Intrachromosomal recombination between highly diverged DNA sequences is enabled in human cells deficient in Bloom helicase

Mutation of Bloom helicase (BLM) causes Bloom syndrome (BS), a rare human genetic disorder associated with genome instability, elevation of sister chromatid exchanges, and predisposition to cancer. Deficiency in BLM homologs in Drosophila and yeast brings about significantly increased rates of recombination between imperfectly matched sequences ("homeologous recombination," or HeR). To assess whether BLM deficiency provokes an increase in HeR in human cells, we transfected an HeR substrate into a BLM-null cell line derived from a BS patient. The substrate contained a thymidine kinase (tk)-neo fusion gene disrupted by the recognition site for endonuclease I-SceI, as well as a functional tk gene to serve as a potential recombination partner for the tk-neo gene. The two tk sequences on the substrate displayed 19% divergence. A double-strand break was introduced by expression of I-SceI and repair events were recovered by selection for G418-resistant clones. Among 181 events recovered, 30 were accomplished via HeR with the balance accomplished by nonhomologous end-joining. The frequency of HeR events in the BS cells was elevated significantly compared to that seen in normal human fibroblasts or in BS cells complemented for BLM expression. We conclude that BLM deficiency enables HeR in human cells.

Depletion of the bloom syndrome helicase stimulates homology-dependent repair at double-strand breaks in human chromosomes

Mutation of BLM helicase causes Blooms syndrome, a disorder associated with genome instability, high levels of sister chromatid exchanges, and cancer predisposition. To study the influence of BLM on double-strand break (DSB) repair in human chromosomes, we stably transfected a normal human cell line with a DNA substrate that contained a thymidine kinase (tk)-neo fusion gene disrupted by the recognition site for endonuclease I-SceI. The substrate also contained a closely linked functional tk gene to serve as a recombination partner for the tk-neo fusion gene. We derived two cell lines each containing a single integrated copy of the DNA substrate. In these cell lines, a DSB was introduced within the tk-neo fusion gene by expression of I-SceI. DSB repair events that occurred via homologous recombination (HR) or nonhomologous end-joining (NHEJ) were recovered by selection for G418-resistant clones. DSB repair was examined under conditions of either normal BLM expression or reduced BLM expression brought about by RNA interference. We report that BLM knockdown in both cell lines specifically increased the frequency of HR events that produced deletions by crossovers or single-strand annealing while leaving the frequency of gene conversions unchanged or reduced. We observed no change in the accuracy of individual HR events and no substantial alteration of the nature of individual NHEJ events when BLM expression was reduced. Our work provides the first direct evidence that BLM influences DSB repair pathway choice in human chromosomes and suggests that BLM deficiency can engender genomic instability by provoking an increased frequency of HR events of a potentially deleterious nature.

Induction of intrachromosomal homologous recombination in human cells by raltitrexed, an inhibitor of thymidylate synthase

Thymidylate deprivation brings about "thymineless death" in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Although the precise mechanism for thymineless death has remained elusive, inhibition of the enzyme thymidylate synthase (TS), which catalyzes the de novo synthesis of TMP, has served for many years as a basis for chemotherapeutic strategies. Numerous studies have identified a variety of cellular responses to thymidylate deprivation, including disruption of DNA replication and induction of DNA breaks. Since stalled or collapsed replication forks and strand breaks are generally viewed as being recombinogenic, it is not surprising that a link has been demonstrated between recombination induction and thymidylate deprivation in bacteria and lower eukaryotes. A similar connection between recombination and TS inhibition has been suggested by studies done in mammalian cells, but the relationship between recombination and TS inhibition in mammalian cells had not been demonstrated rigorously. To gain insight into the mechanism of thymineless death in mammalian cells, in this work we undertook a direct investigation of recombination in human cells treated with raltitrexed (RTX), a folate analog that is a specific inhibitor of TS. Using a model system to study intrachromosomal homologous recombination in cultured fibroblasts, we provide definitive evidence that treatment with RTX can stimulate accurate recombination events in human cells. Gene conversions not associated with crossovers were specifically enhanced several-fold by RTX. Additional experiments demonstrated that recombination events provoked by a double-strand break (DSB) were not impacted by treatment with RTX, nor was error-prone DSB repair via nonhomologous end-joining. Our work provides evidence that thymineless death in human cells is not mediated by corruption of DSB repair processes and suggests that an increase in chromosomal recombination may be an important element of cellular responses leading to thymineless death.

Accurate homologous recombination is a prominent double-strand break repair pathway in mammalian chromosomes and is modulated by mismatch repair protein Msh2

We designed DNA substrates to study intrachromosomal recombination in mammalian chromosomes. Each substrate contains a thymidine kinase (tk) gene fused to a neomycin resistance (neo) gene. The fusion gene is disrupted by an oligonucleotide containing the 18-bp recognition site for endonuclease I-SceI. Substrates also contain a "donor" tk sequence that displays 1% or 19% sequence divergence relative to the tk portion of the fusion gene. Each donor serves as a potential recombination partner for the fusion gene. After stably transfecting substrates into mammalian cell lines, we investigated spontaneous recombination and double-strand break (DSB)-induced recombination following I-SceI expression. No recombination events between sequences with 19% divergence were recovered. Strikingly, even though no selection for accurate repair was imposed, accurate conservative homologous recombination was the predominant DSB repair event recovered from rodent and human cell lines transfected with the substrate containing sequences displaying 1% divergence. Our work is the first unequivocal demonstration that homologous recombination can serve as a major DSB repair pathway in mammalian chromosomes. We also found that Msh2 can modulate homologous recombination in that Msh2 deficiency promoted discontinuity and increased length of gene conversion tracts and brought about a severalfold increase in the overall frequency of DSB-induced recombination.

Genetic exchange between homeologous sequences in mammalian chromosomes is averted by local homology requirements for initiation and resolution of recombination

We examined the mechanism by which recombination between imperfectly matched sequences (homeologous recombination) is suppressed in mammalian chromosomes. DNA substrates were constructed, each containing a thymidine kinase (tk) gene disrupted by insertion of an XhoI linker and referred to as a "recipient" gene. Each substrate also contained one of several "donor" tk sequences that could potentially correct the recipient gene via recombination. Each donor sequence either was perfectly homologous to the recipient gene or contained homeologous sequence sharing only 80% identity with the recipient gene. Mouse Ltk(-) fibroblasts were stably transfected with the various substrates and tk(+) segregants produced via intrachromosomal recombination were recovered. We observed exclusion of homeologous sequence from gene conversion tracts when homeologous sequence was positioned adjacent to homologous sequence in the donor but not when homeologous sequence was surrounded by homology in the donor. Our results support a model in which homeologous recombination in mammalian chromosomes is suppressed by a nondestructive dismantling of mismatched heteroduplex DNA (hDNA) intermediates. We suggest that mammalian cells do not dismantle mismatched hDNA by responding to mismatches in hDNA per se but rather rejection of mismatched hDNA appears to be driven by a requirement for localized homology for resolution of recombination.

A role for DNA mismatch repair protein Msh2 in error-prone double-strand-break repair in mammalian chromosomes

We examined error-prone nonhomologous end joining (NHEJ) in Msh2-deficient and wild-type Chinese hamster ovary cell lines. A DNA substrate containing a thymidine kinase (tk) gene fused to a neomycin-resistance (neo) gene was stably integrated into cells. The fusion gene was rendered nonfunctional due to a 22-bp oligonucleotide insertion, which included the 18-bp I-SceI endonuclease recognition site, within the tk portion of the fusion gene. A double-strand break (DSB) was induced by transiently expressing the I-SceI endonuclease, and deletions or insertions that restored the tk-neo fusion gene's reading frame were recovered by selecting for G418-resistant colonies. Overall, neither the frequency of recovery of G418-resistant colonies nor the sizes of NHEJ-associated deletions were substantially different for the mutant vs. wild-type cell lines. However, we did observe greater usage of terminal microhomology among NHEJ events recovered from wild-type cells as compared to Msh2 mutants. Our results suggest that Msh2 influences error-prone NHEJ repair at the step of pairing of terminal DNA tails. We also report the recovery from both wild-type and Msh2-deficient cells of an unusual class of NHEJ events associated with multiple deletion intervals, and we discuss a possible mechanism for the generation of these "discontinuous deletions."

Modulation of error-prone double-strand break repair in mammalian chromosomes by DNA mismatch repair protein Mlh1

We assayed error-prone double-strand break (DSB) repair in wild-type and isogenic Mlh1-null mouse embryonic fibroblasts containing a stably integrated DSB repair substrate. The substrate contained a thymidine kinase (tk) gene fused to a neomycin-resistance (neo) gene; the tk-neo fusion gene was disrupted in the tk portion by a 22bp oligonucleotide containing the 18 bp recognition site for endonuclease I-SceI. Following DSB-induction by transient expression of I-SceI endonuclease, cells that repaired the DSB by error-prone nonhomologous end-joining (NHEJ) and restored the correct reading frame to the tk-neo fusion gene were recovered by selecting for G418-resistant clones. The number of G418-resistant clones induced by I-SceI expression did not differ significantly between wild-type and Mlh1-deficient cells. While most DSB repair events were consistent with simple NHEJ in both wild-type and Mlh1-deficient cells, complex repair events were more common in wild-type cells. Furthermore, genomic deletions associated with NHEJ events were strikingly larger in wild-type versus Mlh1-deficient cells. Additional experiments revealed that the stable transfection efficiency of Mlh1-null cells is higher than that of wild-type cells. Collectively, our results suggest that Mlh1 modulates error-prone NHEJ by inhibiting the annealing of DNA ends containing noncomplementary base pairs or by promoting the annealing of microhomologies.

Suppression of high-fidelity double-strand break repair in mammalian chromosomes by pifithrin-alpha, a chemical inhibitor of p53

We investigated the effect of pifithrin-alpha (PFTalpha), a chemical inhibitor of p53, on DNA double-strand break (DSB) repair in mammalian chromosomes. Thymidine kinase-deficient mouse fibroblasts were stably transfected with DNA substrates containing one or two recognition sites for yeast endonuclease I-SceI embedded within a herpes simplex virus thymidine kinase gene. Genomic DSBs were induced by introducing an I-SceI expression plasmid into cells in the presence or absence of 20 microM PFTalpha. From cells containing the DNA substrate with a single I-SceI site we recovered low-fidelity nonhomologous end-joining (NHEJ) events in which one or more nucleotides were deleted or inserted at the DSB. From cells containing the substrate with two I-SceI sites we recovered high-fidelity DNA end-joining (precise ligation (PL)) events. We found that treatment of cells with PFTalpha caused a 5-10-fold decrease in recovery of PL but decreased recovery of NHEJ by less than two-fold. Deletion sizes associated with NHEJ were unaffected by treatment with PFTalpha. Our work suggests the possibility that p53 facilitates high-fidelity DSB repair while playing little or no role in mutagenic NHEJ.

Efficient recruitment of transfected DNA to a homologous chromosomal target in mammalian cells

A Chinese hamster ovary cell line hemizygous for a defective adenine phosphoribosyltransferase (aprt) gene was transfected with a plasmid, pAG100, capable of correcting the endogenous aprt mutation by targeted homologous recombination. In some experiments, pAG100 was transfected in combination with one of two 'competitor' plasmids. Competitor pCOMP-A was identical to pAG100 except that the aprt sequence on pCOMP-A had the same mutation as the endogenous aprt gene. Competitor pCOMP-B was identical to pAG100 except for a 763 bp deletion in the aprt sequence encompassing the site of mutation in the endogenous gene. Neither pCOMP-A nor pCOMP-B was capable of correcting the defect in the endogenous aprt gene via gene targeting. We asked whether cotransfection of a 4-fold excess of either competitor DNA molecule with pAG100 would reduce the efficiency of targeted correction of the endogenous aprt gene. We report that while plasmid pCOMP-B did not influence the efficiency of gene targeting by pAG100, plasmid pCOMP-A reduced the number of gene targeting events about 5-fold. These observations indicate that the initial homologous interaction between transfected DNA and a genomic target sequence occurs rapidly and that targeting efficiency is limited by a step subsequent to homologous pairing.

Stable transfection of mammalian cells by syringe-mediated mechanical loading of DNA

We show that mammalian cells can be stably transfected by a mechanical loading procedure in which cells are forced through a small opening in the presence of DNA. A suspension of cells and plasmid DNA in growth medium was passed up and down through a 30-gauge needle attached to a 1-ml syringe. Cells were immediately plated at appropriate densities for subsequent selection for stable expression of a marker gene. Two rodent cell lines, Chinese hamster ovary and mouse Ltk- cells, were successfully transfected with an efficiency of about one transfectant per 5 x 10(4) cells. The human HeLa cell line was transfected with a somewhat lower efficiency. Pluronic F-68, a detergent believed to aid in healing of membrane injuries, had no beneficial effect when present during the loading procedure. Successful transfection was accomplished using three different genes as selectable markers. Southern blotting analysis revealed that transfectants contained one or very few copies of the introduced DNA construct integrated into the genome. Several transfectants were demonstrated to remain stable for more than 20 generations of growth in the absence of selection. This procedure is fast, economical, and of general utility.

Enrichment for gene targeting in mammalian cells by inhibition of poly(ADP-ribosylation)

Inhibition of poly(ADP-ribosylation) reduces random genomic integration of transfected DNA and mildly stimulates intrachromosomal homologous recombination in mammalian cells. We investigated the effect of inhibition of poly(ADP-ribosylation) on the efficiency of gene targeting in Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cell line ATS-49tg. This cell line is hemizygous for a defective adenine phosphoribosyltransferase (aprt) gene and is hypoxanthine phosphoribosyltransferase (hprt) deficient. Plasmid pAG100 contains a portion of the CHO aprt gene sufficient to correct the defect in ATS-49tg cells via gene targeting; pAG100 also contains an Escherichia coli guanine phosphoribosyltransferase (gpt) gene. Following transfection of ATS-49tg cells with pAG100, selection for gpt-positive transfectants allowed recovery of cells that had randomly integrated pAG100 while selection for aprt-positive cells allowed recovery of cells that had undergone gene targeting at the endogenous aprt locus. Treatment of cells with 3 mM 3-methoxybenzamide (3-MB), an inhibitor of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase, decreased random integration and gene targeting of electroporated pAG100 about 5-fold. In contrast, treatment with 3 mM 3-MB during calcium phosphate transfection could reduce random integration more than 150-fold while reducing gene targeting less than two-fold. Therefore, as much as a 100-fold enrichment for gene targeting was achieved with calcium phosphate transfection.

Stimulation of intrachromosomal homologous recombination in mammalian cells by an inhibitor of poly(ADP-ribosylation)

We determined the effect of 3-methoxybenzamide (3-MB), a competitive inhibitor of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (E.C. 2.4.2.30), on intrachromosomal homologous recombination in mouse Ltk- cells. We used a cell line that contained in its genome two defective Herpes thymidine kinase (tk) genes as closely linked direct repeats. Intrachromosomal homologous recombination events were monitored by selecting for tk-positive segregants that arose during propagation of the cells and recombination rates were determined by fluctuation analysis. We found that growth of cells in the continuous presence of 2mM 3-MB increased intrachromosomal recombination between 3 and 4-fold. Growth of cells in the presence of 2mM m-anisic acid, a non-inhibitory analog of 3-MB, had no effect on intrachromosomal recombination rates. Additionally, we found that 3-MB increased both gene conversions and crossovers to similar extents, adding to the evidence that these two types of intrachromosomal rearrangements share a common pathway. These findings contrast with our previous studies [Waldman, B.C. and Waldman, A.S. (1990) Nucleic Acids Res., 18, 5981-5988] in which we determined that 3-MB inhibits illegitimate recombination and has no effect on extrachromosomal homologous recombination in mouse Ltk- cells. An hypothesis is offered that explains the influence of 3-MB on different recombination pathways in mammalian cells in terms of the role that poly(ADP-ribosylation) plays in DNA break-repair.

Illegitimate and homologous recombination in mammalian cells: differential sensitivity to an inhibitor of poly(ADP-ribosylation)

We determined the effect of 3-methoxybenzamide (3-MB), a competitive inhibitor of poly(ADP-ribose)polymerase (E.C. 2.4.2.30), on illegitimate and extrachromosomal homologous recombination in mouse Ltk- cells. Cells were transfected with a wild type Herpes thymidine kinase (tk) gene or with two defective tk gene sequences followed by selection for tk-positive colonies. Using a wild type tk gene, colony formation required uptake, integration, and expression of the tk gene. Using defective tk genes, colony formation had the additional requirement for homologous recombination to reconstruct a functional tk gene. The presence of non-cytotoxic levels of 3-MB during and after transfection reduced the number of colonies recovered with a wild type tk gene in a dose-dependent manner, with 2 mM 3-MB causing a 10 to 20-fold reduction. 3-MB reduced the number of colonies recovered with defective tk genes only to the same extent as in transfections with a wild type gene. Treatment with 3-methoxybenzoic acid, a non-inhibitory analog of 3-MB, did not reduce the recovery of colonies in any experiment. Similar results were obtained using linear or supercoiled molecules and when defective tk genes were transfected into cells on one or two different DNA molecules. By assaying for transient expression of the tk gene, we found that 3-MB did not inhibit uptake or expression of the tk gene. We conclude that poly(ADP-ribosylation) plays a role in random integration (illegitimate recombination) of DNA but does not play an important role in extrachromosomal homologous recombination, demonstrating that these two recombination pathways in cultured mouse fibroblasts are biochemically distinct.

UDP-GlcNAc transport across the Golgi membrane: electroneutral exchange for dianionic UMP

We have examined the coupling and charge stoichiometry for UDP-GlcNAc transport into Golgi-enriched vesicles from rat liver. In the absence of added energy sources, these Golgi vesicles concentrate UDP-GlcNAc at least 20-fold, presumably by exchange with endogenous nucleotides. Under the conditions used, extravesicular degradation of UDP-GlcNAc has been eliminated, and less than 15% of the internalized radioactivity becomes associated with endogenous macromolecules. Of the remaining intravesicular label, 85% remains unmetabolized UDP-[3H]GlcNAc, and approximately 15% is hydrolyzed to [3H]GlcNAc-1-phosphate. Efflux of accumulated UDP-[3H]GlcNAc is induced by addition of UMP, UDP, or UDP-galactose to the external medium. Permeabilization of Golgi vesicles causes a rapid and nearly complete loss of internal UDP-[3H]GlcNAc, indicating that the results reflect transport and not binding. Moreover, transport of UDP-[3H]GlcNAc into these Golgi vesicles was stimulated up to 5-fold by mechanically preloading vesicles with either UDP-GlcNAc or UMP. The response of UMP/UMP exchange and UMP/UDP-GlcNAc exchange to alterations in intravesicular and extravesicular pH suggests that UDP-GlcNAc enters the Golgi apparatus in electroneutral exchange with the dianionic form of UMP.

A method for replacing intravesicular contents of Golgi vesicles using an air-driven ultracentrifuge

Golgi membrane vesicles can be easily and very rapidly (within 10 min.) loaded with solutions of desired composition by centrifugation of the vesicles at high g force in an air-driven ultracentrifuge and subsequent resuspension of the vesicle pellet. This centrifugal/mechanical loading procedure does not destroy the integrity of these vesicles, as demonstrated by the ability of loaded vesicles to (i) retain their contents, (ii) maintain a K+ gradient when loaded with K+ ions, and (iii) exchange internal UMP for external [3H]UMP when loaded with UMP. When radiolabeled solutes are loaded into vesicles, the displaced internal volume can be measured using a rapid filtration assay. This simple and rapid technique of replacing the intravesicular contents of Golgi membrane vesicles should prove useful in studying transport across this membrane and may have a variety of other applications, such as intravesicular volume measurements, macromolecule and drug delivery protocols, and the study of membrane fusion events.

A clonal derivative of tunicamycin-resistant Chinese hamster ovary cells with increased N-acetylglucosamine-phosphate transferase activity has altered asparagine-linked glycosylation

A population of Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells resistant to the antibiotic tunicamycin (TM) had previously been isolated (Criscuolo, B.A., and Krag, S.S. (1982) J. Cell Biol. 94:586-591) by a stepwise selection procedure using progressive increments of TM added to the medium. TM inhibits asparagine-linked glycoprotein biosynthesis by blocking the transfer of N-acetylglucosamine-1-phosphate from the sugar nucleotide UDP-N-acetylglucosamine to the isoprenoid lipid carrier, dolichyl phosphate. Four clonal derivatives were isolated from the TM-resistant population in the presence of 27 micrograms TM/ml and were found to overproduce the N-acetylglucosamine-phosphate transferase activity to the same extent (approximately 15-fold compared to wild-type cells). One of these clones, 3E11, was greater than 550-fold more resistant to TM than wild-type cells. The resistance phenotype remained during at least 2.5 months of growth in the absence of TM. 3E11 cells exhibited chromosomal translocations, but no homogeneously staining regions (HSR) or double minute chromosomes. The N-acetylglucosamine-phosphate transferase activity in 3E11 cells was membrane-associated and was inhibited by TM. A 140,000-dalton membrane protein and at least four other membrane proteins were enriched in 3E11 cells. Mannosylphosphoryldolichol synthase and glucosylphosphoryldolichol synthase activities were not elevated in membranes prepared from 3E11 cells. Asparagine-linked glycosylation was altered such that 3E11 cells synthesized primarily a truncated oligosaccharide, Man5GlcNAc2, perhaps due to the reduced amount of mannosylphosphoryldolichol relative to wild-type cells.