Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in fish (fresh and dried) and public health in Nigeria: a systematic review

In Nigeria, environmental pollution linked with PAHs has been increasing, and PAHs in fish pose a threat to all, especially those that rely upon fish. This systematic review aimed at evaluating human health effect of PAHs concentration in dried and fresh fish in Nigeria. A systematic literature search was carried out on PubMed, MedLine, Web of Science and Science Direct, etc. From the total of 31 articles reviewed, 19 studies reported on fresh fish and 9 on dried fish. 54.8% of the selected research reported on high-level PAH accumulation in fresh fish. PAH contamination was mainly from petrogenic and pyrogenic sources. The major health outcomes from this study were cancer and non-carcinogenic risks, skin irritations, gastrointestinal, child deformities, respiratory disorders, emotional distresses, neurological and haematological effects. It is recommended that regulations be made to abate and monitor the environmental exposure of humans to PAHs to ameliorate the public health effects.

Engaging One Health in Heavy Metal Pollution in Some Selected Nigerian Niger Delta Cities. A Systematic Review of Pervasiveness, Bioaccumulation and Subduing Environmental Health Challenges

The Niger Delta environment is under serious threat due to heavy metal pollution. Many studies have been conducted on the heavy metal contamination in soils, water, seafood and plants in the Niger Delta ecosystem. However, there is a lack of clear understanding of the health consequences for people and strategies for attaining One Health, and a dispersion of information that is accessible. The study focused on investigating the contamination levels, distributions, risks, sources and impacts of heavy metals in selected regions of the Niger Delta. Prior studies revealed that the levels of certain heavy metals, including Cd, Pb, Cu, Cr, Mn, Fe and Ni, in water, sediment, fish and plants in most Niger Delta ecosystems were higher than the acceptable threshold attributed to various anthropogenic stressors. In the reviewed Niger Delta states, ecosystems in Rivers state showed the highest concentrations of heavy metals in most sampled sites. Groundwater quality was recorded at concentrations higher than 0.3 mg/L World Health Organization drinking water guideline. High concentrations of copper (147.915 mg/L) and zinc (10.878 mg/L) were found in Rivers State. The heavy metals concentrations were greater in bottom-dwelling organisms such as bivalves, gastropods and shrimp than in other fishery species. Heavy metal exposure in the region poses risks of communicable and non-communicable diseases. Diverse remediation methods are crucial to reduce contamination levels, but comprehensive strategies and international cooperation are essential to address the health hazards. Actively reducing heavy metals in the environment can achieve One Health objectives and mitigate disease and economic burdens.

Persistent organic pollutants and heavy metals in Ghanaian environment: a systematic review of food safety implications

Advances in industrial and technological innovations have led to significant socio-economic benefits, but with overwhelming negative impacts on the environment. These impacts include the infiltration of organic contaminants into soil, water, and air, posing a threat to the environment and public health. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), heavy metals, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are increasingly released as waste, endangering the environment. In countries like Ghana, where regulations are weakly enforced, industrial waste is released uncontrollably, posing threats to public health, environmental integrity, and food systems. This study systematically evaluated existing literature on PBDEs, heavy metals, PAHs, and organic contaminant exposure in Ghana and proposes a roadmap for achieving food safety and protecting the environment and human health. The research identified high mobility of specific heavy metals and risks associated with PBDEs and PAHs in sediments, dumpsites, and various food items. Unregulated dumping of electronic waste with PBDEs raised environmental concerns. An integrated approach is needed to address the multifaceted impact of organic pollutants on public health and ecosystems. Urgent implementation of effective environmental management strategies and regulatory measures is crucial. The study proposed short- to mid-term priorities emphasising the need to foster collaboration and implementing global measures. The mid- to long-term strategy includes a national information surveillance system, local monitoring capacity development, and integrating land contamination controls with food safety legislation. These measures would mitigate risks, ensure sustainable practices, and improve overall food safety management in Ghana, serving as a model for regions facing similar challenges with diverse pollutants.

An Update Overview on Mechanistic Data and Biomarker Levels in Cobalt and Chromium-Induced Neurodegenerative Diseases

There is increasing evidence that the imbalance of metals as cobalt (Co) and chromium (Cr) may increase the risk of development and progression of neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs). The human exposure to Co and Cr is derived mostly from industry, orthopedic implants, and polluted environments. Neurological effects of Co and Cr include memory deficit, olfactory dysfunction, spatial disorientation, motor neuron disease, and brain cancer. Mechanisms of Co and Cr neurotoxicity included DNA damage and genomic instability, epigenetic changes, mitochondrial disturbance, lipid peroxidation, oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis. This paper seeks to overview the Co and Cr sources, the mechanisms by which these metals induce NDDs, and their levels in fluids of the general population and patients affected by NDDs. To this end, evidence of Co and Cr unbalance in the human body, mechanistic data, and neurological symptoms were collected using in vivo mammalian studies and human samples.

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Soil and Vegetation of Niger Delta, Nigeria: Ecological Risk Assessment

The Niger Delta, Nigeria, is noted for crude oil exploration. Whereas there seems to be a handful of data on soil polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) levels in this area, there is a paucity of studies that have evaluated soil and vegetation PAHs simultaneously. The present study has addressed this information gap. Fresh Panicum maximum (Jacq) (guinea grass), Pennisetum purpureum Schumach (elephant grass), Zea mays (L.) (maize), and soil samples were collected in triplicate from Choba, Khana, Trans-Amadi, Eleme, Uyo, and Yenagoa. PAHs determination was carried out using GC-MS. The percentage composition of the molecular weight distribution of PAHs, the molecular ratio of selected PAHs for identification of possible sources, and the isomeric ratio and total index of soil were evaluated. Pennisetum purpureum Schumach (elephant grass) from Uyo has the highest (10.0 mg·kg^-1) PAH while Panicum maximum (Jacq) (guinea grass) has the highest PAH (32.5 mg·kg^-1 from Khana. Zea mays (L.) (maize) from Uyo (46.04%), Pennisetum purpureum Schumach (elephant grass) from Trans-Amadi (47.7%), guinea grass from Eleme (49.2%), and elephant grass from Choba (39.9%) contained the highest percentage of high molecular weight (HMW) PAHs. Soil samples from Yenagoa (53.5%) and Khana (55.3%) showed the highest percentage of HMW PAHs. The total index ranged 0.27-12.4 in Uyo, 0.29-8.69 in Choba, 0.02-10.1 in Khana, 0.01-5.53 in Yenagoa, 0.21-9.52 in Eleme, and 0.13-8.96 in Trans-Amadi. The presence of HMW PAHs and molecular diagnostic ratios suggest PAH pollution from pyrogenic and petrogenic sources. Some soils in the Niger Delta show RQ_(NCs) values higher than 800 and require remediation to forestall ecohealth consequences.

Pervasiveness, bioaccumulation and subduing environmental health challenges posed by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs): A systematic review to settle a one health strategy in Niger Delta, Nigeria

The crude oil-rich Niger Delta region of Nigeria is under threat due to anthropogenic activities that include mainly PAH contamination. Following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA), multiple online searches were conducted using several databases (e.g. Cochrane Library, Scopus, Embase, National Library of Medicine, PubMed etc.) between October and November 2022 to collect evidence on pervasiveness, bioaccumulation and health challenges posed by PAH in Nigeria Niger Delta. Included studies were appraised for quality using the Standard for Quality Improvement Reporting Excellence (SQUIRE 2.0) framework and the Joanna Briggs (JB) checklist and retrieved data were analysed using the narrative synthesis method. With the indiscriminate exposure of the local inhabitants to PAH and a lack of public health policies that efficiently prevent exposure-associated adverse health events, there is a need for a collaborative and multi-disciplinary approach, cutting across boundaries of animal, human, and environmental health to undertake risk assessments, develop plans for response and control in an attempt to protect public health. The complex and wide distribution of PAHs within the Niger Delta region would benefit of the One Health strategy. Such systemic approach would help managing the harmful effects of PAHs on ecosystems, from environmental remedial approaches to measures to mitigate exposure-associated risks. One health, including environmental health and food safety, would help risk assessors and risk managers in prioritising actions for the prevention and mitigation of PAHs pollution and its spread and accumulation.

Occurrence and Dietary Risk Assessment of Mycotoxins in Most Consumed Foods in Cameroon: Exploring Current Data to Understand Futures Challenges

Mycotoxins are naturally occurring toxins that contaminate different crops and foodstuffs under certain circumstances during harvesting, handling, storage, and processing. Neither the dietary intake of mycotoxins in Cameroon is well characterized, nor its health effects on the consumers. This review is intended to be the first milestone towards national risk management of mycotoxins. It is noteworthy that mycotoxins contaminate the main staple foods of Cameroonian communities, which are also often used as complementary foods for infants, young children, and people with compromised immune systems (e.g., HIV/AIDS), thus calling for urgent intervention in primary and secondary prevention. Very few data exist on mycotoxin contamination in Cameroonian agricultural commodities and food items. Only 25 studies from 14 different authors have been published in the last decade. On the basis of available data in Cameroon, the Estimated Daily Intake (EDI) of major mycotoxins in foods for Aflatoxins was 0.0018-14.2 µg/kgbw/day in maize, 0.027-2.36 µg/kgbw/day in cassava, and 0.023-0.1 µg/kgbw/day in groundnuts. The estimated daily intake of fumonisins was 0.12-60.6 µg/kgbw/day in maize and 0.056-0.82 µg/kgbw/day in beans. Based on the estimated distribution of human exposure levels by food, maize and cassava are the major sources of exposure and should be prioritized, followed by beans and spices. This estimate will be updated along with improvements on the national database on mycotoxin contamination of Cameroonian foods.

Heavy metals and inflammatory, oxidative/antioxidant and DNA damage biomarkers among people living with HIV/AIDS (PLWHA) in Niger Delta, Nigeria

This study evaluated the association of heavy metals (HMs) and effect biomarkers (inflammation, oxidative stress/antioxidant capacity and DNA damage) among people living with HIV/AIDS (PHWHA) in Niger Delta area, Nigeria. Blood levels of lead (BPb), cadmium (BCd), copper (BCu), zinc (BZn), iron (BFe), C-reactive protein (CRP), Interleukin-6 (IL-6), Tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), Interferon-γ (IFN-γ), Malondialdehyde (MDA), Glutathione (GSH) and 8-hydroxy-2-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) were determined in a total of 185 participants, 104 HIV-positive and 81 HIV-negative sampled in both Niger Delta and non-Niger Delta regions. BCd (p < 0.001) and BPb (p = 0.139) were higher in HIV-positive subjects compared to HIV-negative controls; on the contrary, BCu, BZn and BFe levels were lower (p < 0.001) in HIV-positive subjects compared to HIV-negative controls. The Niger Delta population had higher levels of heavy metals (p < 0.01) compared to non-Niger Delta residents. CRP and 8-OHdG were higher (p < 0.001) in HIV-positive than in HIV-negative subjects and in Niger-Delta than in non-Niger Delta residents. BCu had significant positive dose-response relationship with CRP (61.9%, p = 0.063) and GSH (1.64%, p = 0.035) levels in HIV-positive subjects, and negative response with MDA levels (26.6%, p < 0.001). Periodic assessment of HMs levels among PLWHA is recommended.

Heavy metals and metalloids exposure and in vitro fertilization: Critical concerns in human reproductive medicine

Exposures to heavy metals and metalloids have been associated with decreased fecundity and fertility in couples conceiving via assisted reproduction. Heavy metals and metalloids can alter the homeostasis of critical hormones controlling sexual maturation by binding to critical hormones and receptors. This may disrupt the time course of sexual maturation directly or indirectly affecting reproductive competence in males and females. The present review aims to provide a summarized overview of associations between heavy metal exposure, reproductive concerns, and IVF outcomes. A systematic review was conducted according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) in Google Scholar, Scopus, EMBASE and PubMed databases. Initial search produced 1,351 articles from which 30 articles were eligible to be included in the systematic review. From our results, 16 articles reported associations between selected heavy metals and IVF outcomes, while 14 articles summarized the role of heavy metals in reproductive concerns. For the studies on IVF outcomes, different human samples were examined for heavy metals. Heavy metals and metalloids (Pb, Hg, Cd, Cr, Mn, As) correlated negatively with oocyte fertilization/pregnancy rates in hair, follicular fluid, serum, urine and seminal plasma samples, while Cd and Hg in whole blood samples showed no associations. For the studies on reproductive concerns, high levels of heavy metals/metalloids were implicated in the following conditions: infertility (Cd, Pb, Ba, U), spontaneous abortion/miscarriage (Pb, Cd, Sb), congenital heart disease (Al, Mg, Cd), PCOS (As, Cd, Hg, Pb), endometriosis (Pb) and uterine leiomyomata (Hg). Taken together, the results of our study suggest that the impact of heavy metals and metalloids exposure on reproductive health may contribute to the failure rates of in vitro fertilization.

E-WASTE threatens health: The scientific solution adopts the one health strategy

The aggressively extractive advanced technology industry thrives on intensive use of non-renewable resources and hyper-consumeristic culture. The environmental impact of its exponential growth means extreme mining, hazardous labour practices including child labour, and exposure burden to inorganic and organic hazardous chemicals for the environment and current and future human generations. Globally, processes such as in-country reduce, reuse and recycle have so far received less attention than outer-circle strategies like the uncontrolled dumping of e-waste in countries that are unprotected by regulatory frameworks. Here, in the absence of infrastructures for sound hazardous e-waste management, the crude recycling, open burning and dumping into landfills of e-waste severely expose people, animal and the environment. Along with economic, political, social, and cultural solutions to the e-waste global problem, the scientific approach based on risk analysis encompassing risk assessment, risk management and risk communication can foster a technical support to resist transgenerational e-waste exposure and health inequalities. This paper presents the latest public health strategies based on the use of integrated human and animal biomonitoring and appropriate biomarkers to assess and manage the risk of e-waste embracing the One Health approach. Advantages and challenges of integrated biomonitoring are described, along with ad-hoc biomarkers of exposure, effect and susceptibility with special focus on metals and metalloids. Indeed, the safe and sustainable management of novel technologies will benefit of the integration and coordination of human and animal biomonitoring.

Pharmaceutical and personal care products as emerging environmental contaminants in Nigeria: A systematic review

The increasingly broad and massive use of pharmaceuticals (human, veterinary) and personal care products in industrially developing nations makes their uncontrolled environmental and ecological impact a true concern. Focusing on Nigeria, this systematic literature search (databases: PubMed, ScienceDirect, Google Scholar, EMBASE, Scopus, Cochrane library and African Journals Online) aims to increase visibility to the issue. Among 275 articles identified, 7 were included in this systematic review. Studies indicated the presence of 11 personal care products (15.94 %) and 58 pharmaceutical products (84.06 %) in surface and ground water, leachates, runoffs, sludge, and sediments. The 42.86% (3/7) of reviewed studies reported 17 analgesics; 71.42 % (5/7) reported 16 antibiotics; 28.57 % (2/7) reported 5 lipid lowering drugs; 28.57% reported anti-malaria and fungal drugs; 14.29 % (1/7) reported estrogen drugs. Different studies report on sunscreen products, hormone, phytosterol, insect repellent, and β1 receptor. Gemfibrozil (<4-730 ng/L), Triclosan (55.1-297.7 ng/L), Triclocarban (35.6-232.4 ng/L), Trimethoprim (<1-388 ng/L) and Tramadol (<2-883 ng/L) had the highest range of concentrations. Findings confirm the need of i) legislation for environmental monitoring, including biota, ii) toxicological profiling of new market products, and iii) sensitization on appropriate use and disposal of pharmaceuticals and personal care products.

Natural occurring radioactive materials (NORMs) from mining sites in Nigeria: A systematic review of geographical distribution and public health concern

Solid mineral mining activities have contributed to the distribution and uptake of radionuclides. This has increased the active concentration of naturally occurring radioactive materials NORMs in different environmental media with increased human health risks. This systematic review was aimed at assessing data on active concentration of naturally occurring radioactive materials in mining sites in Nigeria. Articles available on recognized data bases such as Google scholar, PubMed, Cochrane Library and Science Direct were used. Thirty-two studies were used for this systematic review after meeting the inclusion criteria. Reports of studies according to Geopolitical zones revealed 0% North-east, 4% for Southeast, 8% for South-South, 16% in North-West, 20% in South-West, and 52% from North-Central Nigeria. 50%, 45.2%, 50%, and 38.5% of included studies reported elevated active concentration of 232Th, 40K, 238U and 226Ra in soil above world regulatory standards of the ICRP, UNSCEAR and IAEA. Gross-alpha and gross-beta activity concentrations reference dose level (RDL) were exceeded in 83.3% and 80% of studies respectively with the highest values recorded in water 10.12Bq/l, and 14.63Bq/l from an artisanal gold mine in North-West Nigeria. These data agree with reports from other African countries, but lower than reports from China and India. NORMs may be of public health concerns notwithstanding the lean data from clinical and epidemiological studies in Nigeria. This study recommends a One Health approach on the radiological implications of mining sites in Nigeria.

Combined education course on nutrition, hand-washing and dental care in primary schools in Yaoundé, Cameroon

Background

Poor nutritional habits and related hygiene and sanitation practices impair food and nutrition security, and increase the risk of foodborne diseases and related school absenteeism. While the WASH program promoted by the UNICEF boosts water, sanitation, and hygiene, only a few studies thus far encouraged healthy eating habits and safe and nutritious meals at school. This study aimed at combining education of schoolchildren on nutrition and hygiene (nutrition knowledge, attitudes, practices; food choices; nutrient sources; dental care; handwashing), and at boosting the engagement of parents and teachers in the promotion of nutrition-related behaviors conducive to health and well-being.

Methods

Four primary schools in different Yaoundé Urban Councils and 71 schoolchildren aged 7-12 years enrolled in the study. In this paper we report on the i) administrative and ethical clearance, ii) sensitisation and demonstration activities, iii) donation of WASH equipment, disposable materials for hand and teeth hygiene, toolkit policy, and guidebook, iv) baseline assessment by structured questionnaire, v) combined course (1 hour/week, 6 weeks), and vi) measured impact. Scores were analysed using paired z- and t-tests with SPSS 23.0 for windows.

Results

In the four schools, handwashing showed the best improvement. Older children benefited more from the whole course, while the improvement in younger children focused more on practices. The school that scored lowest at baseline obtained marked general improvement. Interestingly, general improvement in food choices coupled with persistent difficulty in recognising nutrient sources. Although sociocultural and socioeconomic parameters were not included in the questionnaire, these emerged as possible modifiers. Despite limited hours of direct training and limited resources invested, this short-term intervention significantly changed habits of children and the school community. Availability of hand and teeth hygiene materials facilitated and motivated the proactivity of the school community to boost good nutrition and hygiene practices sustainably.

Conclusions

Preventive medicine is a balance of awareness and affordability. Having this in mind, more coordinated efforts (WASH, food safety, food security) will enforce proper nutrition and hygiene of children at school in the different Cameroonian sociocultural and socioeconomic settings.

Human dietary exposure to metals in the Niger delta region, Nigeria: Health risk assessment

The contamination profile and the human health risk assessment of various heavy metals (Cd, Cr, Mn, Ni and Pb) in vegetable oils, palm oils, butter and shea butter purchased from the Nigerian market were evaluated. Univariate and multivariate analyses including the principal component analysis (PCA), hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) and heat map visualization were used to evaluate correlation, similarity and source of metals. Dietary intake and dermal absorption through the application in skin were also assessed. The heavy metals 5th and 95th percentile interval range (in mg/kg) were 0.003-0.208, 0.003-0.392, 0.003-1.344, 0.003-0.369 and 0.006-0.531 for Cd, Cr, Mn, Ni and Pb, respectively. Concentrations of Cr and Mn were significantly different across sample categories, being the levels of Mn and Ni positively correlated in both oil and butter samples. The result of PCA, HCA and heat map revealed the profile of heavy metals in oils was different from that of butters, with Pb mainly associated to oils, and Cd, Cr, Mn and Ni to butters. In some samples, the international maximum levels for Cd, Ni and Pb in edible oils were exceeded. Cadmium and Pb dietary intake through Nigerian oils and butters should not be considered negligible for human health protection.

Dietary interventions for autism spectrum disorder: An updated systematic review of human studies

Autism is a complex spectrum of disorders with genetic, epigenetic, autoimmune, oxidative stress, and environmental etiologies. Treatment of ASD using dietary approach is a promising strategy, especially owing to its safety and availability. Our study critically analysed the roles and efficacy of antioxidants, probiotics, prebiotics, camel milk and vitamin D. This systematic review provides an updated synopsis of human studies that investigated therapeutic benefits of these dietary interventions in autism. A total of 943 papers were identified out of which 21 articles were included in the systematic review. The selected studies investigated the impact of 5 different dietary supplementations in ASD symptom and behaviours. These agents include; antioxidants/polyphenolic compounds, probiotics, prebiotics, camel milk and vitamin D. From the results of the present review, antioxidants/polyphenolic compounds decreased the levels of inflammatory cytokines and improved behavioural symptoms. Probiotics improved behavioural and GI symptoms as well as restored gut microbiota equilibrium. Prebiotics decreased levels of inflammatory cytokines, improved behavioural and GI symptoms and improved gut microbiota. Vitamin D improved behavioural symptoms and offered protective effects against neurotoxicity. Camel milk reduced inflammatory responses and oxidative stress. Given the chronic nature as well as early onset of ASD, dietary supplements become useful to complement nutritional deficiencies in children with ASD. Key benefits of these agents stem from their ability to target multiple physiological areas via the gut brain-axis and are devoid of potential harmful or aggravating effects on ASD patients. The evidence collated in this review propose that dietary intervention may provide a new platform for the management of autism.

Association of autism with toxic metals: A systematic review of case-control studies

Environmental factors have been associated with the etiology of autism spectrum disorder ASD in recent times. The involvement of toxic metals in the generation of reactive oxygen species and their epigenetics effects have been implicated in ASD. This systemic review examines the association of toxic metals with autism in children. A systematic literature search was performed in scientific databases such as PubMed, Google scholar, and Scopus. Case-control studies evaluating toxic metal levels in different tissues of ASD children and comparing them to healthy children (control group) were identified. The Newcastle-Ottawa Scale was used to evaluate the risk of bias of the included studies. Six case-control studies with 425 study subjects met our inclusion criteria. A total of four studies indicated higher levels of As, Pb, Hg, Cd, Al, Sn, Sb, Ba, TI, W, and Zr in whole blood, RBC, in whole blood, RBC, and hair samples of children with autism compared with control suggestive of a greater toxic metal exposure (immediate and long-term). Three studies identified significantly higher concentrations of Cd, Pb and Hg in urine and hair samples of autistic children compared to control suggesting decreased excretion and possible high body burden of these metals. The findings from this review demonstrate that high levels of toxic metals are associated with ASD, therefore, critical care is necessary to reduce body burden of these metals in children with ASD as a major therapeutic strategy.

Phytowaste as nutraceuticals in boosting public health

The utilization of bioactive constituent of peels and seeds provide an effective, environment friendly and inexpensive therapy for different forms of human disease, and the production, improvement and documentation of novel nutraceuticals. This review systematically presents findings and further understanding of the reported benefits and therapeutic applications of peel and seed extracts on innovative cell culture and animal studies, as well as phased clinical human trial research. The extracts of seed and peels were reported to possess high quantities of bioactive substances with antioxidative, antidiabetic, hepatorenal protective, antithyroidal, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, cardiovascular protective, neuro-protective effects, anticancer and wound healing activities. Therapeutic activities of the bioactive substances of peel and seed extracts include elevation of Superoxide dismutase (SOD), GSH-Px, t-GPx, Catalase and GST activities, with the suppression of MDA levels, hydroperoxide generation and lipid peroxidized products, the extracts also regulate inflammatory mediators and cytokines as they are reported to suppress the secretion of inflammatory cytokines, which include; IL-1β, PGE2, TGF-β and TNF-α and induces apoptosis and cell differentiation. This review revealed the therapeutic importance and best utilization of peels and seed extracts of fruits and vegetables.

Concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in samples of soil, feed and food collected in the Niger Delta region, Nigeria: A probabilistic human health risk assessment

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are widely distributed compounds with two or more fused aromatic ring, being some of them classified as carcinogenic. In the present study, the concentrations of 16 PAHs and the sum of them (∑PAHs) were determined in samples of food, feed, plant and soil collected in six different heavily polluted areas (Choba, Khana, Trans Amadi, Eleme, Uyo and Yenagoa) of the Niger Delta Region (Nigeria). Principal component analysis (PCA) was then used to identify groups of variables (PAHs) and groups of samples that were the best in rendering the environmental pollution in that Region of Nigeria. In addition, PAHs food consumption and the derived carcinogenic risks were assessed in a probabilistic way. The highest ∑PAHs (mg/kg) were: 16.7 in cow meat, 8.06 in goat meat, 25.4 in chicken meat, 7.72 in fish, 28.70 in fish feed, 15.3 in chicken feed, 8.42 in plant, and 8.80 in soil. In most of the Nigerian areas, cooked cow meat, chicken and chicken feed presented the highest impact regarding PAHs contamination. The highest intake of PAHs was through meat consumption, with a very high and unassumable carcinogenic risk, which is quite above 10^-5 for some PAHs, including benzo [a]pyrene. The results of the present survey highlight the importance of reducing PAHs content in food, specially in meat, in the Niger Delta region.

Metal pollution of soil, plants, feed and food in the Niger Delta, Nigeria: Health risk assessment through meat and fish consumption

This study was aimed at determining mainly the concentrations of As and other metals (Cd, Cu, Hg, Pb, V and Zn) in samples of feed, soil, plants and foods (fish, chicken, goat and cow meat) grown and consumed in six areas of Niger Delta, Nigeria (Choba, Khana, Trans Amadi, Eleme, Uyo and Yenagoa). Principal Component Analysis (PCA) models were used for identifying groups of variables (i.e., elements) based on the loadings and groups of samples (i.e., plants, soil, fish, meet, feed) according to the scores that contributed most to the environmental pollution in each Nigerian area. In Choba and Khana sites, the results showed a cluster of elements like As, Pb, V and Zn, mostly associated with samples of goat and cow meat, as well as soils, and separated from another cluster of metals composed by Cu and Hg with different origin. In Trans Amadi area, a clustering of As, Cd and V was found associated to different types of meat (chicken, goat, and cow) located in the opposite side of Cu and Hg, which correlated to plants and soil. In Eleme, the strongest loadings were obtained for V and Zn associated with soil and meat (goat and cow) samples and separated from As and Cd. Finally, in Uyo and Yenagoa, dominant elements were As, Cu, Pb and Zn, with proximity to cow and goat liver samples, while Cd and V corresponded to a different pollution pattern. Lead intake trough meat and fish consumption for adults and children were much higher than the tolerable limits set by international organizations. The results of this study should allow a better understanding of the complex phenomenon of metal pollution in the feed-to-food chain and human health in Nigeria, which should help to manage a pollution reduction strategy and give priorities of research and monitoring.

Trace elements exposure and risk in age-related eye diseases: a systematic review of epidemiological evidence

This systematic review aimed to evaluate existing evidence on the associations between trace elements exposure and age-related eye diseases. PubMed and Google scholar databases were searched for epidemiological and postmortem studies on the relationship between exposure to trace elements and Age-related eye diseases such as age-related macular degeneration (AMD), cataract, glaucoma and diabetic retinopathy (DR), in population groups aged 40 years and above. Available evidence suggests that cadmium (Cd) exposure may be positively associated with the risks of AMD and cataract. There is also evidence that exposure to lead (Pb) may be positively associated with higher risk of cataract and glaucoma. There is limited number of relevant studies and lack of prospective studies for most of the investigated associations. Evidence for other trace elements is weak and inconsistent, and the number of available studies is small. Likewise, there are very few relevant studies on the role of trace elements in DR. Chemical elements that affect the distribution and absorption of other trace elements have never been investigated. The suggestive but limited evidence motivates large and quality prospective studies to fully characterize the impact of exposure to trace (toxic and essential) elements on age-related eye diseases.

Toxic Metals and Non-Communicable Diseases in HIV Population: A Systematic Review

Background and Objectives: HIV has been a serious global health concern since its discovery, with about 37.9 million people living with HIV worldwide as of 2018. Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) accounts for 68% of the infection and contributed 74% of the 1.5 million deaths in 2013 despite having only 12% of the total world population residing in the region. This systematic review has attempted to determine the association between heavy metal toxicity and the occurrence of non-communicable diseases in the HIV/AIDS population. Materials and Methods: Three databases were systematically searched: PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar for studies written in English and published between 1 April 2000 and 12 April 2020. Studies were excluded if the main outcomes were not measured or did not meet the inclusion criteria. Results: All the six included studies are cross-sectional in design, and therefore were evaluated using the STROBE checklist. The data extraction was done using an extraction table; the ratio of female to male participants included in the study was 1.09:1. Qualitative analysis was used due to the heterogeneity in the heavy metal biomarkers and the outcome measured by the included studies. Two studies compared the concentration of heavy metals in HIV-positive and HIV-negative participants while one compared the levels between HAART-naïve and HAART-treated participants, and three determined the association between heavy metal toxicity and non-communicable diseases (liver fibrosis, anaemia, and reproductive parameters, respectively) in HIV-positive patients. Conclusions: Blood lead, cadmium, and mercury levels were higher in HIV-seropositive than -seronegative subjects, whereas serum zinc level was lower in HIV-seropositive than -seronegative subjects, but the causal association between heavy metals and non-communicable diseases in HIV subjects is largely unknown. Interdisciplinary research between nutrition, toxicology, and human health is envisaged for primary and secondary prevention and treatment.

Augmenting Clinical Interventions in Psychiatric Disorders: Systematic Review and Update on Nutrition

There is a strong relationship between a healthy diet and mental well-being. Several foods and food compounds are known to modulate biomarkers and molecular mechanisms involved in the aetiogenesis of several mental disorders, and this can be useful in containing the disease progression, including its prophylaxis. This is an updated systematic review of the literature to justify the inclusion and recognition of nutrition in the management of psychiatric illnesses. Such foods and their compounds include dietary flavanols from fruits and vegetables, notable antioxidant and anti-inflammatory agents, probiotics (fermented foods) known to protect good gut bacteria, foods rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids (e.g., Omega-3), and avoiding diets high in saturated fats and refined sugars among others. While the exact mechanism(s) of mitigation of many nutritional interventions are yet to be fully understood, the evidence-based approach warrants the inclusion and co-recognition of nutrition in the management of psychiatric illnesses. For the greater public health benefit, there is a need for policy advocacy aimed at bridging the knowledge gap and encouraging the integration of nutritional intervention with contemporary therapies in clinical settings, as deficiencies of certain nutrients make therapy difficult even with appropriate medication.

Toxicological Risk Analysis in Data-Poor Countries: A Narrative Approach to Feed an "Awareness Raising-Community Empowerment" Vortex

Background and objectives: With globalization of culture and products, choices and behaviors associated with the unawareness of toxicological risk factors result in human and environmental toxic exposures along with health disparities. Toxic exposures are risk factors for malnutrition and diseases, impairing the chances of being healthy and having a healthy adulthood for current and next generation(s). Increasing research funds, infrastructures, analytical data and risk assessment is a reality well worth attention in sub-Saharan Africa. These countries are still unprotected nowadays and are particularly exposed and data-poor in respect to risk factors (e.g., neurotoxicants, immunotoxicants and endocrine disruptors). This paper presents how-based on scientific literature-low-resource countries may achieve more with less. As one of the world's most important emerging markets, Africa can, and should, assess the benefits and risks of modernity versus tradition and ask for safe and quality products at affordable prices while producing safe and nutritious foods. Materials and Methods: Exempla and experiences of risk analysis based on participant observation in field anthropological research, consumer safaris and reportages in the field of food safety, environmental health and consumer products are discussed in terms of "narrative prevention" and its power to highlight previously unrecognized/overlooked real-life risk scenarios. Knowledge return initiatives are discussed in light of their power to feed awareness raising, informed choice and empowerment of communities. Results: In some cases, data exist but remain too sparse, unknown or underused; in other cases, the information is totally neglected. When there is international scientific evidence, a diagnostic risk assessment is feasible. Despite significant resource constraints, properly science-driven targeted reportages in data-poor countries can bridge the gaps between international scientific knowledge and the implementation of relevant findings in an "awareness-empowerment vortex". When a clear message promoting healthy choices and behaviors is given, African communities are ready to respond. Conclusions: Poor skills are an avoidable consequence of low national income. Narrative prevention does not replace scientific research but stimulates scientific research and toxicological risk analysis during the ongoing risk transition in Africa. While African populations increasingly aspire to improve life expectancy in health, increasing exposure to such new health risk factors in sub-Saharan Africa needs top-down choices for diseases prevention, One Health, as well as public awareness and empowerment towards everyday habits and health protective choices.

Amperometric Cytosensor for Studying Mitochondrial Interferences Induced by Plasticizers Bisphenol B and Bisphenol A

The widespread presence of plasticizers Bisphenol B (BPB) and Bisphenol A (BPA) in food contact materials, medical equipment, and common household products is a toxicological risk factor for health due to internal exposure after environmental dietary exposure. This work describes the use of an amperometric cytosensor (i.e., a whole cell-based amperometric biosensoristic device) for studying mitochondrial interferences of BPA and BPB (5-100 µg/mL) in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae model following long-term (24 h) exposure (acute toxicity). Percentage interference (%ρ) on yeast aerobic mitochondrial catabolism was calculated after comparison of aerobic respiration of exposed and control S. cerevisiae cell suspensions. Results suggested the hypothesis of a dose-dependent co-action of two mechanisms, namely uncoupling of oxidative phosphorylation and oxidative stress. These mechanisms respectively matched with opposite effects of hyperstimulation and inhibition of cellular respiration. While uncoupling of oxidative phosphorylation and oxidative stress have been previously described as separate effects from in vitro BPA exposure using other biochemical endpoints and biological systems, effects of BPB on cellular aerobic respiration are here reported for the first time. Results highlighted a similar hyperstimulation effect after exposure to 5 µg/mL BPA and BPB. About a 2-fold higher cellular respiration inhibition potency was observed after exposures to 15, 30, and 100 µg/mL BPB compared to BPA. 2,4-Dinitrophenol (2,4-DNP) was used as model uncoupling agent. A time-dependent mechanism of mitochondrial interference was also highlighted.

Cadmium and lead in geophagic clay consumed in Southern Nigeria: health risk from such traditional nutraceutical

Geophagy is a cultural behavior, based on the recurrent intentional eating of clay soil, that is raising increasing concern as it implies multidimensional (space, time) potential risk of serious adverse health effects. This study investigated the level of toxic metals (Cd and Pb) in 20 Nigerian geophagic clays intended for both local consumption and distribution to the West Africa market. After sampling in 4 open markets in southern Nigeria (Akwa Ibom, Abia, Rivers, Imo), samples were subjected to digestion, ashing and analysis. The Pb levels in all samples exceeded the WHO/FAO maximum permissible limit of 0.1 mg kg^-1 whereas 16% exceeded the Cd limit of 0.3 mg kg^-1. The estimated daily intake of Pb for all samples ranged from 0.0032-0.0286 mg kg_bw^-1 day^-1 to 0.0024-0.0215 mg kg_bw^-1 day^-1 for children and adults, respectively. The estimated daily intakes for Cd ranged from bdl (below detection limit)-0.0010 mg kg_bw^-1 day^-1 to bdl-0.0028 mg kg_bw^-1 day^-1 for children and adults, respectively. In both cases, the WHO/FAO provisional Tolerable Weekly Intake is exceeded through the ingestion of these soils. Our results confirm health risks related to the geophagic practices, its role in exceeding health guidelines when considering aggregate exposure in the Nigerian scenario and body burden in developing organisms, young women, women at fertile age, and pregnant women. We discuss how geophagists consider clays as traditional nutraceuticals and how clarifying the nutraceutical role of geophagy could facilitate risk communication. Geophagic products are implicitly or explicitly marketed as dietary supplements, and as such they should be regulated (1) by labeling, and prohibition of scientifically unfounded health claims and (2) by safety standards before marketing. This is particularly critical when clays originate from countries living rapid, unplanned and uncontrolled development and dumped, like Nigeria.

Toxicological risk factors in the burden of malnutrition: The case of nutrition (and risk) transition in sub-Saharan Africa

Toxicant exposures may worsen the micronutrient status, especially during the womb-to-childhood development, impairing organism programming and increasing the risk for health disorders in adulthood. Growing evidence calls for an integrated risk analysis of the interplay of environment, behavior and lifestyle, where a) imbalanced diet and micronutrient deficiencies may increase the vulnerability to toxicants and alter body defence systems and b) intake of antinutrients and contaminants may increase nutritional requirements. Such scenarios are especially evident in communities undergoing a fast nutrition transition, such as in many countries of sub-Saharan Africa. Specific challenges of toxicological risk analysis in sub-Saharan Africa still need a thorough assessment, including: rapid changes of lifestyle and consumers' preferences; dumping of foods and consumer' products; risk management under weak or non-existent awareness, legislation enforcement and infrastructures. The significant and growing literature from Africa-led scientific research should be used to build quality-controlled data repositories supporting regulatory top-down actions. Meanwhile, bottom-up actions (eg consumer's empowerment) could exploit social and economic drivers toward a qualified African presence in the global and local markets. A science-based combination of top-down and bottom-up actions on preventable toxicological risk factors will contribute fighting the new forms of malnutrition and prevent multi-factorial diseases. Exposures to toxicants should be included in the integrated approach proposed by WHO to address the urgent health challenge of simultaneously reduce the risk or burden of both malnutrition (ie deficiency of one or more essential nutrients) and overweight, obesity, and diet-related NCDs.

Nigerian foods of probiotics relevance and chronic metal exposure: a systematic review

Probiotics are functional foods with a wide armamentarium of health benefits in man including metal chelation. Given the unacceptable blood lead levels and the near ignorance or negligence of heavy metals in both diagnoses and management of diseases in Nigeria, it is feared that these metals are involved in the aetiogenesis of several ailments from preeclampsia, metabolic syndrome, cancer, etc. This is an insight on Nigerian fermented foods and their possible role as metal chelators in the management of the chronic heavy metal exposure in Nigeria. One hundred and five articles fulfilled the inclusion criteria. Google scholar, PubMed and SCOPUS were searched for articles reporting fermented foods and probiotics in Nigeria. Only studies published in English Language were included, but there was no limitation in year of study. One hundred and five articles fulfilled the inclusion criteria. Studies from some African countries suggest that fermented foods of probiotics relevance have effectively shown metal chelation properties. Consumption of Nigerian fermented foods may hold a promise in checking the high body burden of heavy metals in Nigeria. Graphic abstract.

Sentinel species for biomonitoring and biosurveillance of environmental heavy metals in Nigeria

Nigeria receives copious annual precipitation to nourish its forests and agriculture, it has an extensive river drainage system, and it possesses valuable mineral deposits that stimulate both commercial and artisan mining activities. The combination of these features complicates Nigeria's efforts to produce adequate amounts of healthy foods to support its population. Toxic heavy metals like lead, cadmium, and mercury, and toxic metalloids such as arsenic, are also present in its mineral deposits and they migrate gradually into the soil and water of Nigeria by natural means. However, mining activities can liberate higher levels of toxic metals, which adversely affect Nigerian ecosystems and its food chains. Thus, environmental pollution due to anthropogenic activities is a major public health concern in Nigeria. This review covers the importance of native Nigerian and African wild and cultivated plants along with livestock and wild animals as sentinel species to evaluate heavy metals as environmental stressors and the use of sentinel species for food safety monitoring and for predicting potential risks to human health.

Appropriateness of Essentials Trace Metals in Commonly Consumed Infant Formulae in Nigeria

BACKGROUND

Mothers who feed their children with infant food have increased have over the years leaving a large percentage of children who consume other types of liquid food for supplementation or as alternatives.

AIM

Determining the levels of essential trace metals in these formulae with the aim of ascertain their appropriateness is considered important.

METHODS

Iron, zinc, manganese, chromium and cobalt in 26 infant formulae purchased from Port Harcourt city, Nigeria were determined by Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry. The estimated daily intake EDI and percentage of EDI to the recommended daily allowance of these essential trace metals were used in the exposure assessment.

RESULTS

The highest mean concentration of Mn, Cr and Co was found in the milk based (0.15 ± 0.09 mg/kg), (0.61 ± 0.70 mg/kg), (0.12 ± 0.32 mg/kg) compared to the cereal based and cereal mix based but the differences was also not significant. The EDI of chromium in the infant formulae exceeded the RDA.

CONCLUSION

Infant formulae may add to the chromium body burden of infants in Nigeria.

Public Health Burden of E-waste in Africa

BACKGROUND

Environmental impacts from informal e-waste recycling are increasing in Africa. E-waste handling and disposal exposes people to highly toxic cocktails of heavy metals, brominated flame retardants, non-dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDD), polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PBDF) and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (DL-PCB). Most of these compounds are endocrine disrupters, and most are neuro- and immune-toxic as well.

OBJECTIVES

Informal e-waste recycling in African countries is a serious public health threat. The present paper reviews the extent of e-waste exposure in Africa and related impacts on people, animals and the environment.

METHODS

Four electronic databases (PubMed, Science Direct, Scopus, Google Scholar) were searched for publications related to e-waste and human health in Africa. Search terms included 'e-waste in Africa', 'e-waste in developing nations', 'public health and e-waste', 'environment and e-waste', and 'e-waste and health'.

DISCUSSION

Elevated levels of e-waste pollutants in water, air, soil, dust, fish, vegetable, and human matrices (blood, urine, breast milk) indicate that not only are e-waste workers at risk from exposure to e-waste, but the general population and future generations as well. Headache, cough and chest pain, stomach discomfort, miscarriage, abnormal thyroid and reproductive function, reduction of gonadal hormone, and cancer are common complaints of those involved with the processing of e-waste.

CONCLUSIONS

The evidence presented from the reviewed studies illustrates the extent of the human health and environmental risks posed by e-waste in Africa. There is a need for a regulatory framework including specific legislation, infrastructure and protocols to safely recycle and dispose of e-waste in sub-Saharan African countries.

COMPETING INTERESTS

The authors declare no competing financial interests.

Natural antidotes and management of metal toxicity

The global burden of heavy metal especially mercury, arsenic, lead, and cadmium toxicities remains a significant public health challenge. Developing nations are particularly at high risk and carry the highest burden of this hazard. Chelation therapy has been the mainstay for treatment of heavy metal poisoning where the chelating agent binds metal ions to form complex ring-like structures called "chelates" to enhance their elimination from the body. Metal chelators have some drawbacks such as redistribution of some heavy metals from other tissues to the brain thereby increasing its neurotoxicity, causing loss of essential metals such as copper and zinc as well as some serious adverse effects, e.g., hepatotoxicity. The use of natural antidotes, which are easily available, affordable, and with little or no side effects compared to the classic metal chelators, is the focus of this review and suggested as cheaper options for developing nations in the treatment of heavy metal poisoning.

Towards Simazine Monitoring in Agro-Zootechnical Productions: A Yeast Cell Bioprobe for Real Samples Screening

Simazine is an herbicide that is able to contaminate surface waters, ground waters, and milk/dairy products, thus posing concerns in both environmental health and food safety. A yeast-based bioprobe was utilized to detect simazine in spiked real samples of livestock drinking water and raw cow's milk. Yeast aerobic respiration was taken as short-term toxicological endpoint. We carried out comparative measures of yeast oxygen consumption between simazine-spiked samples and blank samples. Percentage interference (%ρ) on yeast aerobic respiration was calculated through the comparison of aerobic respiration of simazine-exposed and non-exposed yeast cells. The method was optimized for raw cow's milk samples by using boric acid as fungistatic agent in order to avoid cellular proliferation. Overall, the results have shown that simazine can be detected up to concentrations five times below the EU legal concentration limits for drinking water (0.02 ppb) and cow's milk (2 ppb) (%ρ values of 18.53% and 20.43% respectively; %RSD ≤ 15%). Dose-effect relationships of simazine were assessed. The findings of the bioassays match reasonably well with known mechanisms of toxicity and intracellular detoxification in yeast. A correlation between fat content in milk samples and analytical performance of the bioprobe was established. Results suggest the involvement of a matrix effect, presumably due to lipid sequestration of simazine. The yeast-based bioprobe has proved to be sensitive and suitable for the detection of simazine in real samples in concentrations of interest.

Understanding Seasonal Changes to Improve Good Practices in Livestock Management

Background and Aim: Food quality control techniques based on process control methods are increasingly adopted in livestock production systems to fulfill increasing market's expectations toward competitiveness and issues linked to One Health pillars (environment, animal, and human health). Control Charts allow monitoring and systematic investigation of sources of variability in dairy production parameters. These parameters, however, may be affected by seasonal variations that render impractical, biased or ineffective the use statistical control charts. A possible approach to this problem is to adapt seasonal adjustment methods used for the analysis of economic and demographic seasonal time series. The aim of the present work is to evaluate a seasonal decomposition technique called X-11 on milk parameters routinely collected also in small farms (fat, protein, and lactose content, solids-not-fat, freezing point, somatic cell count, total bacterial count) and to test the efficacy of different seasonal removal methods to improve the effectiveness of statistical control charting.

Method: Data collection was carried out for 3 years on routinely monitored bulk tank milk parameters of a small farm. Seasonality presence was statistically assessed on milk parameters and, for those parameters showing seasonality, control charts for individuals were applied on raw data, on X-11 seasonally adjusted data, and on data smoothed with a symmetric moving average filter. Correlation of seasonally influenced parameters with daily mean temperature was investigated.

Results: Presence of seasonality in milk parameters was statistically assessed for fat, protein, and solids-non-fat components. The X-11 seasonally-adjusted control charts showed a reduced number of violations (false alarms) with respect to non-seasonally adjusted control chart (from 5 to 1 violation for fat, from 17 to 1 violation for protein, and from 9 to none violation for solids-non-fat.). This result was achieved despite stricter control chart limits: with respect to raw data charts, the interval of control chart allowed variation (UCL–LCL) was reduced by 43% for fat, by 33.1% for protein, and by 14.3% for solids-not-fat.

Conclusions: X-11 deseasonalization of routinely collected milk parameters was found to be an effective method to improve control chart application effectiveness in farms and milk collecting centers.

Street foods exacerbate effects of the environmental burden of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Nigeria

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a large group of well-known toxicants with carcinogenic potential and other health effects including on the immune system. The high health risks of non-communicable diseases and relevant comorbidities in Africa, particularly in contaminated areas like e-waste and crude oil and gas exploration areas and for high consumers of food commodity groupings which are most critical for PAH exposure, are exacerbated by dietary exposure due to unsafe practices in commonly consumed foods, like those street vended.In February 2016, 20 commonly consumed street foods were purchased directly from vendors at major bus stops in Benin City and Umunede in Nigeria. The concentration of 16 priority PAHs was determined. The dietary intake of B[a]P, ∑PAH, PAH4, PAH8, and ∑B(a)P_eq was estimated for children, peripubertal children/adolescent, and adult using the total diet study (TDS) method. Among the analyzed PAHs, there was a predominance of chrysene (17.42 μg/kg). Roasted yam (14.15 μg/kg) and fried fish (1.40 μg/kg) had the highest levels of ∑PAH and B[a]P, respectively. The mean concentration of B[a]P, ∑PAH, PAH4, PAH8, and ∑B(a)P_eq ranged from 0.65-1.40 μg/kg, 0.20-14.15 μg/kg, 0.43-5.22 μg/kg, 0.13-7.88 μg/kg, and 0.002-2.123 μg/kg, respectively. The mean concentration of B[a]P and PAH4 reported in this study was below the maximum allowable levels of 5 and 12 μg/kg for adults and above the maximum levels for young children set at 1.0 μg/kg for both B[a]P and PAH4 in food. The estimated dietary intake of B[a]P, ∑PAH, PAH4, PAH8, and ∑B(a)P_eq for adult, adolescent, and children was 0.56, 0.37, and 0.31 μg/day; 17.6, 10.7, and 8.81 μg/day; 5.78, 4.01, and 3.26 μg/day; 9.22, 6.19, and 5.09 μg/day; and 1.72, 0.97, and 0.82 μg/day, respectively.Street foods represent one important source of PAHs. The exposure occurring through street food compounds with that from home-made foods, environmental pollution, and lifestyle (tobacco smoke) is making up an aggregate daily exposure in the general population.The incremental lifetime cancer risk for adults and children from the consumption of street food was 7.6 × 10^-8 and 2.1 × 10^-8, respectively. Along with initiatives to manage environmental contamination and promote healthier lifestyle, people should be empowered on healthy cooking practices and safe food cookery environments.

From Invention to Innovation: Risk Analysis to Integrate One Health Technology in the Dairy Farm

Current Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points (HACCP) approaches mainly fit for food industry, while their application in primary food production is still rudimentary. The European food safety framework calls for science-based support to the primary producers’ mandate for legal, scientific, and ethical responsibility in food supply. The multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary project ALERT pivots on the development of the technological invention (BEST platform) and application of its measurable (bio)markers—as well as scientific advances in risk analysis—at strategic points of the milk chain for time and cost-effective early identification of unwanted and/or unexpected events of both microbiological and toxicological nature. Health-oriented innovation is complex and subject to multiple variables. Through field activities in a dairy farm in central Italy, we explored individual components of the dairy farm system to overcome concrete challenges for the application of translational science in real life and (veterinary) public health. Based on an HACCP-like approach in animal production, the farm characterization focused on points of particular attention (POPAs) and critical control points to draw a farm management decision tree under the One Health view (environment, animal health, food safety). The analysis was based on the integrated use of checklists (environment; agricultural and zootechnical practices; animal health and welfare) and laboratory analyses of well water, feed and silage, individual fecal samples, and bulk milk. The understanding of complex systems is a condition to accomplish true innovation through new technologies. BEST is a detection and monitoring system in support of production security, quality and safety: a grid of its (bio)markers can find direct application in critical points for early identification of potential hazards or anomalies. The HACCP-like self-monitoring in primary production is feasible, as well as the biomonitoring of live food producing animals as sentinel population for One Health.

Engaging One Health for Non-Communicable Diseases in Africa: Perspective for Mycotoxins

The role of mycotoxins-e.g., aflatoxins, ochratoxins, trichothecenes, zearalenone, fumonisins, tremorgenic toxins, and ergot alkaloids-has been recognized in the etiology of a number of diseases. In many African countries, the public health impact of chronic (indoor) and/or repeated (dietary) mycotoxin exposure is largely ignored hitherto, with impact on human health, food security, and export of African agricultural food products. Notwithstanding, African scientific research reached milestones that, when linked to findings gained by the international scientific community, make the design and implementation of science-driven governance schemes feasible. Starting from Nigeria as leading African Country, this article (i) overviews available data on mycotoxins exposure in Africa; (ii) discusses new food safety issues, such as the environment-feed-food chain and toxic exposures of food producing animals in risk assessment and management; (iii) identifies milestones for mycotoxins risk management already reached in West Africa; and (iv) points out preliminary operationalization aspects for shielding communities from direct (on health) and indirect (on trade, economies, and livelihoods) effects of mycotoxins. An African science-driven engaging of scientific knowledge by development actors is expected therefore. In particular, One health/One prevention is suggested, as it proved to be a strategic and sustainable development framework.

Contaminants in Foods of Animal Origin in Cameroon: A One Health Vision for Risk Management "from Farm to Fork"

Foods of animal origin represent an important share in the diet of Cameroonian populations. Cameroon is known to be a food basket in the west and central Africa sub-region, and an important supplier of foods on the international markets. In the meantime, food importation is continuously increasing to meet the high demand of a more westernized segment of the population. Cereals, fish, sea products, eggs, honey, shrimps, chicken, and feed ingredients are important share in the international trade of agricultural products. Few controls are made on the quality and safety of these products. Certain safety standards do exist but are still yet to be enforced. Inspections done so far by regulatory authorities are partial and do not cover important hazards that require laboratory analysis. The increasing awareness of population, the burden of new types of disease, as well as the recurrence of food scandals have recently launched a scientific and population debate on the contribution of foods items, especially those of animal origin, to the toxic exposure of food producing animals and humans. This paper critically reviews the occurrence of toxicants in most consumed foods of animal origin in Cameroon. This study included the most consumed food of animal origin, identified during the national household budget survey and contributing to 8.1% of the total diet of an individual. Data evaluated suggest an important contamination by toxic metals, mycotoxins, veterinary drugs’ residues, and pesticides. The current national legal framework is briefly analyzed to explore possible intervention measures in the frame of the One Health approach.

Framework to Define Structure and Boundaries of Complex Health Intervention Systems: The ALERT Project

Health intervention systems are complex and subject to multiple variables in different phases of implementation. This constitutes a concrete challenge for the application of translational science in real life. Complex systems as health-oriented interventions call for interdisciplinary approaches with carefully defined system boundaries. Exploring individual components of such systems from different viewpoints gives a wide overview and helps to understand the elements and the relationships that drive actions and consequences within the system. In this study, we present an application and assessment of a framework with focus on systems and system boundaries of interdisciplinary projects. As an example on how to apply our framework, we analyzed ALERT [an integrated sensors and biosensors’ system (BEST) aimed at monitoring the quality, health, and traceability of the chain of the bovine milk], a multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary project based on the application of measurable biomarkers at strategic points of the milk chain for improved food security (including safety), human, and ecosystem health (1). In fact, the European food safety framework calls for science-based support to the primary producers’ mandate for legal, scientific, and ethical responsibility in food supply. Because of its multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary approach involving human, animal, and ecosystem health, ALERT can be considered as a One Health project. Within the ALERT context, we identified the need to take into account the main actors, interactions, and relationships of stakeholders to depict a simplified skeleton of the system. The framework can provide elements to highlight how and where to improve the project development when project evaluations are required.

Elements of kitchen toxicology to exploit the value of traditional (African) recipes: The case of Egusi Okra meal in the diet of HIV+/AIDS subjects

The Egusi Okra soup is a traditional African meal that is considered of high nutritional value and protective against weight loss. We introduce the concept of "kitchen toxicology" to analyse the recipe of the Egusi Okra soup and highlight possible mitigation measures for toxic and/or antinutritional effects in the wide spectrum of health and nutritional needs of HIV+/AIDS subjects. In particular, we focus on toxicants (environmental contaminants, process contaminants, substances leaching from food contact materials) dysregulating the immune status, as well as on interactions between nutrients, contaminants, and/or antinutrients which may lead to secondary/conditioned nutritional deficiencies or imbalances; in their turn, these can modulate the ability to cope with toxicants, and increase nutritional requirements. Recommendations are given for practices preserving the Egusi Okra soup from such risk factors, identifying points of particular attention during meal preparation, from purchase of raw ingredients through to food handling, cooking, storage, and consumption. The Egusi Okra soup is discussed in the context of a diet that is asked to mitigate complications (weight loss, opportunistic infections) and support antiretroviral therapy in African countries with high HIV/AIDS prevalence. The paper discusses how nutritional interventions benefit of the integration of kitchen toxicology practices in everyday life. Toxicological risk assessment is crucial to understand the history and status of the person exposed to or affected by infectious diseases.

The Hotspot for (Global) One Health in Primary Food Production: Aflatoxin M1 in Dairy Products

One Health involves the multifaceted environment-animal-human web: nevertheless, the role of toxicological issues has yet to be fully explored in this context. Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) contamination of feeds is a risk for the health of several farm animals, including fishes; milk is the only food of animal origin where a significant feed-food carry over may occur. The main AFB1-related compound present in milk is the hydroxy-metabolite aflatoxin M1 (AFM1). Besides contamination of raw milk, AFM1 is of concern for the whole dairy chain; AFM1 may also contaminate the milk of several other ruminants used for milk/dairy production. In a One Health perspective, milk represents a sentinel matrix for AFB1 vulnerability of the agro-food system, that is crucial in a phase when food/nutritional security becomes a global issue and climatic changes may affect agricultural productions. In the global setting, food chain exposure to long-term toxicants, such as AFM1, is a growing concern for economically developing countries, whereas global trade and climatic change makes AFM1 an emerging hot issue in economically developed countries as well. We critically review the state of the art on AFM1 risk assessment and risk management using two scenarios as case studies: a European Union country where the health system aims at ensuring a high-level protection of food chain (Italy) and the world's largest (and economically developing) producer of dairy products by volume (India). The case studies are used to provide building blocks for a global One Health framework.

Analysis of Food Safety and Security Challenges in Emerging African Food Producing Areas through a One Health Lens: The Dairy Chains in Mali

Challenges posed by changes in livestock production in emerging food producing areas and demographic development and climate change require new approaches and responsibilities in the management of food chains. The increasingly recognized role of primary food producers requires the support of the scientific community to instruct effective approaches based on scientific data, tools, and expertise. Mali is an emerging food producing area, and this review covers (i) the dairy farming scenario and its environment, (ii) the role of dairy production in food security, including the greatly different animal rearing systems in the Sahel and tropical regions, (iii) risk management pillars as modern infrastructures, effective farmer organizations, and institutional systems to guarantee animal health and safety of products, and (iv) feasible interventions based on good practices and risk assessment at the farm level (e.g., sustainable use of fertilizers, feeds, veterinary drugs, and pesticides) to protect consumers from food safety hazards. Social innovation based on the empowerment of the primary food producers emerges as crucial for sustainable and safe food production. Sustainable policies should be supported by the mobilization of stakeholders of One Health, which is a science-based approach to linking human health and nutrition with the health and management of food producing animals and environmental safety. In the context of the complex, multifaceted scenario of Mali dairy production, this article presents how a cost-effective animal health and food safety scheme could be established in the dairy production chain. Because milk is a major commodity in this country, benefits could be derived in food security, public health, the resilience of the farming system, animal husbandry, and international trade.

Health risks from lost awareness of cultural behaviours rooted in traditional medicine: An insight in geophagy and mineral intake

The term geophagy is applied to the recurrent intentional eating of soil with multifactorial motivation. Geophagists are generally defined by gender (women), age (children), physical status (e.g. pregnancy, lactation, postpartum), social status (people exposed to significant nutritional deficiencies), and culture, but lost awareness of traditional medical meaning of this practice is changing these consumption patterns and increasing health risks. Moreover, although the holistic anthropological perspective recognizes soil consumption as mineral supplementation under certain circumstances, we should consider how the living environment has changed and is changing, along with diet, nutrition requirements, and habits. Therefore, benefits-to-risks ratio of cultural behaviours initiated centuries ago based on traditional medical practices requires deep revision and assessment. Knowledge on minerals metabolism, bioavailability and interactions is required to properly assess the role of geophagy in a balanced and safe intake of micronutrients. Most important, the risk of unbalanced intake of minerals may be serious since the mineralogy and chemistry of geophagic clays are uncontrolled, variable, and difficult to standardize. In addition, other factors (radioactive materials, organic chemicals and soil pathogens) complicate the risk assessment for population groups consuming soil. Since the geophagic practice is expected to persist despite economic development, the paper discusses the multifaceted spectrum of geophagy to highlight critical aspects for risk management.