination this space is filled with immobile spermatozoa. Sperm transfer into the seminal receptacle takes place before oviposition. Within a peculiar proximal neck region of the oviduct spermatozoa are bundled and enveloped by a folded epicuticular layer. The envelope tightly surrounds the spermatozoa probably forming a seal against the main part of the circum-genital lumen. We propose that hydrostatic pressure produced by the muscle cells surrounding the oviduct leads to sperm transfer into the seminal receptacle. Within the seminal receptacle the sperm bundle forms a ring just around the orifice to the oviduct. At one side sheath-like extensions of epithelial cells surround the ring of spermatozoa holding it in place. At the other side oocytes would have access to the sperm during oviposition, probably allowing for fertilisation when they pass right through the ring of spermatozoa. After oviposition the new genitalia are formed from epicuticular folds, and cuticle secreted by the epithelial cells.

Genetic interactions of the androgen and Wnt/beta-catenin pathways for the masculinization of external genitalia

In most mammals, the sexually dimorphic development of embryos is typically achieved by the differentiation of the external genitalia. Hence, the sexual distinction of mammalian newborns is based on the external genital structure. Although it was shown in the 1940s and 1950s that androgen from the testes establishes the male sexual characteristics, the involvement of nongonadal and locally produced masculine effectors remains totally unknown. It is noteworthy that the disorders of fetal masculinization, including hypospadias, one of the most frequent birth defects, occur at a high frequency. Furthermore, their causative factors remain unclear. In this study, the involvement of the coordinated actions of androgen and the growth factor systems was genetically analyzed for the first time on mammalian reproductive organ formation. The results demonstrated that the Wnt/beta-catenin pathway is indispensable masculine factor for the external genital development. The bilateral mesenchymal region adjacent to the urethral plate epithelium displayed a sexually dimorphic activity of Wnt/beta-catenin signaling. Loss- and gain-of-function beta-catenin mutants displayed altered sexual development of the external genitalia. These results indicate the novel functions of the Wnt/beta-catenin pathway as a locally expressed masculine effector. This could be the first genetic study analyzing the roles of the genetic interactions between androgen and locally expressed growth factor signaling during the development of reproductive organs. These results also shed new insight on the reproductive genetics and the causative factors of genital disorders.

Genetic variation in LIN28B is associated with the timing of puberty

The timing of puberty is highly variable. We carried out a genome-wide association study for age at menarche in 4,714 women and report an association in LIN28B on chromosome 6 (rs314276, minor allele frequency (MAF) = 0.33, P = 1.5 × 10(-8)). In independent replication studies in 16,373 women, each major allele was associated with 0.12 years earlier menarche (95% CI = 0.08-0.16; P = 2.8 × 10(-10); combined P = 3.6 × 10(-16)). This allele was also associated with earlier breast development in girls (P = 0.001; N = 4,271); earlier voice breaking (P = 0.006, N = 1,026) and more advanced pubic hair development in boys (P = 0.01; N = 4,588); a faster tempo of height growth in girls (P = 0.00008; N = 4,271) and boys (P = 0.03; N = 4,588); and shorter adult height in women (P = 3.6 × 10(-7); N = 17,274) and men (P = 0.006; N = 9,840) in keeping with earlier growth cessation. These studies identify variation in LIN28B, a potent and specific regulator of microRNA processing, as the first genetic determinant regulating the timing of human pubertal growth and development.

Genetic variation in LIN28B is associated with the timing of puberty

The timing of puberty is highly variable. We carried out a genome-wide association study for age at menarche in 4,714 women and report an association in LIN28B on chromosome 6 (rs314276, minor allele frequency (MAF) = 0.33, P = 1.5 × 10(-8)). In independent replication studies in 16,373 women, each major allele was associated with 0.12 years earlier menarche (95% CI = 0.08-0.16; P = 2.8 × 10(-10); combined P = 3.6 × 10(-16)). This allele was also associated with earlier breast development in girls (P = 0.001; N = 4,271); earlier voice breaking (P = 0.006, N = 1,026) and more advanced pubic hair development in boys (P = 0.01; N = 4,588); a faster tempo of height growth in girls (P = 0.00008; N = 4,271) and boys (P = 0.03; N = 4,588); and shorter adult height in women (P = 3.6 × 10(-7); N = 17,274) and men (P = 0.006; N = 9,840) in keeping with earlier growth cessation. These studies identify variation in LIN28B, a potent and specific regulator of microRNA processing, as the first genetic determinant regulating the timing of human pubertal growth and development.

[Effect of dietary genistein on rats development exposure after their weaning]

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the effects of dietary genistein on the development of young rats.

METHODS

SD rats aged three-week were randomly divided into three groups according to their weight (eight male and eight female). Each group was fed a diet containing genistein at levels of 0, 20 and 100 mg/kg. Several development indices were observed each week. At the age of 9 weeks, blood samples were collected and the plasma estradiol level of female rats and plasma testosterone level of male pups were measured. At the age of 13 weeks, organs( ovary and uterns in female, testes in male) were examined for histopathological changes and the expression of the estrogen receptor was measured by Western blotting.

RESULTS

The plasma estradiol level of female rats increased and the plasma testosterone level of male rats decreased at the age of 9 weeks compared to the control group. At the age of 13 weeks, decreased body weight, food consumption, anogenital distance (AGD) and overy weight in female rats were observed. Also, the vaginal open time of female pups was earlier than control group. Histopathology showed that the cavity of uterus was larger than control group. Otherwise, treatment with genistein caused reduction in the plasma estradiol level of female rats and the expression of estrogen receptor-alpha in uterus. There were few changes of male rats' body weight, testicular descent, testes weight and histopathology except that the increased food consumption from 10-week-old and plasma testosterone level.

CONCLUSION

Genistein exposure could effect on both sexes of young rats' development. The effects on female rats were much more than that on male rats and the effect of rats body weight and food consumption was mainly after their growing up. Although the mechanism of these effects are still obscure, it seems that the change of hormone level and expression of estrogen receptor have some relation with these effects.

Clinically distinct epigenetic subgroups in Silver-Russell syndrome: the degree of H19 hypomethylation associates with phenotype severity and genital and skeletal anomalies

CONTEXT

The H19 imprinting control region (ICR), located on chromosome 11p15.5, has been reported hypomethylated in 20-65% of Silver-Russell syndrome (SRS) patients.

OBJECTIVE

We investigated the methylation status of 11p15.5 ICRs in SRS patients and children born small for gestational age (SGA) to clarify the relationship between phenotype and H19 methylation status.

METHODS

We performed methylation screens of the H19 and KCNQ1OT1 ICRs in 42 SRS patients, including seven maternal uniparental disomy of chromosome 7 patients, and 90 SGA children without SRS. Clinical data were evaluated from patient records, and seven hypomethylated patients were clinically and radiologically reexamined.

RESULTS

H19 ICR hypomethylation was found in 62% of SRS patients but in no SGA children. A clinical severity score demonstrated strong correlation between hypomethylation level and phenotype severity. Hypomethylation related to a more severe SRS phenotype, in which especially asymmetry and micrognathia were significantly more common. Extremely hypomethylated patients had abnormally high lumbar vertebrae, lumbar hypomobility, elbow subluxations, and distinct hand and foot anomalies. They also presented with congenital aplasia of the uterus and upper vagina, equivalent to the Mayer-Rokitansky-Küster-Hauser syndrome in females, and cryptorchidism and testicular agenesis in males.

CONCLUSIONS

We found a dose-response relationship between the degree of H19 hypomethylation and phenotype severity in SRS. We report for the first time the association of specific anomalies of the spine, elbows, hands and feet, and genital defects in SRS with severe H19 hypomethylation. Classical SRS features were found in H19 hypomethylation and milder symptoms in maternal uniparental disomy of chromosome 7, thus distinguishing two separate clinical and etiological subgroups.

Sexual differentiation of the external genitalia and the timing of puberty in the presence of an antiandrogen in sheep

Testicular steroids during midgestation sexually differentiate the steroid feedback mechanisms controlling GnRH secretion in sheep. To date, the actions of the estrogenic metabolites in programming neuroendocrine function have been difficult to study because exogenous estrogens disrupt maternal uterine function. We developed an approach to study the prenatal actions of estrogens by coadministering testosterone (T) and the androgen receptor antagonist flutamide, and tested the hypothesis that prenatal androgens program estradiol inhibitory feedback control of GnRH secretion to defeminize (advance) the timing of the pubertal increase in LH. Pregnant sheep were either untreated or treated with T, dihydrotestosterone (DHT) (a nonaromatizable androgen), or T plus flutamide from d 30-90 of gestation. To study the postnatal response to steroid negative feedback, lambs were gonadectomized and estradiol-replaced, and concentrations of LH were monitored in twice-weekly blood samples. Although T and DHT produced penile and scrotal development in females, the external genitalia of T plus flutamide offspring remained phenotypically female, regardless of genetic sex. Untreated females and females and males treated with T plus flutamide exhibited a pubertal increase in circulating LH at 26.4+/-0.5, 26.0+/-0.7, and 22.4+/-1.6 wk of age, respectively. In females exposed to prenatal androgens, the LH increase was advanced (T: 12.0+/-2.6 wk; DHT: 15.0+/-2.6 wk). These results demonstrate the usefulness of combining T and antiandrogen treatments as an approach to increasing prenatal exposure to estradiol. Importantly, the findings support our hypothesis that prenatal androgens program sensitivity to the negative feedback actions of estradiol and the timing of neuroendocrine puberty.

DIF-1 induces the basal disc of the Dictyostelium fruiting body

The polyketide DIF-1 induces Dictyostelium amoebae to form stalk cells in culture. To better define its role in normal development, we examined the phenotype of a mutant blocking the first step of DIF-1 synthesis, which lacks both DIF-1 and its biosynthetic intermediate, dM-DIF-1 (des-methyl-DIF-1). Slugs of this polyketide synthase mutant (stlB(-)) are long and thin and rapidly break up, leaving an immotile prespore mass. They have approximately 30% fewer prestalk cells than their wild-type parent and lack a subset of anterior-like cells, which later form the outer basal disc. This structure is missing from the fruiting body, which perhaps in consequence initiates culmination along the substratum. The lower cup is rudimentary at best and the spore mass, lacking support, slips down the stalk. The dmtA(-) methyltransferase mutant, blocked in the last step of DIF-1 synthesis, resembles the stlB(-) mutant but has delayed tip formation and fewer prestalk-O cells. This difference may be due to accumulation of dM-DIF-1 in the dmtA(-) mutant, since dM-DIF-1 inhibits prestalk-O differentiation. Thus, DIF-1 is required for slug migration and specifies the anterior-like cells forming the basal disc and much of the lower cup; significantly the DIF-1 biosynthetic pathway may supply a second signal - dM-DIF-1.

Some evidence of effects of environmental chemicals on the endocrine system in children

Pollutant chemicals that are widespread in the environment can affect endocrine function in laboratory experiments and in wildlife. Although human beings are commonly exposed to such pollutant chemicals, the exposures are generally low and clear effects on endocrine function from such exposures have been difficult to demonstrate. Human data including both exposure to the chemical agent and the endocrine outcome are reviewed here, including age at weaning, age at puberty, anogenital distance, and sex ratio at birth, and the strength of the evidence are discussed. Although endocrine disruption in humans by pollutant chemicals remains largely undemonstrated, the underlying science is sound and the potential for such effects is real.

Diapause in the leaf beetle Diorhabda elongata (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), a biological control agent for tamarisk (Tamarix spp.)

The tamarisk leaf beetle, Diorhabda elongata Brullé deserticola Chen, was collected in northwestern China and has been released in the western United States to control tamarisk (Tamarix spp.). Characteristics of diapause and reproductive development in D. elongata were examined to improve management as a biocontrol agent. Under long days, 16:8 (L:D) h, males began to emit aggregation pheromone within 2-3 d of adult emergence, mating occurred, and females oviposited within 7 d of adult emergence. Under short days, 12:12 (L:D) h, males did not emit pheromone, mating did not occur, and both males and females entered reproductive diapause marked by inconspicuous gonads and hypertrophied fat body. Ovaries of diapausing females lacked vitellogenic oocytes, and the ovarioles were clear and narrow, whereas reproductive females had enlarged ovaries with two to three yellow oocytes per ovariole. Diapausing males had thin, transparent accessory glands and ejaculatory ducts, whereas reproductive males had thick white accessory glands and white opaque ejaculatory ducts. Sensitivity to diapause-inducing photoperiods extended into the adult stage. Reproductive females ceased oviposition, resorbed oocytes, and entered diapause when switched from long to short days. Diapause-destined insects ceased feeding and entered the leaf litter 10-20 d after adult emergence, whereas reproductive insects remained on the plants and fed for at least 30 d. Reproductive insects exhibited dispersal behaviors, such as attempted flights, whereas diapause-destined insects did not show dispersal behaviors. Information gained from these studies will be used to better manage populations in the field and to improve rearing and storage in the laboratory.

The OECD program to validate the rat Hershberger bioassay to screen compounds for in vivo androgen and antiandrogen responses: phase 2 dose-response studies

OBJECTIVE

The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) has completed phase 2 of an international program to validate the rodent Hershberger bioassay.

DESIGN

The Hershberger bioassay is designed to identify suspected androgens and antiandrogens based on changes in the weights of five androgen-responsive tissues (ventral prostate, paired seminal vesicles and coagulating glands, the levator ani and bulbocavernosus muscles, the glans penis, and paired Cowper's or bulbourethral glands). Protocol sensitivity and reproducibility were tested using two androgen agonists (17alpha-methyl testosterone and 17beta-trenbolone), four antagonists [procymi-done, vinclozolin, linuron, and 1,1-dichoro-2,2-bis-(p-chlorophenyl)ethylene (p,p'-DDE)], and a 5alpha-reductase inhibitor (finasteride). Sixteen laboratories from seven countries participated in phase 2.

RESULTS

In 40 of 41 studies, the laboratories successfully detected substance-related weight changes in one or more tissues. The one exception was with the weakest antiandrogen, linuron, in a laboratory with reduced sensitivity because of high coefficients of variation in all tissue weights. The protocols performed well under different experimental conditions (e.g., strain, diet, housing protocol, bedding, vehicle). There was good agreement and reproducibility among laboratories with regard to the lowest dose inducing significant effects on tissue weights.

CONCLUSIONS

The results show that the OECD Hershberger bioassay protocol is reproducible and transferable across laboratories with androgen agonists, weak androgen antagonists, and a 5alpha-reductase inhibitor. The next validation phase will employ coded test substances, including positive substances and negative substances having no androgenic or antiandrogenic activity.

Reproduction and longevity: secrets revealed by C. elegans

What is the relationship between reproduction and longevity? Evolutionary biology suggests that reproduction exacts a cost in somatic maintenance, a cost that reduces longevity. The frequent occurrence of this tradeoff between life span and fecundity, both due to experimental manipulations as well as natural variation, suggest that the mechanism might be conserved during evolution. Until recently, little was known about the mechanistic details of how reproduction might regulate life span. Here we discuss recent advances in our understanding of the regulation of life span by reproductive signaling, focusing on studies using Caenorhabditis elegans.

17 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase 3 deficiency in the Mediterranean population

Eighty-five males with 17 beta-HSD3 were identified among a highly inbred Arab population in Israel and 57 studied over a period of 25 years. The founders of this defect originated in the mountainous regions of present Lebanon and Syria, but most of the families now live in Jerusalem, Hebron, the Tel-Aviv area and, in particular, in Gaza, where the frequency of affected males is estimated at 1 in 100 to 150. Affected individuals are born with ambiguity of the external genitalia and reared as females until puberty. Thereafter marked virilization occurs, leading in many cases to the spontaneous adoption of a male gender identity and role. Adults develop a male habitus with abundant body hair and beard and the phallus and testes enlarge to adult proportions. Gender reassignment in infancy was only possible when enough erectile tissue was present at birth and developed into a normal size penis with testosterone. 17 beta-HSD3 deficiency can be reliably diagnosed by endocrine evaluation and mutation analysis. In adults the defect is characterized by markedly increased concentrations of androstenedione (A) with borderline low to normal testosterone (T) levels and a high A/T ratio. 5a-dihydrotestosterone (DHT) concentrations are moderately decreased, normal or high and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) levels are high. The estrogen pathway is also impaired, even though both estrone (E-1) and estradiol-17 beta (E-2) levels are high. Children have low basal levels of all androgens, but the defect may be demonstrated after prolonged stimulation with human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG). LH and FSH levels are very high after puberty and normal in childhood. 17 beta-HSD3 isozyme is encoded by the chromosome 9q22 17 beta-HSD3 gene and expressed exclusively in testes. A point mutation in exon 3, codon 80 of the 17 beta-HSD3 gene, R80Q, caused by a single base substitution from CGG ( arginine) to CAG ( glutamine) was identified in both alleles of 24 individuals from 9 extended Arab families from Gaza, Jerusalem and Lod-Ramle. Twenty-one homozygote males (46,XY) were MPH with testicular 17 beta-HSD3 deficiency whereas the three homozygote females (46,XX) were asymptomatic, had normal internal and external genitalia, normal sexual development and revealed no biochemical evidence of 17 beta-HSD3 deficiency. The molecular pattern is compatible with an autosomal recessive mode of inheritance, sex dependent.

Lycium barbarum polysaccharides: Protective effects against heat-induced damage of rat testes and H2O2-induced DNA damage in mouse testicular cells and beneficial effect on sexual behavior and reproductive function of hemicastrated rats

Lycium barbarum, a famous Chinese medicinal herb, has a long history of use as a traditional remedy for male infertility. Polysaccharides are the most important functional constituent in L. barbarum fruits. We systematically investigated the effect of L. barbarum polysaccharides (LBP) on rat testis damage induced by a physical factor (43 degrees C heat exposure), on DNA damage of mouse testicular cells induced by a chemical factor (H2O2), and on sexual behavior and reproductive function of hemicastrated male rats. The results showed that LBP provided a protective effect against the testicular tissue damage induced by heat exposure. When compared with negative control, a suitable concentration of LBP significantly increased testis and epididymis weights, improved superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity, and raised sexual hormone levels in the damaged rat testes. LBP had a dose-dependent protective effect against DNA oxidative damage of mouse testicular cells induced by H2O2. LBP improved the copulatory performance and reproductive function of hemicastrated male rats, such as shortened penis erection latency and mount latency, regulated secretion of sexual hormones and increased hormone levels, raised accessory sexual organ weights, and improved sperm quantity and quality. The present findings support the folk reputation of L. barbarum fruits as an aphrodisiac and fertility-facilitating agent, and provide scientific evidence for a basis for the extensive use of L. barbarum fruits as a traditional remedy for male infertility in China.

Effects of developmental exposure to 2,2 ,4,4 ,5-pentabromodiphenyl ether (PBDE-99) on sex steroids, sexual development, and sexually dimorphic behavior in rats

Increasing concentrations of polybrominated flame retardants, including polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), in breast milk cause concern about possible developmental effects in nursed babies. Because previous studies in rats have indicated effects on sex steroids and sexually dimorphic behavior after maternal exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), our goal in the present study was to determine if developmental exposure to 2,2 ,4,4 ,5-pentabromodiphenyl ether (PBDE-99) induces similar endocrine-mediated effects. Pregnant rats were exposed to vehicle or PBDE-99 (1 or 10 mg/kg body weight, daily during gestational days 10-18). For comparison, we also included a group exposed to the technical PCB mixture Aroclor 1254 (30 mg/kg body weight, daily). PBDE exposure resulted in pronounced decreases in circulating sex steroids in male offspring at weaning and in adulthood. Female offspring were less affected. Anogenital distance was reduced in male offspring. Puberty onset was delayed in female offspring at the higher dose level, whereas a slight acceleration was detected in low-dose males. The number of primordial/primary ovarian follicles was reduced in females at the lower dose, whereas decline of secondary follicles was more pronounced at the higher dose. Sweet preference was dose-dependently increased in PBDE-exposed adult males, indicating a feminization of this sexually dimorphic behavior. Aroclor 1254 did not alter sweet preference and numbers of primordial/primary and secondary follicles but it did affect steroid concentrations in males and sexual development in both sexes. PBDE concentrations in tissues of dams and offspring were highest on gestational day 19. These results support the hypothesis that PBDEs are endocrine-active compounds and interfere with sexual development and sexually dimorphic behavior.

Polybrominated diphenylether levels among United States residents: daily intake and risk of harm to the developing brain and reproductive organs

Data on Polybrominated diphenylether (PBDE) concentrations in individual U.S. women were compiled. PBDE levels in adipose tissue, serum, and breast milk from individual U.S. women were found to follow similar lognormal distributions, which exhibited a high degree of variability. The distribution of lipid-normalized PBDE concentrations for all media combined had a median of 47.9 ng/g and a 95th percentile estimate of 302 ng/g. Estimates of congener-specific kinetic parameters were used to calculate the total daily intake of the PBDEs (sum of 5 PBDE prominent congeners, PBDE-47, -99, -100, -153, and -154) that would be required to achieve the measured body burdens. PBDE intake estimates from all routes of exposure were 8.5 ng/kg/d (median) and 54 ng/kg/d (95th percentile). The potential health risks posed by the PBDEs were examined by comparing 95th percentile tissue concentrations in humans (C(human)) to modeled and measured tissue concentrations in rodents that caused no developmental neurotoxicity and reproductive effects (C(rodent)). The ratio of rodent-to-human PBDE concentrations (C(rodent):C(human)) was <1 for alterations of male and female reproductive organs in rats, <10 for neurodevelopmental effects in mice, and <100 for neurodevelopmental effects in rats. If humans are as sensitive as animals to PBDE-induced developmental toxicity, the current margin of safety appears low for a fraction of the population.

[The evolution of the forms of hermaphroditism in Cyclophyllidea (Cestoda). 2. Morphofunctional causes of the formation of tapeworms having a protogynous type of the genital apparatus development]

Morpho-biological causes of the formation of protogynous forms of Anoplocephalidae (Cyclophyllidea) parasitizing rodents have been studied. The reduction in the number of segments in the strobila of anoplocephalideans (Anoplocephaloides, Paranoplocephaloides) in comparison with related polymeric species of the taxon (Paranoplocephala) suggests that protogyny is resulted from the secondary oligomerization of strobila in the phylogenesis of these cestodes. It is evident that the ecological cause of the selection for a small number of segments in the strobila is a tough competition among large polymeric cestodes that results in the formation of small anoplocephalideans located in the back part of the small intestine (Paranoplocephaloides) and in the blind gut (Anoplocephaloides) of rodents. There is slowing down of strobilation rates, acceleration of genital apparatus development and somatic proglottid morphogenesis during the change into protogyny. Due to an earlier, regarding testicle morphogenesis, formation of the ovary and uterus, uterus segments are developing most of the time in the strobila. Thus, proterogyny is one of the universal mechanisms to extend the terms of hexacanth embryogenesis in the second oligomeric strobila of tapeworms.

Normally occurring intersexuality and testosterone induced plasticity in the copulatory system of adult leopard geckos

The copulatory neuromuscular system of lizards is highly sexually dimorphic. Adult males possess bilateral penises called hemipenes, which are independently controlled by two muscles, the retractor penis magnus (RPM) and transversus penis (TPN). These structures are not obvious in adult females. However, in adult female leopard geckos (Eublepharis macularius), testosterone induces hemipene growth. We investigated whether these structures develop de novo in adulthood or are histologically present as rudimentary structures in the female leopard gecko. We also investigated the extent of sexual dimorphisms and plasticity in the associated neuromuscular components. To do this, we compared copulatory morphology (sizes of hemipenes, RPM and TPN muscle fibers, and associated motoneurons, as well as motoneuron and RPM fiber number) in adult females treated with testosterone, control females, and control males. All of the geckos possessed hemipenes, RPMs and TPNs, but these structures were indeed vestigial in control females. Testosterone induced striking increases in hemipene and copulatory muscle fiber size in females, but not to levels equivalent to control males. In parallel, males with increased levels of androgenic activity had larger hemipenes, suggesting naturally occurring steroid-induced plasticity. Copulatory motoneurons were not sexually dimorphic in size or number, and these measures did not respond to testosterone. The data demonstrate that the copulatory system of leopard geckos, in which gonadal sex is determined by egg incubation temperature, differs from that of many species (both reptilian and mammalian) with genotypic sex determination. Indeed, the system is remarkable in that adult females have normally occurring intersex characteristics and they exhibit substantial steroid-induced morphological plasticity in adulthood.

[The evolution of forms of hermaphroditism in Cyclophyllidea (Cestoda). 1. Morpho-functional causes of the formation of tapeworms with the protandrous type of genital apparatus development]

Morpho-fuctional causes of the formation of protandrous Cyclophyllidea (tapeworms) have been studied. Two forms of protandry are described. The protandry type I is typical for polymeric (polysegmental) Hymenolepididae. It appears independently in different taxa of this family (Aploparaksis, Echinatrium, Wardium, Diorchis and others) while the narrow-strobila forms with a low prolificacy of proglottids are formed. The development of this living form of hymenolepidids is ecologically caused by the high density of their aggregation in intestines of hosts. The primordium results in the development of genitals in the juvenile strobila proglottids with the limited internal space. Due to this process, parallel morphogenesis of male and female gonads is proved to be impossible. A selection leading to the overtaking development of testicles and copulative apparatus regarding morphogenesis of ovary and vitellarium is based an earlier maturation of testicles and group copulation of proglottids with and underdeveloped ovary that is typical in original euandrogyne forms. The group insemination of proglottids from a polysegmented strobila reduces the number of copulation and improves an efficiency of cross-copulation of tapeworms and. As a result, morpho-functional zones of male proglottids characterized by an immature ovary and those of fertile female segments losing their testicles are differentiated in the strobila. The protandry type II is typical of mesomeric tapeworms (Dilepididae, Schistotaeniidae, Anoplocephalidae). It is also resulted from a limited space of proglottids for developing the hermaphroditic genital apparatus. This is caused by the shift of genital morphogenesis process into juvenile proglottids and also by the enlargement of gonad sizes as the result of a selection for a higher prolificacy of proglottids. The dissociation of the development of male and female gonads takes place because of the retardation of ovary morphogenesis.

Life stages and reproductive components of the Marmorkrebs (marbled crayfish), the first parthenogenetic decapod crustacean

Recently, we briefly reported on the first case of parthenogenesis in the decapod Crustacea which was found in the Marmorkrebs or marbled crayfish, a cambarid species of unknown geographic origin and species identity. Curiously, this animal is known only from aquarium populations, where it explosively propagates. By means of light and electron microscopic techniques we have now investigated the reproductive components of this crayfish, using more than 100 specimens ranging from hatchling to repeatedly spawned adult. Additionally, we documented its principal life stages. Our results revealed that the external sexual characters and also the gonads of the marbled crayfish are purely female, making this fast-reproducing species a good model for investigating female reproductive features in crayfish. Testicular tissues, ovotestes, or male gonoducts, gonopores, or gonopods were never found, either in small juveniles or large adult specimens, confirming the parthenogenetic nature of this crayfish. Parthenogenesis may have arisen spontaneously or by interspecific hybridization since Wolbachia-like feminizing microorganisms were not found in the ovaries. The external sexual characters of the marbled crayfish are first recognized in Stage 4 juveniles and are structurally complete approximately 2 months after hatching in specimens of approximately 2 cm total length. In the same life stage the ovary is fully differentiated as well, although the oocytes are in previtellogenic and primary vitellogenic stages only. The architecture of the mature ovary and also the synchronous maturation of cohorts of primary vitellogenic oocytes by secondary vitellogenesis are in general agreement with data published on ovaries of bisexual crayfish. New results were obtained with respect to the muscular nature of the ovarian envelope and its extensive proliferation after the first spawning, the distribution of hemal sinuses in the ovarian envelope and in the interstitium around the oogenetic pouches, the high transport activity of the follicle cells, and the colonization of oogenetic pouches by previtellogenic oocytes that originate in the germaria. Investigation of the nuclei of oocytes in the germaria and oogenetic pouches revealed no signs of meiosis, as usually found in females of bisexual decapods, suggesting that parthenogenesis in the marbled crayfish might be an apomictic thelytoky. The detection of new rickettsial and coccidian infections in the ovary and further organs raises fears that the marbled crayfish might endanger native European species by transmission of pathogens once escaped into the wild.

Effects of temperature on fecundity in vitro, egg hatching and reproductive development of Benedenia seriolae and Zeuxapta seriolae (Monogenea) parasitic on yellowtail kingfish Seriola lalandi

Globally, aquaculture industries involved with commercial culture of kingfish (Seriola spp.) experience outbreaks of monogenean parasites, which can cause heavy stock losses. In Australia and New Zealand, aquaculturists of kingfish Seriola lalandi incur financial losses caused by two monogenean species: Benedenia seriolae and Zeuxapta seriolae which parasitise the skin and gills, respectively. This study provides information on some basic temperature-dependent life-cycle parameters of these problematic monogeneans on S. lalandi. Hatching times and age at maturity were inversely related to water temperature within the range experienced by wild kingfish in New Zealand (13-21 degrees C). Mature B. seriolae in vitro laid on average 37 eggs/day that hatched over approximately 4 days; peak hatching occurred 9, 11 and 22 days post-deposition at temperatures of 21, 17.5 and 13+/-1.0 degrees C, respectively. Z. seriolae in vitro laid on average 246 eggs/day that hatched over 2 days; peak hatching occurred 7, 9 and 15 days post-deposition at these respective temperatures. B. seriolae matured within 20, 25 and 48 days p.i. at 21, 18 and 13 degrees C. Z. seriolae matured within 25, 37 and >52 days p.i. at the same temperatures. This research describes stages in the reproductive development of B. seriolae and Z. seriolae and discusses the inclusion of basic parasitic life-cycle parameters into management strategies designed to maximise treatment efficacy and limit monogenean epizootics in sea-cage kingfish culture.