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Luczo JM, Spackman E. Epitopes in the HA and NA of H5 and H7 avian influenza viruses that are important for antigenic drift. FEMS Microbiol Rev 2024:fuae014. [PMID: 38734891 DOI: 10.1093/femsre/fuae014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/13/2024] Open
Abstract
Avian influenza viruses evolve antigenically to evade host immunity. Two influenza A virus surface glycoproteins, the haemagglutinin and neuraminidase, are the major targets of host immunity and undergo antigenic drift in response to host pre-existing humoral and cellular immune responses. Specific sites have been identified as important epitopes in prominent subtypes such as H5 and H7 which are of animal and public health significance due to their panzootic and pandemic potential. The haemagglutinin is the immunodominant immunogen, it has been extensively studied, and the antigenic reactivity is closely monitored to ensure candidate vaccines viruses are protective. More recently, the neuraminidase has received increasing attention for its role as a protective immunogen. The neuraminidase is expressed at a lower abundance than the haemagglutinin on the virus surface but does elicit a robust antibody response. This review aims to compile the current information on haemagglutinin and neuraminidase epitopes and immune escape mutants of H5 and H7 highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses. Understanding the evolution of immune escape mutants and the location of epitopes is critical for identification of vaccine strains and development of broadly reactive vaccines that can be utilized in humans and animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jasmina M Luczo
- Australian Animal Health Laboratory, Australian Centre for Disease Preparedness, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, East Geelong, Victoria 3219, Australia
| | - Erica Spackman
- Exotic & Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Research, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, United States National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Athens, GA 30605, United States of America
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Goraichuk IV, Harden M, Spackman E, Suarez DL. The 28S rRNA RT-qPCR assay for host depletion evaluation to enhance avian virus detection in Illumina and Nanopore sequencing. Front Microbiol 2024; 15:1328987. [PMID: 38351914 PMCID: PMC10864109 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2024.1328987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2023] [Accepted: 01/09/2024] [Indexed: 02/16/2024] Open
Abstract
Abundant host and bacterial sequences can obscure the detection of less prevalent viruses in untargeted next-generation sequencing (NGS). Efficient removal of these non-targeted sequences is vital for accurate viral detection. This study presents a novel 28S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) RT-qPCR assay designed to assess the efficiency of avian rRNA depletion before conducting costly NGS for the detection of avian RNA viruses. The comprehensive evaluation of this 28S-test focuses on substituting DNase I with alternative DNases in our established depletion protocols and finetuning essential parameters for reliable host rRNA depletion. To validate the effectiveness of the 28S-test, we compared its performance with NGS results obtained from both Illumina and Nanopore sequencing platforms. This evaluation utilized swab samples from chickens infected with highly pathogenic avian influenza virus, subjected to established and modified depletion protocols. Both methods significantly reduced host rRNA levels, but using the alternative DNase had superior performance. Additionally, utilizing the 28S-test, we explored cost- and time-effective strategies, such as reduced probe concentrations and other alternative DNase usage, assessed the impact of filtration pre-treatment, and evaluated various experimental parameters to further optimize the depletion protocol. Our findings underscore the value of the 28S-test in optimizing depletion methods for advancing improvements in avian disease research through NGS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iryna V. Goraichuk
- Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agriculture Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Athens, GA, United States
| | - Mark Harden
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Tuskegee University, Tuskegee, AL, United States
| | - Erica Spackman
- Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agriculture Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Athens, GA, United States
| | - David L. Suarez
- Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agriculture Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Athens, GA, United States
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Spackman E, Suarez DL, Lee CW, Pantin-Jackwood MJ, Lee SA, Youk S, Ibrahim S. Efficacy of inactivated and RNA particle vaccines against a North American Clade 2.3.4.4b H5 highly pathogenic avian influenza virus in chickens. Vaccine 2023; 41:7369-7376. [PMID: 37932132 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2023.10.070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2023] [Revised: 10/20/2023] [Accepted: 10/27/2023] [Indexed: 11/08/2023]
Abstract
Highly pathogenic avian influenza virus (HPAIV) has caused widespread outbreaks in poultry in the Americas. Because of the duration and extent of these outbreaks, vaccine use may be an additional tool to limit virus spread. Three vaccines were evaluated for efficacy in chickens against a current North American clade 2.3.4.4b H5 HPAIV isolate, A/turkey/Indiana/3703-003/2022 H5N1. The vaccines included: 1) a commercial inactivated reverse genetics (rg) generated H5N1 product with a clade 2.3.4.4c H5 hemagglutinin (HA) (rgH5N1); 2) a commercial alphavirus RNA particle (RP) vaccine with the TK/IN/22 HA; and 3) an in-house inactivated rg produced vaccine with the TK/IN/22 HA and a North American lineage N9 neuraminidase (NA) (SEP-22-N9). Both inactivated vaccines were produced with HA genes that were modified to be low pathogenic and with the remaining genes from the PR8 influenza strain. All vaccines provided 100% protection against mortality and morbidity and all vaccines reduced virus shed by the oropharyngeal and cloacal routes significantly compared to sham vaccinates. However, differences were observed among the vaccines in quantities of virus shed at two- and four-days post challenge (DPC). To determine if infected birds could be identified after vaccination to aid surveillance programs, serum was collected from the RP and SEP-22-N9 vaccine groups at 7, 10, and 14 DPC to detect antibody to the NA and nucleoprotein (NP) of the challenge virus by enzyme linked lectin assay (ELLA) and ELISA. As early as 7DPC ELLA detected antibody in sera from 100% of the chickens in the RP vaccinated group and 70% of the chickens in the SEP-22-N9 vaccinated group. Antibody to the NP was detected by commercial ELISA in more than 50% of the birds in the RP vaccinated group at each time point.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erica Spackman
- Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 934 College Station Road, Athens, GA 30605, USA.
| | - David L Suarez
- Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 934 College Station Road, Athens, GA 30605, USA.
| | - Chang-Won Lee
- Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 934 College Station Road, Athens, GA 30605, USA.
| | - Mary J Pantin-Jackwood
- Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 934 College Station Road, Athens, GA 30605, USA.
| | - Scott A Lee
- Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 934 College Station Road, Athens, GA 30605, USA.
| | - Sungsu Youk
- Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 934 College Station Road, Athens, GA 30605, USA.
| | - Sherif Ibrahim
- Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 934 College Station Road, Athens, GA 30605, USA
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Pantin-Jackwood MJ, Spackman E, Leyson C, Youk S, Lee SA, Moon LM, Torchetti MK, Killian ML, Lenoch JB, Kapczynski DR, Swayne DE, Suarez DL. Pathogenicity in Chickens and Turkeys of a 2021 United States H5N1 Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza Clade 2.3.4.4b Wild Bird Virus Compared to Two Previous H5N8 Clade 2.3.4.4 Viruses. Viruses 2023; 15:2273. [PMID: 38005949 PMCID: PMC10674317 DOI: 10.3390/v15112273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2023] [Revised: 11/07/2023] [Accepted: 11/09/2023] [Indexed: 11/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses (HPAIVs) of subtype H5 of the Gs/GD/96 lineage remain a major threat to poultry due to endemicity in wild birds. H5N1 HPAIVs from this lineage were detected in 2021 in the United States (U.S.) and since then have infected many wild and domestic birds. We evaluated the pathobiology of an early U.S. H5N1 HPAIV (clade 2.3.4.4b, 2021) and two H5N8 HPAIVs from previous outbreaks in the U.S. (clade 2.3.4.4c, 2014) and Europe (clade 2.3.4.4b, 2016) in chickens and turkeys. Differences in clinical signs, mean death times (MDTs), and virus transmissibility were found between chickens and turkeys. The mean bird infective dose (BID50) of the 2021 H5N1 virus was approximately 2.6 log10 50% embryo infective dose (EID50) in chickens and 2.2 log10 EID50 in turkeys, and the virus transmitted to contact-exposed turkeys but not chickens. The BID50 for the 2016 H5N8 virus was also slightly different in chickens and turkeys (4.2 and 4.7 log10 EID50, respectively); however, the BID50 for the 2014 H5N8 virus was higher for chickens than turkeys (3.9 and ~0.9 log10 EID50, respectively). With all viruses, turkeys took longer to die (MDTs of 2.6-8.2 days for turkeys and 1-4 days for chickens), which increased the virus shedding period and facilitated transmission to contacts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary J. Pantin-Jackwood
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Athens, GA 30605, USA; (E.S.); (L.M.M.); (D.L.S.)
| | - Erica Spackman
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Athens, GA 30605, USA; (E.S.); (L.M.M.); (D.L.S.)
| | - Christina Leyson
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Athens, GA 30605, USA; (E.S.); (L.M.M.); (D.L.S.)
| | - Sungsu Youk
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Athens, GA 30605, USA; (E.S.); (L.M.M.); (D.L.S.)
- Department of Medicine, College of Medicine, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju-si 28644, Chungbuk, Republic of Korea
| | - Scott A. Lee
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Athens, GA 30605, USA; (E.S.); (L.M.M.); (D.L.S.)
| | - Linda M. Moon
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Athens, GA 30605, USA; (E.S.); (L.M.M.); (D.L.S.)
| | - Mia K. Torchetti
- National Veterinary Services Laboratories, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Ames, IA 50010, USA
| | - Mary L. Killian
- National Veterinary Services Laboratories, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Ames, IA 50010, USA
| | - Julianna B. Lenoch
- Wildlife Services, National Wildlife Disease Program, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Fort Collins, CO 80521, USA
| | - Darrell R. Kapczynski
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Athens, GA 30605, USA; (E.S.); (L.M.M.); (D.L.S.)
| | - David E. Swayne
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Athens, GA 30605, USA; (E.S.); (L.M.M.); (D.L.S.)
| | - David L. Suarez
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Athens, GA 30605, USA; (E.S.); (L.M.M.); (D.L.S.)
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Briggs K, Sweeney R, Blehert DS, Spackman E, Suarez DL, Kapczynski DR. SARS-CoV-2 utilization of ACE2 from different bat species allows for virus entry and replication in vitro. Virology 2023; 586:122-129. [PMID: 37542819 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2023.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2023] [Revised: 06/27/2023] [Accepted: 07/04/2023] [Indexed: 08/07/2023]
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is believed to have a zoonotic origin with bats suspected as a natural host. In this work, we individually express the ACE2 of seven bat species including, little brown, great roundleaf, Pearson's horseshoe, greater horseshoe, Brazilian free-tailed, Egyptian rousette, and Chinese rufous horseshoe in DF1 cells and determine their ability to support attachment and replication of SARS-CoV-2 viruses. We demonstrate that the ACE2 receptor of all seven species made DF1 cells permissible to SARS-CoV-2. The level of virus replication differed between bat species and variants tested. The Wuhan lineage SARS-CoV-2 virus replicated to higher titers than either variant virus tested. All viruses tested grew to higher titers in cells expressing the human ACE2 gene compared to a bat ACE2. This study provides a practical in vitromethod for further testing of animal species for potential susceptibility to current and emerging SARS-CoV-2 viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelsey Briggs
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Disease Research Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, USDA, 934 College Station Road, Athens, GA, 30605, USA
| | - Ryan Sweeney
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Disease Research Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, USDA, 934 College Station Road, Athens, GA, 30605, USA
| | - David S Blehert
- U.S. Geological Survey, National Wildlife Health Center, 6006 Schroeder Road, Madison, WI, 53711, USA
| | - Erica Spackman
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Disease Research Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, USDA, 934 College Station Road, Athens, GA, 30605, USA
| | - David L Suarez
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Disease Research Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, USDA, 934 College Station Road, Athens, GA, 30605, USA
| | - Darrell R Kapczynski
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Disease Research Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, USDA, 934 College Station Road, Athens, GA, 30605, USA.
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Mo J, Spackman E, Swayne DE. Prediction of highly pathogenic avian influenza vaccine efficacy in chickens by comparison of in vitro and in vivo data: A meta-analysis and systematic review. Vaccine 2023; 41:5507-5517. [PMID: 37537093 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2023.07.076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2023] [Revised: 07/29/2023] [Accepted: 07/30/2023] [Indexed: 08/05/2023]
Abstract
Vaccines for avian influenza (AI) can protect poultry against disease, mortality, and virus transmission. Numerous factors, including: vaccine platform, immunogenicity, and relatedness to the field strain, are known to be important to achieving optimal AI vaccine efficacy. To better understand how these factors contribute to vaccine protection, a systematic meta-analysis was conducted to evaluate efficacy data for vaccines in chickens challenged with highly pathogenic (HP) AI. Data from a total of 120 individual trials from 25 publications were selected and evaluated. Two vaccine criteria were evaluated for their effects on two metrics of protection. The vaccine criteria were: 1) the relatedness of the vaccine antigen and challenge strain in the hemagglutinin 1 domain (HA1) protein sequence; 2) vaccine-induced antibody titers to the challenge virus (VIAC). The metrics of protection were: A) survival of vaccinated chickens vs unvaccinated controls; and B) reduction in oral virus-shedding by vaccinated vs unvaccinated controls 2-4 days post challenge. Three vaccine platforms were evaluated: oil-adjuvanted inactivated whole AI virus, recombinant herpes virus of turkeys (rHVT) vectored, and a non-replicating alpha-virus vectored RNA particle (RP) vaccine. Higher VIAC correlated with greater reduction of virus-shed and vaccine efficacy by all vaccine platforms. Both higher HA1 relatedness and higher VIAC using challenge virus as antigen correlated with better survival by inactivated vaccines and rHVT-vectored vaccines. However, rHVT-vectored and RP based vaccines were more tolerant of variation in the HA1; the relatedness of the HA1 of the vaccine and challenge virus did not significantly correlate with survival with rHVT-vectored vaccines. Protection was achieved with the lowest aa similarity for which there was data, 90-93 % for rHVT vaccines and 88 % for the RP vaccine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jongseo Mo
- Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, U.S. Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service, 934 College Station Road, Athens, GA 30605, USA
| | - Erica Spackman
- Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, U.S. Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service, 934 College Station Road, Athens, GA 30605, USA.
| | - David E Swayne
- Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, U.S. Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service, 934 College Station Road, Athens, GA 30605, USA
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Spackman E, Pantin-Jackwood MJ, Lee SA, Prosser D. The pathogenesis of a 2022 North American highly pathogenic clade 2.3.4.4b H5N1 avian influenza virus in mallards ( Anas platyrhynchos). Avian Pathol 2023; 52:219-228. [PMID: 36999798 DOI: 10.1080/03079457.2023.2196258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/01/2023]
Abstract
Highly pathogenic (HP) avian influenza viruses (AIVs) of the clade 2.3.4.4 goose/Guangdong/1996 H5 lineage continue to be a problem in poultry and wild birds in much of the world. The recent incursion of a H5N1 clade 2.3.4.4b HP AIV from this lineage into North America has resulted in widespread outbreaks in poultry and consistent detections of the virus across diverse families of birds and occasionally mammals. To characterize the pathobiology of this virus in mallards (Anas platyrhynchos), which are a primary reservoir of AIV, a challenge study was conducted with 2 week-old birds. The 50% bird infectious dose was determined to be <2 log10 50% egg infectious doses (EID50) and all exposed ducks, including ducks co-housed with inoculated ducks, were infected. Infection appeared to be subclinical for 58.8% (20/34) of the ducks, 1 duck was lethargic, about 20% developed neurological signs and were euthanized, and 18% developed corneal opacity. The mallards shed virus by both the oral and cloacal routes within 24-48hr post-infection. Oral shedding substantially decreased by 6-7 days post-infection, but 65% of the ducks continued to shed virus cloacally through 14 days post-exposure (DPE) for the direct inoculate and 13DPE for contact exposed ducks. Based on the high transmissibility, high virus shed titers, and mild-to-moderate disease, mallards could serve as efficient reservoirs to amplify and disseminate recent North American clade 2.3.4.4b viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erica Spackman
- Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, U.S. Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service, 934 College Station Road, Athens, Georgia, 30605, USA
| | - Mary J Pantin-Jackwood
- Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, U.S. Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service, 934 College Station Road, Athens, Georgia, 30605, USA
| | - Scott A Lee
- Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, U.S. Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service, 934 College Station Road, Athens, Georgia, 30605, USA
| | - Diann Prosser
- Eastern Ecological Science Center, U.S. Geological Survey, 12100 Beech Forest Road, Laurel, Maryland, 20708, USA
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Mo J, Stephens CB, Spackman E. The Thermal Stability of Newcastle Disease Virus in Poultry Litter. Avian Dis 2022; 66:131-134. [PMID: 35451592 DOI: 10.1637/aviandiseases-d-21-00113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2022] [Accepted: 02/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Sanitary disposal of contaminated organic material during recovery from an animal disease outbreak is costly and laborious. Characterizing the thermal stability of avian paramyxovirus type 1 (APMV-1; virulent APMV-1 strains cause Newcastle disease in poultry) will help inform risk assessments on the presence of viable virus on infected premises or in organic waste from infected premises. In some environments and housing types, heat may also be used as a decontamination method. Therefore, the objective of this study was to characterize the thermal stability (i.e., decimal reduction values [D values]) of APMV-1 in poultry litter. Virus inactivation was evaluated at seven temperatures from 10.0 C through 43.3 C, at 5.5 C intervals (50-110 F in 10 F intervals), using the I2 isolate of APMV-1, a vaccine strain known to be thermally stable. A high titer of virus (approximately 108 50% egg infectious doses) was added to wood shavings based, soiled chicken litter (poultry litter). Litter with both low and high moisture levels were evaluated. Samples were collected at different time intervals, and infectious virus was titrated in embryonated chicken eggs. At high temperatures (37.8 C-43.3 C), infectious virus could not be detected after 2-7 days, whereas at lower temperatures (10 C-21.1 C), it took up to 112 days for virus to decrease to undetectable levels. Furthermore, the D values were almost always shorter in the high moisture litter.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jongseo Mo
- Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service, United States National Poultry Research Center, Athens, GA
| | - Christopher B Stephens
- Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service, United States National Poultry Research Center, Athens, GA
| | - Erica Spackman
- Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service, United States National Poultry Research Center, Athens, GA,
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Mo J, Stephens CB, Jordan B, Ritz C, Swayne DE, Spackman E. Optimizing sample collection methods for detection of respiratory viruses in poultry housing environments. Transbound Emerg Dis 2022; 69:e2111-e2121. [PMID: 35365975 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.14547] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2022] [Revised: 03/09/2022] [Accepted: 03/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Viral respiratory diseases, such as avian influenza, Newcastle disease, infectious bronchitis, and infectious laryngotracheitis, have considerable negative economic implications for poultry. Ensuring the virus-free status of a premises by environmental sampling after cleaning and disinfection is essential for lifting a quarantine and/or safely restocking the premises following an outbreak. The objectives of this study were to identify optimal sample collection devices and to determine the locations in poultry housing which are best for poultry respiratory virus sample collection. Chickens exposed to infectious bronchitis virus, which was used as a representative virus for enveloped poultry respiratory viruses, were housed in floor-pens in either a curtain-sided wood framed house or a cement block house. Foam swabs, cellulose sponges, polyester swabs, dry cotton gauze and pre-moistened cotton gauze were evaluated for comparative efficiency in recovering viral RNA. Cotton gauze pre-moistened with the viral transport media had the highest sensitivity among the devices (wood-framed house: 78% positive, geometric mean titer [GMT] of 2.6 log10 50% egg infectious doses [EID50 ] equivalents/ml; cement-block houses: 55% positive, GMT of 1.7 log10 EID50 equivalents/ml). Targeting virus deposition sites is also crucial for efficient virus elimination procedures and subsequent testing, therefore 10 locations within the houses were compared for virus detection. In both housing types the highest viral RNA loads were recovered from the top of drinker lines within the pen. Places the chickens could contact directly (e.g., feeder rim) or were contacted by caretaker feet (hallway floor) also yielded higher levels of viral RNA more consistently. These results will facilitate the establishment of efficient environmental sampling procedures for respiratory viruses of poultry. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jongseo Mo
- Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, US National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Athens, GA
| | - Christopher B Stephens
- Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, US National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Athens, GA.,Boehringer Ingelheim Animal Health, Athens, GA
| | - Brian Jordan
- Department of Poultry Science, College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, University of Georgia, Athens, GA.,Poultry Diagnostic and Research Center, Department of Population Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA
| | - Casey Ritz
- Department of Poultry Science, College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, University of Georgia, Athens, GA
| | - David E Swayne
- Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, US National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Athens, GA
| | - Erica Spackman
- Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, US National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Athens, GA
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Ezeife D, Spackman E, Juergens R, Laskin J, Agulnik J, Hao D, Laurie S, Law J, Le L, Kiedrowski L, Melosky B, Shepherd F, Cohen V, Wheatley-Price P, Vandermeer R, Li J, Fernandes R, Shokoohi A, Lanman R, Leighl N. OA16.02 The Economic Value of Liquid Biopsy for Genomic Profiling in Advanced Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer. J Thorac Oncol 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jtho.2021.08.087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Mo J, Youk S, Pantin-Jackwood MJ, Suarez DL, Lee DH, Killian ML, Bergeson NH, Spackman E. The pathogenicity and transmission of live bird market H2N2 avian influenza viruses in chickens, Pekin ducks, and guinea fowl. Vet Microbiol 2021; 260:109180. [PMID: 34271303 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2021.109180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2021] [Accepted: 07/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
H2N2 subtype low pathogenic avian influenza viruses (LPAIVs) have persisted in live bird markets (LBMs) in the Northeastern United States since 2014. Although unrelated to the 1957 pandemic H2N2 lineage, there is concern that the virus could have animal and public health consequences because of high contact with humans and numerous species in the LBM system. The pathogenicity, infectivity, and transmissibility of six LBM H2N2 viruses isolated from three avian species in LBMs were examined in chickens. Two of these isolates were also tested in Pekin ducks and guinea fowl. Full genome sequence was obtained from all 6 isolates and evaluated for genetic markers for host adaptation and pathogenicity in poultry. Clinical signs were not observed in any host with any of the isolates, however one recent isolate was shed at higher titers than the other isolates and had the lowest bird infectious dose of all the isolates tested in all three species. This isolate, A/chicken/NY/19-012787-1/2019, was also the only isolate with a deletion in the stalk region of the neuraminidase protein (NA). This supports the theory that the NA stalk deletion is evidence of adaptation to gallinaceous poultry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jongseo Mo
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, US National Poultry Research Center, USDA-Agricultural Research Service, 934 College Station Rd., Athens, GA 30605, USA
| | - Sungsu Youk
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, US National Poultry Research Center, USDA-Agricultural Research Service, 934 College Station Rd., Athens, GA 30605, USA
| | - Mary J Pantin-Jackwood
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, US National Poultry Research Center, USDA-Agricultural Research Service, 934 College Station Rd., Athens, GA 30605, USA
| | - David L Suarez
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, US National Poultry Research Center, USDA-Agricultural Research Service, 934 College Station Rd., Athens, GA 30605, USA
| | - Dong-Hun Lee
- Department of Pathobiology and Veterinary Science, University of Connecticut, 61 North Eagleville Road, Unit-3089 Storrs, CT 06269, USA
| | - Mary Lea Killian
- National Veterinary Services Laboratories, Veterinary Services, United States Department of Agriculture, 1920 Dayton Avenue, Ames, IA 50010, USA
| | - Nichole H Bergeson
- National Veterinary Services Laboratories, Veterinary Services, United States Department of Agriculture, 1920 Dayton Avenue, Ames, IA 50010, USA
| | - Erica Spackman
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, US National Poultry Research Center, USDA-Agricultural Research Service, 934 College Station Rd., Athens, GA 30605, USA.
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12
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Kwon JH, Criado MF, Killmaster L, Ali MZ, Giasuddin M, Samad MA, Karim MR, Brum E, Hasan MZ, Lee DH, Spackman E, Swayne DE. Efficacy of two vaccines against recent emergent antigenic variants of clade 2.3.2.1a highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses in Bangladesh. Vaccine 2021; 39:2824-2832. [PMID: 33910774 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2021.04.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2020] [Revised: 04/09/2021] [Accepted: 04/12/2021] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
H5N1 highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses (HPAIVs) have caused outbreaks in poultry in Bangladesh since 2007. While clade 2.2.2 and 2.3.4.2 HPAIVs have not been detected since 2012, clade 2.3.2.1a viruses have caused continuous outbreaks since 2012 despite the use of vaccines. In this study, we evaluated the efficacy of two H5 vaccines licensed in Bangladesh, RE-6 inactivated vaccine, and a recombinant herpesvirus of turkeys vaccine with an H5 insert (rHVT-H5), for protection against recent field viruses in chickens. We selected three viruses for efficacy tests (A/chicken/Bangladesh/NRL-AI-3237/2017, A/crow/Bangladesh/NRL-AI-8471/2017 and A/chicken/Bangladesh/NRL-AI-8323/2017) from 36 H5 viruses isolated from Bangladesh between 2016 and 2018 by comparing the amino acid sequences at five antigenic sites (A-E) and analyzing hemagglutination inhibition (HI) titers with reference antisera. The RE-6 and rHVT-H5 vaccines both conferred 80-100% clinical protection (i.e. reduced morbidity and mortality) against the three challenge viruses with no significant differences in protection. In addition, both vaccines significantly decreased viral shedding from infected chickens as compared to challenge control chickens. Based on these metrics, the current licensed H5 vaccines protected chickens against the recent field viruses. However, the A/crow/Bangladesh/NRL-AI-8471/2017 virus exhibited antigenic divergence including: several unique amino acid changes in antigenic epitope sites A and B and was a serological outlier in cross HI tests as visualized on the antigenic map. The continuing emergence of such antigenic variants which could alter the dominant antigenicity of field viruses should be continuously monitored and vaccines should be updated if field efficacy declines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jung-Hoon Kwon
- U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Athens, GA 30605, USA; College of Veterinary Medicine, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41566, Republic of Korea
| | - Miria Ferreira Criado
- U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Athens, GA 30605, USA; Current address: Center for Vaccines and Immunology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
| | - Lindsay Killmaster
- U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Athens, GA 30605, USA
| | - Md Zulfekar Ali
- National Reference Laboratory for Avian Influenza, Animal Health Research Division, Bangladesh Livestock Research Institute, Savar, Dhaka 1341, Bangladesh
| | - Mohammad Giasuddin
- National Reference Laboratory for Avian Influenza, Animal Health Research Division, Bangladesh Livestock Research Institute, Savar, Dhaka 1341, Bangladesh
| | - Mohammed A Samad
- National Reference Laboratory for Avian Influenza, Animal Health Research Division, Bangladesh Livestock Research Institute, Savar, Dhaka 1341, Bangladesh
| | - Md Rezaul Karim
- National Reference Laboratory for Avian Influenza, Animal Health Research Division, Bangladesh Livestock Research Institute, Savar, Dhaka 1341, Bangladesh
| | - Eric Brum
- Emergency Centre for Transboundary Animal Diseases (ECTAD), Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Dhaka 1341, Bangladesh
| | - Md Zakiul Hasan
- Emergency Centre for Transboundary Animal Diseases (ECTAD), Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Dhaka 1341, Bangladesh
| | - Dong-Hun Lee
- Department of Pathobiology and Veterinary Science, the University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA
| | - Erica Spackman
- U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Athens, GA 30605, USA
| | - David E Swayne
- U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Athens, GA 30605, USA.
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Abstract
Real-time RT-PCR (rRT-PCR) has been used for avian influenza virus (AIV) detection since the early 2000s. This method has been applied to surveillance, outbreaks and research. Some of the advantages of rRT-PCR are high sensitivity, high specificity, rapid time to result, scalability, cost, and its inherently quantitative nature. Furthermore, rRT-PCR can be used with numerous sample types and is less expensive than virus isolation in chicken embryos, and since infectious virus is inactivated early during processing, biosafety and biosecurity are also easier to maintain. However, the high genetic variability of AIV may decrease sensitivity and increases the chances of a false negative result with novel strains. This chapter will provide an overview of the USDA-validated rRT-PCR procedure for the detection of type A influenza.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erica Spackman
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, US National Poultry Research Center, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Athens, GA, USA.
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14
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Suarez DL, Pantin-Jackwood MJ, Swayne DE, Lee SA, DeBlois SM, Spackman E. Lack of Susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2 and MERS-CoV in Poultry. Emerg Infect Dis 2020; 26:3074-3076. [PMID: 33219803 PMCID: PMC7706925 DOI: 10.3201/eid2612.202989] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
We challenged chickens, turkeys, ducks, quail, and geese with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 or Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus. We observed no disease and detected no virus replication and no serum antibodies. We concluded that poultry are unlikely to serve a role in maintenance of either virus.
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15
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Spackman E, Pantin-Jackwood MJ, Sitaras I, Stephens CB, Suarez DL. Identification of Efficacious Vaccines Against Contemporary North American H7 Avian Influenza Viruses. Avian Dis 2020; 65:113-121. [PMID: 34339130 DOI: 10.1637/aviandiseases-d-20-00109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2020] [Accepted: 11/05/2020] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Five vaccines, including four inactivated, whole-virus water-in-oil adjuvanted vaccines and a commercial nonreplicating alphavirus-vectored RNA particle (RP) vaccine were evaluated in chickens for their ability to provide protection against challenge with a recent H7 highly pathogenic avian influenza virus (AIV) from the United States (A/turkey/IN/1403-1/2016 H7N8). One of the inactivated vaccines and the RP vaccine were prepared with A/turkey/IN/16-01571-6/2016 H7N8 low pathogenic AIV (LPAIV; TK/IN/16), which is identical to the challenge virus, except for the proteolytic cleavage site of the hemagglutinin protein. The remaining three inactivated vaccines were prepared with other North American H7 LPAIVs. The hemagglutination inhibition assay was used to evaluate the antigenic relationships among the vaccines and selected recent H7 AIV isolates. All five vaccines provided protection against mortality. The inactivated vaccines reduced virus shedding significantly at 2 and 4 days post challenge compared with sham-vaccinated chickens. In contrast, the RP vaccine did not significantly reduce virus shedding. The inactivated vaccine prepared with TK/IN/16 elicited the highest antibody responses, which suggests it is a strong candidate for use as an antigen for North American H7 AIVs. Antigenic distance calculations showed that the four inactivated vaccine strains and other recent North American H7 isolates are antigenically similar, which suggests that the vaccines evaluated here would be similar enough to provide protection to other North American H7 AIVs. If future H7 outbreaks in poultry warrant vaccination, the field strain can be rapidly evaluated with these antigens and, if adequately related, one of these characterized strains may be used.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erica Spackman
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, US National Poultry Research Center, USDA-Agricultural Research Service, Athens, GA 30605,
| | - Mary J Pantin-Jackwood
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, US National Poultry Research Center, USDA-Agricultural Research Service, Athens, GA 30605
| | - Ioannis Sitaras
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, US National Poultry Research Center, USDA-Agricultural Research Service, Athens, GA 30605
| | - Christopher B Stephens
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, US National Poultry Research Center, USDA-Agricultural Research Service, Athens, GA 30605
| | - David L Suarez
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, US National Poultry Research Center, USDA-Agricultural Research Service, Athens, GA 30605
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16
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Stephens CB, Spackman E, Pantin-Jackwood MJ. Effects of an H7 Highly Pathogenic and Related Low Pathogenic Avian Influenza Virus on Chicken Egg Production, Viability, and Virus Contamination of Egg Contents and Surfaces. Avian Dis 2020; 64:143-148. [PMID: 32550614 DOI: 10.1637/0005-2086-64.2.143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2019] [Accepted: 01/07/2020] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Both highly pathogenic (HP) and low pathogenic (LP) avian influenza virus (AIV) can cause decreases or even cessation of egg production in chickens and turkeys. Production of abnormal eggs (deformed, thin-shelled, soft-shelled) can also be caused by AIV infection. Additionally, egg surfaces and contents may also be contaminated with virus. Because data quantifying these effects are lacking, white Plymouth Rock hens were inoculated with HP or LP AIV while in production. No decreases in egg production or abnormal eggs were observed with LPAIV-infected hens. No lesions or viral antigen staining in ovary and oviduct were observed in LPAIV-infected hens 3 days postchallenge. LPAIV RNA was detected on eggs collected from 12 hr to 11 days postinoculation (PI) and was on or in 6.4% (15/234) of the eggs. Titer equivalents of LPAIV ranged from 1.3-2.5 log10 50% egg infectious doses (EID50). No virus was detected in embryo tissue from eggs laid by LPAIV-infected hens. In contrast, egg production by HPAIV-inoculated hens decreased at 72 hr PI and 18.4% (16/87) of the eggs were abnormal. However, viability was similar to that of the sham inoculates. HPAIV RNA was detected in or on 11.1% (9/81) of the eggs from 36 hr through 96 hr PI, when the hens were euthanatized. HPAIV RNA was detected on 6.2% of eggshells, in 4.2% of albumin/yolk samples, and in 8.3% of embryo tissue. Forty percent of the abnormal eggs were positive for HPAIV RNA. Titer equivalents on or in HPAIV-contaminated eggs ranges from 1.0-4.0 log10 EID50. Lesions and viral antigen staining were present in the ovary and all sections of the oviduct of infected hens 3 days postchallenge. These data will inform models using production-based triggers for LPAIV monitoring and for risk assessments to determine the disposition of eggs from flocks infected with LPAIV or HPAIV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher B Stephens
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, United States National Poultry Research Center, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Athens, GA 30605
| | - Erica Spackman
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, United States National Poultry Research Center, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Athens, GA 30605,
| | - Mary J Pantin-Jackwood
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, United States National Poultry Research Center, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Athens, GA 30605
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17
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Sitaras I, Spackman E, de Jong MCM, Parris DJ. Selection and antigenic characterization of immune-escape mutants of H7N2 low pathogenic avian influenza virus using homologous polyclonal sera. Virus Res 2020; 290:198188. [PMID: 33045306 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2020.198188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2020] [Revised: 09/18/2020] [Accepted: 10/05/2020] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Understanding the dynamics of the selection of influenza A immune escape variants by serum antibody is critical for designing effective vaccination programs for animals, especially poultry where large populations have a short generation time and may be vaccinated with high frequency. In this report, immune-escape mutants of A/turkey/New York/4450/1994 H7N2 low pathogenic avian influenza virus, were selected by serially passaging the virus in the presence of continuously increasing concentrations of homologous chicken polyclonal sera. Amino acid mutations were identified by sequencing the parental hemagglutinin (HA) gene and every 10 passages by both Sanger and deep sequencing, and the antigenic distance of the mutants to the parent strain was determined. Progressively, a total of five amino acid mutations were observed over the course of 30 passages. Based on their absence from the parental virus with deep sequencing, the mutations appear to have developed de novo. The antigenic distance between the selected mutants and the parent strain increased as the number of amino acid mutations accumulated and the concentration of antibodies had to be periodically increased to maintain the same reduction in virus titer during selection. This selection system demonstrates how H7 avian influenza viruses behave under selection with homologous sera, and provides a glimpse of their evolutionary dynamics, which can be applied to developing vaccination programs that maximize the effectiveness of a vaccine over time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ioannis Sitaras
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, United States National Poultry Research Center, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, 934 College Station Road, Athens, GA, 30605, USA
| | - Erica Spackman
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, United States National Poultry Research Center, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, 934 College Station Road, Athens, GA, 30605, USA.
| | - Mart C M de Jong
- Quantitative Veterinary Epidemiology, Wageningen University and Research, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, 6708PB, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - D Joshua Parris
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, United States National Poultry Research Center, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, 934 College Station Road, Athens, GA, 30605, USA
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18
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Luczo JM, Prosser DJ, Pantin-Jackwood MJ, Berlin AM, Spackman E. The pathogenesis of a North American H5N2 clade 2.3.4.4 group A highly pathogenic avian influenza virus in surf scoters (Melanitta perspicillata). BMC Vet Res 2020; 16:351. [PMID: 32967673 PMCID: PMC7513502 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-020-02579-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2020] [Accepted: 09/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Aquatic waterfowl, particularly those in the order Anseriformes and Charadriiformes, are the ecological reservoir of avian influenza viruses (AIVs). Dabbling ducks play a recognized role in the maintenance and transmission of AIVs. Furthermore, the pathogenesis of highly pathogenic AIV (HPAIV) in dabbling ducks is well characterized. In contrast, the role of diving ducks in HPAIV maintenance and transmission remains unclear. In this study, the pathogenesis of a North American A/Goose/1/Guangdong/96-lineage clade 2.3.4.4 group A H5N2 HPAIV, A/Northern pintail/Washington/40964/2014, in diving sea ducks (surf scoters, Melanitta perspicillata) was characterized. Results Intrachoanal inoculation of surf scoters with A/Northern pintail/Washington/40964/2014 (H5N2) HPAIV induced mild transient clinical disease whilst concomitantly shedding high virus titers for up to 10 days post-inoculation (dpi), particularly from the oropharyngeal route. Virus shedding, albeit at low levels, continued to be detected up to 14 dpi. Two aged ducks that succumbed to HPAIV infection had pathological evidence for co-infection with duck enteritis virus, which was confirmed by molecular approaches. Abundant HPAIV antigen was observed in visceral and central nervous system organs and was associated with histopathological lesions. Conclusions Collectively, surf scoters, are susceptible to HPAIV infection and excrete high titers of HPAIV from the respiratory and cloacal tracts whilst being asymptomatic. The susceptibility of diving sea ducks to H5 HPAIV highlights the need for additional research and surveillance to further understand the contribution of diving ducks to HPAIV ecology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jasmina M Luczo
- Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, U.S., 934 College Station Road, Athens, GA, 30605, USA
| | - Diann J Prosser
- US Geological Survey, Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, 12100 Beech Forest Road, Laurel, MD, 20708, USA
| | - Mary J Pantin-Jackwood
- Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, U.S., 934 College Station Road, Athens, GA, 30605, USA
| | - Alicia M Berlin
- US Geological Survey, Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, 12100 Beech Forest Road, Laurel, MD, 20708, USA
| | - Erica Spackman
- Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, U.S., 934 College Station Road, Athens, GA, 30605, USA.
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19
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Ramey AM, Reeves AB, Drexler JZ, Ackerman JT, De La Cruz S, Lang AS, Leyson C, Link P, Prosser DJ, Robertson GJ, Wight J, Youk S, Spackman E, Pantin-Jackwood M, Poulson RL, Stallknecht DE. Influenza A viruses remain infectious for more than seven months in northern wetlands of North America. Proc Biol Sci 2020; 287:20201680. [PMID: 32901574 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2020.1680] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
In this investigation, we used a combination of field- and laboratory-based approaches to assess if influenza A viruses (IAVs) shed by ducks could remain viable for extended periods in surface water within three wetland complexes of North America. In a field experiment, replicate filtered surface water samples inoculated with duck swabs were tested for IAVs upon collection and again after an overwintering period of approximately 6-7 months. Numerous IAVs were molecularly detected and isolated from these samples, including replicates maintained at wetland field sites in Alaska and Minnesota for 181-229 days. In a parallel laboratory experiment, we attempted to culture IAVs from filtered surface water samples inoculated with duck swabs from Minnesota each month during September 2018-April 2019 and found monthly declines in viral viability. In an experimental challenge study, we found that IAVs maintained in filtered surface water within wetlands of Alaska and Minnesota for 214 and 226 days, respectively, were infectious in a mallard model. Collectively, our results support surface waters of northern wetlands as a biologically important medium in which IAVs may be both transmitted and maintained, potentially serving as an environmental reservoir for infectious IAVs during the overwintering period of migratory birds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew M Ramey
- US Geological Survey, Alaska Science Center, 4210 University Drive, Anchorage, AK 99508, USA
| | - Andrew B Reeves
- US Geological Survey, Alaska Science Center, 4210 University Drive, Anchorage, AK 99508, USA
| | - Judith Z Drexler
- US Geological Survey, California Water Science Center, 6000 J Street, Placer Hall, Sacramento, CA 95819, USA
| | - Joshua T Ackerman
- US Geological Survey, Western Ecological Research Center, Dixon Field Station, 800 Business Park Drive, Suite D, Dixon, CA 95620, USA
| | - Susan De La Cruz
- US Geological Survey, Western Ecological Research Center, San Francisco Bay Estuary Field Station, 350 N Akron Road, Building 19, Moffett Field, CA 94035, USA
| | - Andrew S Lang
- Department of Biology, Memorial University of Newfoundland, 232 Elizabeth Avenue, St John's, Newfoundland, A1B 3X9, Canada
| | - Christina Leyson
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Research Unit, US National Poultry Research Center, US Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Athens, Georgia, USA
| | - Paul Link
- Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries, 2000 Quail Drive, Room 436, Baton Rouge, LA 70808, USA
| | - Diann J Prosser
- US Geological Survey Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, 12100 Beech Forest Road, Laurel, MD 20708, USA
| | - Gregory J Robertson
- Environment and Climate Change Canada, 6 Bruce Street, Mount Pearl, Newfoundland, A1N 4T3, Canada
| | - Jordan Wight
- Department of Biology, Memorial University of Newfoundland, 232 Elizabeth Avenue, St John's, Newfoundland, A1B 3X9, Canada
| | - Sungsu Youk
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Research Unit, US National Poultry Research Center, US Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Athens, Georgia, USA
| | - Erica Spackman
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Research Unit, US National Poultry Research Center, US Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Athens, Georgia, USA
| | - Mary Pantin-Jackwood
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Research Unit, US National Poultry Research Center, US Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Athens, Georgia, USA
| | - Rebecca L Poulson
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, Department of Population Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
| | - David E Stallknecht
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, Department of Population Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
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20
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Mo J, Spackman E, Stephens CB. Identification of optimal sample collection devices and sampling locations for the detection of environmental viral contamination in wire poultry cages. Transbound Emerg Dis 2020; 68:598-604. [PMID: 32643291 PMCID: PMC8247023 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.13721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2020] [Revised: 07/01/2020] [Accepted: 07/04/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Environmental testing of poultry premises after an outbreak of an infectious disease like avian influenza (AI) or Newcastle disease is essential to promptly verify virus‐free status and subsequently return to normal operations. In an attempt to establish an optimized sampling protocol, a laboratory study simulating an AI virus‐contaminated poultry house with wire layer cages was conducted. Three sample collection devices, pre‐moistened cotton gauze, dry cotton gauze and a foam swab, were evaluated with each of four sample locations within a cage and when sampling all four locations with one device. Virus was detected with quantitative real‐time RT‐PCR utilizing a standard curve of a quantified homologous isolate of AI virus to determine titre equivalents of virus. The pre‐moistened gauze detected the most virus RNA (100% positive, geometric mean titre [GMT): 3.2 log10 50% embryo infectious doses [EID50] equivalents per 25 cm2) in all four sample locations compared to dry gauze (93% positive, GMT: 2.6 EID50 equivalents per 25 cm2) and foam swabs (95% positive, GMT: 2.8 log10 EID50 equivalents per 25 cm2). The highest viral RNA loads were observed from the cage floor, and when the four locations were sampled with the same device. Overall, the pre‐moistened gauze performed the best, and sampling multiple locations within a cage with the same device would likely optimize detection of residual virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jongseo Mo
- Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, US National Poultry Research Center, USDA-ARS, Athens, Georgia, USA
| | - Erica Spackman
- Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, US National Poultry Research Center, USDA-ARS, Athens, Georgia, USA
| | - Christopher B Stephens
- Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, US National Poultry Research Center, USDA-ARS, Athens, Georgia, USA
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21
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Stephens CB, Prosser DJ, Pantin-Jackwood MJ, Berlin AM, Spackman E. The Pathogenesis of H7 Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza Viruses in Lesser Scaup ( Aythya affinis). Avian Dis 2020; 63:230-234. [PMID: 31131581 DOI: 10.1637/11909-060118-resnote.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2018] [Accepted: 12/14/2018] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Waterfowl are the natural hosts of avian influenza virus (AIV), and through migration spread the virus worldwide. Most AIVs carried by wild waterfowl are low pathogenic strains; however, Goose/Guangdong/1996 lineage clade 2.3.4.4 H5 highly pathogenic (HP) AIV now appears to be endemic in wild birds in much of the Eastern Hemisphere. Most research efforts studying AIV pathogenicity in waterfowl thus far have been directed toward dabbling ducks. In order to better understand the role of diving ducks in AIV ecology, we previously characterized the pathogenesis of clade 2.3.4.4 H5 HPAIV in lesser scaup (Aythya affinis). In an effort to further elucidate AIV infection in diving ducks, the relative susceptibility and pathogenesis of two North American lineage H7 HPAIV isolates from the most recent outbreaks in the United States was investigated. Lesser scaup were inoculated with either A/turkey/IN/1403-1/2016 H7N8 or A/chicken/TN/17-007147-2/2017 H7N9 HPAIV by the intranasal route. The approximate 50% bird infectious dose (BID50) of the H7N8 isolate was determined to be 103 50% egg infectious doses (EID50), and the BID50 of the H7N9 isolate was determined to be <102 EID50, indicating some variation in adaptation between the two isolates. No mortality or clinical disease was observed in either group except for elevated body temperatures at 2 and 4 days postinoculation (DPI). Virus shedding was detected up to 14 DPI from both groups, and there was a trend for shedding to have a longer duration and at higher titer levels from the cloacal route. These results demonstrate that lesser scaup are susceptible to both H7 lineages of HPAIV, and similar to dabbling duck species, they shed virus for long periods relative to gallinaceous birds and don't present with clinical disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher B Stephens
- Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Athens, GA 30605
| | - Diann J Prosser
- U.S. Geological Survey, Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, Laurel, MD 20708
| | - Mary J Pantin-Jackwood
- Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Athens, GA 30605
| | - Alicia M Berlin
- U.S. Geological Survey, Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, Laurel, MD 20708
| | - Erica Spackman
- Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Athens, GA 30605,
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22
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Abstract
The earliest recorded cases of what was likely high-pathogenicity AIV in poultry were reported in Italy in the 1870s. Avian influenza infection has been recognized in domestic poultry through the modern era of poultry production. Infection of poultry with either low pathogenic (LP) or highly pathogenic (HP) avian influenza viruses (AIVs) can result in substantial economic consequences. Productivity can be reduced directly and indirectly because of disease leading to decreased egg or meat yield, mortality, vaccination costs, and restricted trade. Aquatic birds are the natural hosts for AIV, and infection tends to be subclinical, although some strains of HPAIV can cause losses in domestic ducks. Biosecurity and vaccination are the most common methods of preventing infection of poultry. Approaches to AIV control vary widely, but elimination of the disease in poultry is a common goal. The basics of AIV biology, clinical disease, molecular aspects, and AIV detection are briefly reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erica Spackman
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, US National Poultry Research Center, US Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Athens, GA, USA.
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23
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Abstract
The hemagglutination inhibition (HI) assay for influenza A virus has been used since the 1940s. The assay may be utilized to detect or quantify antibodies to influenza A viruses and can be used to characterize differences in antigenic reactivity between influenza isolates. In addition, data from HI assays are routinely used for antigenic cartography, influenza virus surveillance, epidemiology, and vaccine-seed strain selection. For antibody quantification, the HI assay is a fast and inexpensive method; other than a source of red blood cells, no expensive or unusual lab equipment is needed, and results can be obtained within a few hours. Historically, the HI assay has also served as a primary method of subtype identification and is still used widely. However, as gene sequencing technology has evolved to be cheaper and faster, it is replacing the HI assay for this purpose.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erica Spackman
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, US National Poultry Research Center, US Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Athens, GA, USA.
| | - Ioannis Sitaras
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, US National Poultry Research Center, US Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Athens, GA, USA
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24
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Bertran K, Pantin-Jackwood MJ, Criado MF, Lee DH, Balzli CL, Spackman E, Suarez DL, Swayne DE. Pathobiology and innate immune responses of gallinaceous poultry to clade 2.3.4.4A H5Nx highly pathogenic avian influenza virus infection. Vet Res 2019; 50:89. [PMID: 31675983 PMCID: PMC6824115 DOI: 10.1186/s13567-019-0704-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2019] [Accepted: 09/27/2019] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
In the 2014-2015 Eurasian lineage clade 2.3.4.4A H5 highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) outbreak in the U.S., backyard flocks with minor gallinaceous poultry and large commercial poultry (chickens and turkeys) operations were affected. The pathogenesis of the first H5N8 and reassortant H5N2 clade 2.3.4.4A HPAI U.S. isolates was investigated in six gallinaceous species: chickens, Japanese quail, Bobwhite quail, Pearl guinea fowl, Chukar partridges, and Ring-necked pheasants. Both viruses caused 80-100% mortality in all species, except for H5N2 virus that caused 60% mortality in chickens. The surviving challenged birds remained uninfected based on lack of clinical disease and lack of seroconversion. Among the infected birds, chickens and Japanese quail in early clinical stages (asymptomatic and listless) lacked histopathologic findings. In contrast, birds of all species in later clinical stages (moribund and dead) had histopathologic lesions and systemic virus replication consistent with HPAI virus infection in gallinaceous poultry. These birds had widespread multifocal areas of necrosis, sometimes with heterophilic or lymphoplasmacytic inflammatory infiltrate, and viral antigen in parenchymal cells of most tissues. In general, lesions and antigen distribution were similar regardless of virus and species. However, endotheliotropism was the most striking difference among species, with only Pearl guinea fowl showing widespread replication of both viruses in endothelial cells of most tissues. The expression of IFN-γ and IL-10 in Japanese quail, and IL-6 in chickens, were up-regulated in later clinical stages compared to asymptomatic birds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kateri Bertran
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Research Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Athens, GA, 30605, USA.,IRTA, Centre de Recerca en Sanitat Animal (CReSA, IRTA-UAB), Campus de la Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Mary J Pantin-Jackwood
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Research Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Athens, GA, 30605, USA
| | - Miria F Criado
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Research Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Athens, GA, 30605, USA
| | - Dong-Hun Lee
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Research Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Athens, GA, 30605, USA.,Department of Pathobiology & Veterinary Science, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, 06269, USA
| | - Charles L Balzli
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Research Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Athens, GA, 30605, USA.,Battelle National Biodefense Institute, National Biodefense Analysis and Countermeasures Center, 8300 Research PI, Fort Detrick, MD, 21702, USA
| | - Erica Spackman
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Research Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Athens, GA, 30605, USA
| | - David L Suarez
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Research Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Athens, GA, 30605, USA
| | - David E Swayne
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Research Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Athens, GA, 30605, USA.
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25
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Pepin KM, Hopken MW, Shriner SA, Spackman E, Abdo Z, Parrish C, Riley S, Lloyd-Smith JO, Piaggio AJ. Improving risk assessment of the emergence of novel influenza A viruses by incorporating environmental surveillance. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2019; 374:20180346. [PMID: 31401963 PMCID: PMC6711309 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2018.0346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Reassortment is an evolutionary mechanism by which influenza A viruses (IAV) generate genetic novelty. Reassortment is an important driver of host jumps and is widespread according to retrospective surveillance studies. However, predicting the epidemiological risk of reassortant emergence in novel hosts from surveillance data remains challenging. IAV strains persist and co-occur in the environment, promoting co-infection during environmental transmission. These conditions offer opportunity to understand reassortant emergence in reservoir and spillover hosts. Specifically, environmental RNA could provide rich information for understanding the evolutionary ecology of segmented viruses, and transform our ability to quantify epidemiological risk to spillover hosts. However, significant challenges with recovering and interpreting genomic RNA from the environment have impeded progress towards predicting reassortant emergence from environmental surveillance data. We discuss how the fields of genomics, experimental ecology and epidemiological modelling are well positioned to address these challenges. Coupling quantitative disease models and natural transmission studies with new molecular technologies, such as deep-mutational scanning and single-virus sequencing of environmental samples, should dramatically improve our understanding of viral co-occurrence and reassortment. We define observable risk metrics for emerging molecular technologies and propose a conceptual research framework for improving accuracy and efficiency of risk prediction. This article is part of the theme issue 'Dynamic and integrative approaches to understanding pathogen spillover'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kim M. Pepin
- National Wildlife Research Center, USDA-APHIS, Fort Collins, CO 80521, USA
- e-mail:
| | - Matthew W. Hopken
- National Wildlife Research Center, USDA-APHIS, Fort Collins, CO 80521, USA
- Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA
| | - Susan A. Shriner
- National Wildlife Research Center, USDA-APHIS, Fort Collins, CO 80521, USA
| | - Erica Spackman
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Research, USDA-ARS, Athens, GA 30605, USA
| | - Zaid Abdo
- Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA
| | - Colin Parrish
- Baker Institute for Animal Health, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Steven Riley
- MRC Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis, Imperial College, London, SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - James O. Lloyd-Smith
- UCLA, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Fogarty International Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda MD 20892, USA
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26
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Spackman E, Stephens CB, Pantin-Jackwood MJ. The Effect of Infectious Bursal Disease Virus-Induced Immunosuppression on Vaccination Against Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza Virus. Avian Dis 2019; 62:36-44. [PMID: 29620467 DOI: 10.1637/11769-110717-reg.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Poor efficacy of avian influenza virus (AIV) vaccines in chickens has been documented in the field in spite of good results in experimental settings. Although the causes are multifactorial and complex, one contributing factor may be prior infection with immunosuppressive viruses. In an effort to evaluate the role of immunosuppressive agents on AIV pathogenesis and vaccine efficacy, the effect of prior infection with infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV), a ubiquitous immunosuppressive virus of chickens, was evaluated. Specific-pathogen-free white Plymouth Rock chickens were exposed to variant E IBDV at 1 day of age and were subsequently vaccinated with an inactivated H7 AIV vaccine 2 wk later. Vaccinated chickens exposed to IBDV had a geometric mean antibody titer to AIV of 1:1.7 by hemagglutination inhibition assay compared to a geometric mean titer of 1:47.5 from chickens that were vaccinated but not exposed to IBDV. Three weeks postvaccination, the chickens were challenged with one of six different doses of highly pathogenic (HP) AIV homologous to the vaccine. Within challenge virus dose groups, vaccinated chickens exposed to IBDV had similar mortality rates to nonvaccinated chickens that were not exposed to IBDV. In contrast, vaccinated chickens that were not exposed to IBDV were protected from mortality. Exposure to IBDV also decreased the mean death time (2.3-3.7 days depending on dose) compared with vaccinated birds not exposed to IBDV (4-7 days depending on dose). Neither vaccination nor IBDV infection had an effect on mean bird infection dose with HPAIV, but the 50% bird lethal dose was reduced from >106 50% egg infective dose (EID50) in the vaccinated, IBDV-nonexposed group to 103.3 EID50 in the vaccinated group exposed to IBDV. These results are consistent with IBDV exposure contributing to poor vaccine efficacy in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erica Spackman
- Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, United States National Poultry Research Center, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, 934 College Station Rd., Athens, GA 30605
| | - Christopher B Stephens
- Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, United States National Poultry Research Center, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, 934 College Station Rd., Athens, GA 30605
| | - Mary J Pantin-Jackwood
- Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, United States National Poultry Research Center, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, 934 College Station Rd., Athens, GA 30605
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27
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Spackman E, Malladi S, Ssematimba A, Stephens CB. Assessment of replicate numbers for titrating avian influenza virus using dose-response models. J Vet Diagn Invest 2019; 31:616-619. [PMID: 31131714 DOI: 10.1177/1040638719853851] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Embryonating chicken eggs (ECEs) are among the most sensitive laboratory host systems for avian influenza virus (AIV) titration, but ECEs are expensive and require space for storage and incubation. Therefore, reducing ECE use would conserve resources. We utilized statistical modeling to evaluate the accuracy and precision of AIV titration with 3 instead of 5 ECEs for each dilution by the Reed-Muench method for 50% endpoint calculation. Beta-Poisson and exponential dose-response models were used in a simulation study to evaluate observations from actual titration data from 18 AIV isolates. The reproducibility among replicates of a titration was evaluated with one AIV isolate titrated in 3 replicates with the beta-Poisson, exponential, and Weibull dose-response models. The standard deviation (SD) of the error between input and estimated virus titers was estimated with Monte Carlo simulations using the fitted dose-response models. Good fit was observed with all models that were utilized. Reducing the number of ECEs per dilution from 5 to 3 resulted in the width of the 95% confidence interval increasing from ±0.64 to ±0.75 log10 50% ECE infectious doses (EID50) and the SD of the error increased by 0.03 log10 EID50. Our study suggests that using fewer ECEs per dilution is a viable approach that will allow laboratories to reduce costs and improve efficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erica Spackman
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, USDA-ARS, Athens, GA (Spackman, Stephens).,Secure Food Systems Team, Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN (Malladi, Ssematimba)
| | - Sasidhar Malladi
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, USDA-ARS, Athens, GA (Spackman, Stephens).,Secure Food Systems Team, Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN (Malladi, Ssematimba)
| | - Amos Ssematimba
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, USDA-ARS, Athens, GA (Spackman, Stephens).,Secure Food Systems Team, Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN (Malladi, Ssematimba)
| | - Christopher B Stephens
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, USDA-ARS, Athens, GA (Spackman, Stephens).,Secure Food Systems Team, Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN (Malladi, Ssematimba)
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Ladman BS, Gelb J, Sauble LA, Murphy MV, Spackman E. Protection afforded by avian influenza vaccination programmes consisting of a novel RNA particle and an inactivated avian influenza vaccine against a highly pathogenic avian influenza virus challenge in layer chickens up to 18 weeks post-vaccination. Avian Pathol 2019; 48:371-381. [PMID: 30961360 DOI: 10.1080/03079457.2019.1605148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
The efficacies of an oil adjuvanted-inactivated reverse genetics-derived H5 avian influenza virus (AIV) vaccine and an alphavirus replicon RNA particle (RP) AIV vaccine were evaluated in commercial Leghorn chickens. Challenge utilized A/turkey/MN/12582/2015, an isolate representing the U.S. H5N2 Clade 2.3.4.4 responsible for the 2015 highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) epornitic in commercial poultry the United States. As part of a long-term, 36-week study, chickens were challenged at seven weeks of age after receiving a single vaccination, at 18 weeks of age following a vaccine prime-single boost, and at 36 weeks of age after a prime- double-boost. All vaccine programmes reduced virus oropharyngeal and cloacal shedding and mortality compared to the non-vaccinated control birds; however, chickens receiving at least one administration of the RP vaccine generally had diminished viral shedding especially from the cloacal swabbings. A detectable serum antibody response and protection were observed through 18 weeks post-vaccination. Our data suggest that, in conjunction with a comprehensive eradication, enhanced biosecurity and controlled marketing plan, vaccination programmes of commercial layer chickens with novel RP vaccines may represent an important tool for preventing HPAI-related mortalities and decreasing viral load during a catastrophic influenza outbreak. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS Immunization of poultry following a vaccination schedule consisting of inactivated and RNA particle vaccines offered significant protection against lethal disease following HPAIV challenge. Virus shedding was significantly (P < 0.05) reduced in chickens vaccinated with either inactivated and/or recombinant vaccines. Serum antibody titres were not a reliable indicator of protection. An inactivated vaccine containing 384 HAU of the homologous antigen was unable to induce complete protection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian S Ladman
- a Department of Animal and Food Sciences, Avian Biosciences Center , University of Delaware , Newark , DE , USA
| | - Jack Gelb
- a Department of Animal and Food Sciences, Avian Biosciences Center , University of Delaware , Newark , DE , USA
| | - Lauren A Sauble
- a Department of Animal and Food Sciences, Avian Biosciences Center , University of Delaware , Newark , DE , USA
| | - Marcella V Murphy
- a Department of Animal and Food Sciences, Avian Biosciences Center , University of Delaware , Newark , DE , USA
| | - Erica Spackman
- b Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, US National Poultry Research Center , U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service (ARS) , Athens , GA , USA
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29
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Spackman E, Prosser DJ, Pantin-Jackwood M, Stephens CB, Berlin AM. Clade 2.3.4.4 H5 North American Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza Viruses Infect, but Do Not Cause Clinical Signs in, American Black Ducks (Anas rubripes). Avian Dis 2019; 63:366-370. [DOI: 10.1637/11950-081418-resnote.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2018] [Accepted: 12/19/2018] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Erica Spackman
- Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, United States National Poultry Research Center, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, 934 College Station Road, Athens, GA 30605
| | - Diann J. Prosser
- Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, United States Geological Survey, 12100 Beech Forest Road, Laurel, MD 20708
| | - Mary Pantin-Jackwood
- Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, United States National Poultry Research Center, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, 934 College Station Road, Athens, GA 30605
| | - Christopher B. Stephens
- Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, United States National Poultry Research Center, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, 934 College Station Road, Athens, GA 30605
| | - Alicia M. Berlin
- Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, United States Geological Survey, 12100 Beech Forest Road, Laurel, MD 20708
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30
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Ssematimba A, Malladi S, Hagenaars TJ, Bonney PJ, Weaver JT, Patyk KA, Spackman E, Halvorson DA, Cardona CJ. Estimating within-flock transmission rate parameter for H5N2 highly pathogenic avian influenza virus in Minnesota turkey flocks during the 2015 epizootic. Epidemiol Infect 2019; 147:e179. [PMID: 31063119 PMCID: PMC6518789 DOI: 10.1017/s0950268819000633] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2019] [Revised: 02/13/2019] [Accepted: 03/11/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Better control of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) outbreaks requires deeper understanding of within-flock virus transmission dynamics. For such fatal diseases, daily mortality provides a proxy for disease incidence. We used the daily mortality data collected during the 2015 H5N2 HPAI outbreak in Minnesota turkey flocks to estimate the within-flock transmission rate parameter (β). The number of birds in Susceptible, Exposed, Infectious and Recovered compartments was inferred from the data and used in a generalised linear mixed model (GLMM) to estimate the parameters. Novel here was the correction of these data for normal mortality before use in the fitting process. We also used mortality threshold to determine HPAI-like mortality to improve the accuracy of estimates from the back-calculation approach. The estimated β was 3.2 (95% confidence interval (CI) 2.3-4.3) per day with a basic reproduction number of 12.8 (95% CI 9.2-17.2). Although flock-level estimates varied, the overall estimate was comparable to those from other studies. Sensitivity analyses demonstrated that the estimated β was highly sensitive to the bird-level latent period, emphasizing the need for its precise estimation. In all, for fatal poultry diseases, the back-calculation approach provides a computationally efficient means to obtain reasonable transmission parameter estimates from mortality data.
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Affiliation(s)
- A. Ssematimba
- Secure Food Systems Team, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, 1971 Commonwealth Avenue, Saint Paul, MN 55108, USA
- Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science, Gulu University, P.O. Box 166, Gulu, Uganda
| | - S. Malladi
- Secure Food Systems Team, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, 1971 Commonwealth Avenue, Saint Paul, MN 55108, USA
| | - T. J. Hagenaars
- Department of Bacteriology and Epidemiology, Wageningen Bioveterinary Research, P.O. Box 65, 8200AB Lelystad, The Netherlands
| | - P. J. Bonney
- Secure Food Systems Team, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, 1971 Commonwealth Avenue, Saint Paul, MN 55108, USA
| | - J. T. Weaver
- United States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Veterinary Services, Science, Technology, and Analysis Services, Center for Epidemiology and Animal Health, Natural Resources Research Center, Bldg. B MS-2W4, 2150 Centre Avenue, Fort Collins, CO 80526, USA
| | - K. A. Patyk
- United States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Veterinary Services, Science, Technology, and Analysis Services, Center for Epidemiology and Animal Health, Natural Resources Research Center, Bldg. B MS-2W4, 2150 Centre Avenue, Fort Collins, CO 80526, USA
| | - E. Spackman
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, US National Poultry Research Center, USDA-ARS, 934 College Station Rd. Athens, GA 30605, USA
| | - D. A. Halvorson
- Secure Food Systems Team, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, 1971 Commonwealth Avenue, Saint Paul, MN 55108, USA
| | - C. J. Cardona
- Secure Food Systems Team, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, 1971 Commonwealth Avenue, Saint Paul, MN 55108, USA
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31
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Thi Nguyen D, Shepard SS, Burke DF, Jones J, Thor S, Nguyen LV, Nguyen TD, Balish A, Hoang DN, To TL, Iqbal M, Wentworth DE, Spackman E, van Doorn HR, Davis CT, Bryant JE. Antigenic characterization of highly pathogenic avian influenza A(H5N1) viruses with chicken and ferret antisera reveals clade-dependent variation in hemagglutination inhibition profiles. Emerg Microbes Infect 2018; 7:100. [PMID: 29855467 PMCID: PMC5981457 DOI: 10.1038/s41426-018-0100-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2018] [Revised: 04/17/2018] [Accepted: 04/18/2018] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) A(H5N1) viruses pose a significant economic burden to the poultry industry worldwide and have pandemic potential. Poultry vaccination against HPAI A(H5N1) viruses has been an important component of HPAI control measures and has been performed in Vietnam since 2005. To systematically assess antigenic matching of current vaccines to circulating field variants, we produced a panel of chicken and ferret antisera raised against historical and contemporary Vietnamese reference viruses representing clade variants that were detected between 2001 and 2014. The antisera were used for hemagglutination inhibition (HI) assays to generate data sets for analysis by antigenic cartography, allowing for a direct comparison of results from chicken or ferret antisera. HI antigenic maps, developed with antisera from both hosts, revealed varying patterns of antigenic relationships and clustering of viruses that were dependent on the clade of viruses analyzed. Antigenic relationships between existing poultry vaccines and circulating field viruses were also aligned with in vivo protection profiles determined by previously reported vaccine challenge studies. Our results establish the feasibility and utility of HPAI A(H5N1) antigenic characterization using chicken antisera and support further experimental and modeling studies to investigate quantitative relationships between genetic variation, antigenic drift and correlates of poultry vaccine protection in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diep Thi Nguyen
- National Center for Veterinary Diagnostics, Department of Animal Health, Hanoi, Vietnam. .,Department of Animal Health, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development of Vietnam, Hanoi, Vietnam. .,Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, Hanoi, Vietnam. .,Center for Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.
| | - Samuel S Shepard
- Influenza Division, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, 30333, USA
| | | | - Joyce Jones
- Influenza Division, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, 30333, USA
| | - Sharmi Thor
- Influenza Division, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, 30333, USA
| | - Long Van Nguyen
- Department of Animal Health, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development of Vietnam, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - Tho Dang Nguyen
- National Center for Veterinary Diagnostics, Department of Animal Health, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - Amanda Balish
- Influenza Division, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, 30333, USA
| | - Dang Nguyen Hoang
- National Center for Veterinary Diagnostics, Department of Animal Health, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - Thanh Long To
- Department of Animal Health, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development of Vietnam, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | | | - David E Wentworth
- Influenza Division, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, 30333, USA
| | - Erica Spackman
- United States Department of Agriculture, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, Athens, GA, USA
| | - H Rogier van Doorn
- Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, Hanoi, Vietnam.,Center for Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - C Todd Davis
- Influenza Division, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, 30333, USA.
| | - Juliet E Bryant
- Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, Hanoi, Vietnam. .,Center for Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.
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Nixon N, Spackman E, Clement F, Verma S, Manns B. Cost-effectiveness of symptom monitoring with patient-reported outcomes during routine cancer treatment. J Cancer Policy 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jcpo.2017.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Davis-Unger J, Pajor EA, Schwartzkopf-Genswein K, Marti S, Dorin C, Spackman E, Orsel K. Economic impacts of lameness in feedlot cattle. Transl Anim Sci 2017; 1:467-479. [PMID: 32704670 PMCID: PMC7204980 DOI: 10.2527/tas2017.0052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2017] [Accepted: 10/10/2017] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Lameness is an important health issue in feedlot cattle; however, there is a paucity of information regarding its economic impact. Decision tree models are excellent tools for assessing costs of disease such as the net return (net return = benefit – cost). Models were developed using expert opinion, literature and retrospective feedlot data provided by Vet-Agri Health Services (VAHS, Airdrie, Alberta, Canada) collected from 2005 to 2015 on individually treated cattle (n = 30,940) from 28 feedlots. The objective was to estimate net return of various lameness diagnoses and impacts of cattle type, season of treatment, and extreme high and low cattle prices. Cattle were diagnosed as lame according to the following categories: foot rot, foot rot in heavy cattle (BW > 363 kg at treatment), injury, lame with no visible swelling, and joint infection. Records consisted of arrival and treatment weight, cost of treatment, and cattle deaths. Records included cattle types classified as: fall calves (heifer and steer), winter calves (heifer and steer) and yearling cattle (heifer and steer). Lastly, variables ADG, days on feed (DOF), and Season (spring, summer, fall, and winter) were created. Models estimated net return using cattle slaughter prices for healthy cattle that reached a slaughter weight of 635 kg and for three possible outcomes for each diagnosis after final treatment: cattle that recovered after treatment and reached a slaughter weight of 635 kg; cattle that were removed before they reached slaughter weight; or cattle that died. Compared to undiagnosed cattle with 1.36 kg/d ADG, cattle diagnosed with foot rot and foot rot heavy cattle had the highest ADG until first treatment (1.14 and 1.57 kg/d, respectively) and differed significantly (P < 0.05) compared to cattle diagnosed with injuries (0.87 kg/d), lame with no visible swelling (0.64 kg/d), and joint infections (0.53 kg/d). Yearling steers had the most positive returns compared to all other cattle types. Cattle with lighter arrival weight had lower ADG and increased economic losses after treatment compared to heavier weighted cattle on arrival. Based on average slaughter prices over a 10-yr period for healthy cattle, return was $690. Return after final treatment for cattle with foot rot was $568, foot rot in heavy cattle was $695, and injury was $259. However, joint infections and lame with no visible swelling had negative returns of –$286 and –$701, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Davis-Unger
- University of Calgary, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Production Animal Health, Calgary, Canada
| | - E A Pajor
- University of Calgary, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Production Animal Health, Calgary, Canada
| | - K Schwartzkopf-Genswein
- Agriculture and Agri-food Canada, Lethbridge Research and Development Center, Lethbridge, Canada
| | - S Marti
- University of Calgary, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Production Animal Health, Calgary, Canada.,Agriculture and Agri-food Canada, Lethbridge Research and Development Center, Lethbridge, Canada
| | - C Dorin
- Practicing veterinarian, Veterinary Agri-Health Services, Airdrie, Canada
| | - E Spackman
- Health Technology Assessment Unit, O'Brien Institute for Public Health, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada
| | - K Orsel
- University of Calgary, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Production Animal Health, Calgary, Canada
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Kapczynski DR, Pantin-Jackwood MJ, Spackman E, Chrzastek K, Suarez DL, Swayne DE. Homologous and heterologous antigenic matched vaccines containing different H5 hemagglutinins provide variable protection of chickens from the 2014 U.S. H5N8 and H5N2 clade 2.3.4.4 highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses. Vaccine 2017; 35:6345-6353. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2017.04.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2016] [Revised: 03/31/2017] [Accepted: 04/18/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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Muzyka D, Pantin-Jackwood M, Spackman E, Smith D, Rula O, Muzyka N, Stegniy B. Isolation and Genetic Characterization of Avian Influenza Viruses Isolated from Wild Birds in the Azov-Black Sea Region of Ukraine (2001-2012). Avian Dis 2017; 60:365-77. [PMID: 27309081 DOI: 10.1637/11114-050115-reg] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Wild bird surveillance for avian influenza virus (AIV) was conducted from 2001 to 2012 in the Azov - Black Sea region of the Ukraine, considered part of the transcontinental wild bird migration routes from northern Asia and Europe to the Mediterranean, Africa, and southwest Asia. A total of 6281 samples were collected from wild birds representing 27 families and eight orders for virus isolation. From these samples, 69 AIVs belonging to 15 of the 16 known hemagglutinin (HA) subtypes and seven of nine known neuraminidase (NA) subtypes were isolated. No H14, N5, or N9 subtypes were identified. In total, nine H6, eight H1, nine H5, seven H7, six H11, six H4, five H3, five H10, four H8, three H2, three H9, one H12, one H13, one H15, and one H16 HA subtypes were isolated. As for the NA subtypes, twelve N2, nine N6, eight N8, seven N7, six N3, four N4, and one undetermined were isolated. There were 27 HA and NA antigen combinations. All isolates were low pathogenic AIV except for eight highly pathogenic (HP) AIVs that were isolated during the H5N1 HPAI outbreaks of 2006-08. Sequencing and phylogenetic analysis of the HA genes revealed epidemiological connections between the Azov-Black Sea regions and Europe, Russia, Mongolia, and Southeast Asia. H1, H2, H3, H7, H8, H6, H9, and H13 AIV subtypes were closely related to European, Russian, Mongolian, and Georgian AIV isolates. H10, H11, and H12 AIV subtypes were epidemiologically linked to viruses from Europe and Southeast Asia. Serology conducted on serum and egg yolk samples also demonstrated previous exposure of many wild bird species to different AIVs. Our results demonstrate the great genetic diversity of AIVs in wild birds in the Azov-Black Sea region as well as the importance of this region for monitoring and studying the ecology of influenza viruses. This information furthers our understanding of the ecology of avian influenza viruses in wild bird species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Denys Muzyka
- A National Scientific Center "Institute of Experimental and Clinical Veterinary Medicine," Kharkiv, 61023, Ukraine
| | - Mary Pantin-Jackwood
- B Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Athens, GA 30677
| | - Erica Spackman
- B Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Athens, GA 30677
| | - Diane Smith
- B Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Athens, GA 30677
| | - Oleksandr Rula
- A National Scientific Center "Institute of Experimental and Clinical Veterinary Medicine," Kharkiv, 61023, Ukraine
| | - Nataliia Muzyka
- A National Scientific Center "Institute of Experimental and Clinical Veterinary Medicine," Kharkiv, 61023, Ukraine
| | - Borys Stegniy
- A National Scientific Center "Institute of Experimental and Clinical Veterinary Medicine," Kharkiv, 61023, Ukraine
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Abstract
Vaccination is frequently used as a control method for the H9 subtype of low pathogenicity avian influenza virus (AIV), which is widespread in Asia and the Middle East. One of the most important factors for selecting an effective vaccine strain is the antigenic match between the hemagglutinin protein of the vaccine and the strain circulating in the field. To demonstrate the antigenic relationships among H9 AIVs, with a focus on Israeli H9 isolates, antigenic cartography was used to develop a map of H9 AIVs. Based on their antigenic diversity, three isolates from Israel were selected for vaccination-challenge studies: 1) the current vaccine virus, A/chicken/Israel/215/2007 H9N2 (Ck/215); 2) A/chicken/Israel/1163/2011 H9N2 (Ck/1163); and 3) A/ostrich/Israel/1436/2003 (Os/1436). A 50% infective dose (ID50) model was used to determine the effect of the vaccines on susceptibility to infection by using a standardized dose of vaccine. Sera collected immediately prior to challenge showed that Ck/215 was the most immunogenic, followed by Ck/1163 and Os/1436. A significant difference in ID50 was only observed with Ck/215 homologous challenge, where the ID50 was increased by 2 log 10 per bird. The ID50 for Ck/1163 was the same, regardless of vaccine, including sham vaccination. The ID50 for Os/1436 was above the maximum possible dose and therefore could not be established.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue Wang
- A Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, 934 College Station Road, Athens, GA 30605
| | - Irit Davidson
- B Kimron Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 12, Bet Dagan, 50250, Israel
| | - Ron Fouchier
- C Department of Viroscience, Erasmus Medical Center, P.O. Box 2040, Rotterdam, the Netherlands 3000 CA
| | - Erica Spackman
- A Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, 934 College Station Road, Athens, GA 30605
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Stephens CB, Spackman E. Thermal Inactivation of avian influenza virus in poultry litter as a method to decontaminate poultry houses. Prev Vet Med 2017; 145:73-77. [PMID: 28903878 DOI: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2017.06.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2017] [Revised: 06/27/2017] [Accepted: 06/28/2017] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Removal of contaminated material from a poultry house during recovery from an avian influenza virus (AIV) outbreak is costly and labor intensive. Because AIV is not environmentally stable, heating poultry houses may provide an alternative disinfection method. The objective was to determine the time necessary to inactivate AIV in poultry litter at temperatures achievable in a poultry house. Low pathogenic (LP) AIV inactivation was evaluated between 10.0°-48.9°C, at ∼5.5°C intervals and highly pathogenic (HP) AIV inactivation was evaluated between 10.0°-43.3°C, at ∼11°C intervals. Samples were collected at numerous time points for each temperature. Virus isolation in embryonating chicken eggs was conducted to determine if viable virus was present. Each sample was also tested by real-time RT-PCR. Low pathogenicity AIV was inactivated at 1day at 26.7°C or above. At 10.0, 15.6 and 21.1°C, inactivation times increased to 2-5days. Highly pathogenic AIV followed a similar trend; the virus was inactivated after 1day at 43.3°C and 32.2°C, and required 2 and 5days for inactivation at 21.1°C and 10.0°C respectively. While low pathogenicity AIV appeared to be inactivated at a lower temperature than high pathogenicity AIV, this was not due to any difference in the strains, but due to fewer temperature points being evaluated for high pathogenicity. Endpoints for detection by real-time RT-PCR were not found even weeks after the virus was inactivated. This provides a guideline for the time required, at specific temperatures to inactivate AIV in poultry litter and likely on surfaces within the house. Heat treatment will provide an added level of safety to personnel and against further spread by eliminating infectious virus prior to cleaning a house.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher B Stephens
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Erica Spackman
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Athens, GA, USA.
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Lone NA, Spackman E, Kapczynski D. Immunologic evaluation of 10 different adjuvants for use in vaccines for chickens against highly pathogenic avian influenza virus. Vaccine 2017; 35:3401-3408. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2017.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2017] [Revised: 04/17/2017] [Accepted: 05/03/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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Pantin-Jackwood MJ, Stephens CB, Bertran K, Swayne DE, Spackman E. The pathogenesis of H7N8 low and highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses from the United States 2016 outbreak in chickens, turkeys and mallards. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0177265. [PMID: 28481948 PMCID: PMC5421793 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0177265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2017] [Accepted: 04/25/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
In January 2016, a combined outbreak of highly pathogenic (HP) avian influenza virus (AIV) and low pathogenicity (LP) AIV occurred in commercial turkeys in the state of Indiana, United States. Genetically, the viruses were highly similar, belonged to the North American wild bird lineage, and had not been previously detected in poultry. In order to understand the pathobiology of the H7N8 LPAIV and HPAIV, infectivity, transmission and pathogenicity studies were conducted in chickens, turkeys, and mallards. Among the three species the lowest mean infectious dose for both the LP and HP phenotype was for turkeys, and also disease from the LPAIV was only observed with turkeys. Furthermore, although the HPAIV was lethal for both chickens and turkeys, clinical signs caused by the HPAIV isolate differed between the two species; neurological signs were only observed in turkeys. Mallards could be infected with and transmit both viruses to contacts, but neither caused clinical disease. Interestingly, with all three species, the mean infectious dose of the HP isolate was at least ten times lower than that of the LP isolate. This study corroborates the high susceptibility of turkeys to AIV as well as a pathobiology that is different from chickens. Further, this study demonstrates that mallards can be asymptomatically infected with HP and LP AIV from gallinaceous poultry and may not just be involved in transmitting AIV to them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary J. Pantin-Jackwood
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Athens, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Christopher B. Stephens
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Athens, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Kateri Bertran
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Athens, Georgia, United States of America
| | - David E. Swayne
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Athens, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Erica Spackman
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Athens, Georgia, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Spackman E, Pantin-Jackwood MJ, Kapczynski DR, Swayne DE, Suarez DL. H5N2 Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza Viruses from the US 2014-2015 outbreak have an unusually long pre-clinical period in turkeys. BMC Vet Res 2016; 12:260. [PMID: 27876034 PMCID: PMC5120423 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-016-0890-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2016] [Accepted: 11/17/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Background From December 2014 through June 2015, the US experienced the most costly highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) outbreak to date. Most cases in commercial poultry were caused by an H5N2 strain which was a reassortant with 5 Eurasian lineage genes, including a clade 2.3.4.4 goose/Guangdong/1996 lineage hemagglutinin, and 3 genes from North American wild waterfowl low pathogenicity avian influenza viruses. The outbreak primarily affected turkeys and table-egg layer type chickens. Three isolates were selected for characterization in turkeys: the US index isolate from December 2014 (A/northern pintail/WA/40964/2014), and two poultry isolates from April 2015 (A/chicken/IA/13388/2015 and A/turkey/MN/12528/2015). Results Four week old broad-breasted white turkeys were inoculated with one of three doses (102, 104 or 106 50% egg infectious doses [EID50] per bird) of each of the isolates to evaluate infectious dose and pathogenesis. The mean bird infectious dose of A/northern pintail/WA/40964/2014 and A/turkey/MN/12528/2015 was 105 EID50 per bird, but was 103 EID50 per bird for A/chicken/IA/13388/2015, suggesting the latter had greater adaptation to gallinaceous birds. All three isolates had unusually long mean death time of 5.3–5.9 days post challenge, and the primary clinical signs were severe lethargy and neurological signs which started no more than 24 h before death (the average pre-clinical period was 4 days). Infected turkeys also shed high levels of virus by both the oropharyngeal and cloacal routes. Conclusions The unusually long mean death times, high levels of virus in feces, and increased adaptation of the later viruses may have contributed to the rapid spread of the virus during the peak of the outbreak.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erica Spackman
- Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, USDA-Agricultural Research Service, 934 College Station Rd, Athens, GA, 30605, USA.
| | - Mary J Pantin-Jackwood
- Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, USDA-Agricultural Research Service, 934 College Station Rd, Athens, GA, 30605, USA
| | - Darrell R Kapczynski
- Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, USDA-Agricultural Research Service, 934 College Station Rd, Athens, GA, 30605, USA
| | - David E Swayne
- Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, USDA-Agricultural Research Service, 934 College Station Rd, Athens, GA, 30605, USA
| | - David L Suarez
- Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, USDA-Agricultural Research Service, 934 College Station Rd, Athens, GA, 30605, USA
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Bertran K, Lee DH, Balzli C, Pantin-Jackwood MJ, Spackman E, Swayne DE. Age is not a determinant factor in susceptibility of broilers to H5N2 clade 2.3.4.4 high pathogenicity avian influenza virus. Vet Res 2016; 47:116. [PMID: 27871330 PMCID: PMC5117617 DOI: 10.1186/s13567-016-0401-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2016] [Accepted: 11/02/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
In 2014–2015, the US experienced an unprecedented outbreak of H5 clade 2.3.4.4 highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) virus. The H5N2 HPAI virus outbreak in the Midwest in 2015 affected commercial turkey and layer farms, but not broiler farms. To assess any potential genetic resistance of broilers and/or age-related effects, we investigated the pathogenesis and transmission of A/turkey/Minnesota/12582/2015 (H5N2) (Tk/MN/15) virus in commercial 5-week-old broilers, 8-week-old broilers, and >30-week-old broiler breeders. The mean bird lethal dose (BLD50) was 5.0 log10 mean egg infectious dose (EID50) for all age groups. The mean death time (MDT) was statistically not different among the three age groups, ranging between 3.2 and 4.8 days. All broilers that became infected shed high levels of virus with transmission to contacts and demonstrated severe pathology. Mortality and virus shedding results indicated that age is not a determinant factor in susceptibility of broilers to H5N2 clade 2.3.4.4 HPAI virus. Previously, the Tk/MN/15 virus had a BLD50 of 3.6 log10 EID50 and MDT of 2 days in White Leghorn chickens and a BLD50 of 5.0 log10 EID50 and MDT of 5.9 days in turkeys, suggesting that the broiler breed is less susceptible to Midwestern H5N2 virus than the layer breed but similarly susceptible to turkeys. Therefore, genetic resistance of broilers to infection may have accounted only partially for the lack of affected broiler farms in the Midwestern outbreaks, with other contributing factors such as fewer outside to on farm exposure to contacts, type of production management system or enhanced biosecurity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kateri Bertran
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Research Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, US National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, US Department of Agriculture, 934 College Station Rd, Athens, GA, 30605, USA
| | - Dong-Hun Lee
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Research Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, US National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, US Department of Agriculture, 934 College Station Rd, Athens, GA, 30605, USA
| | - Charles Balzli
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Research Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, US National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, US Department of Agriculture, 934 College Station Rd, Athens, GA, 30605, USA
| | - Mary J Pantin-Jackwood
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Research Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, US National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, US Department of Agriculture, 934 College Station Rd, Athens, GA, 30605, USA
| | - Erica Spackman
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Research Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, US National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, US Department of Agriculture, 934 College Station Rd, Athens, GA, 30605, USA
| | - David E Swayne
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Research Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, US National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, US Department of Agriculture, 934 College Station Rd, Athens, GA, 30605, USA.
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Pantin-Jackwood MJ, Costa-Hurtado M, Shepherd E, DeJesus E, Smith D, Spackman E, Kapczynski DR, Suarez DL, Stallknecht DE, Swayne DE. Pathogenicity and Transmission of H5 and H7 Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza Viruses in Mallards. J Virol 2016; 90:9967-9982. [PMID: 27558429 PMCID: PMC5068544 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01165-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2016] [Accepted: 08/19/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Wild aquatic birds have been associated with the intercontinental spread of H5 subtype highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) viruses of the A/goose/Guangdong/1/96 (Gs/GD) lineage during 2005, 2010, and 2014, but dispersion by wild waterfowl has not been implicated with spread of other HPAI viruses. To better understand why Gs/GD H5 HPAI viruses infect and transmit more efficiently in waterfowl than other HPAI viruses, groups of mallard ducks were challenged with one of 14 different H5 and H7 HPAI viruses, including a Gs/GD lineage H5N1 (clade 2.2) virus from Mongolia, part of the 2005 dispersion, and the H5N8 and H5N2 index HPAI viruses (clade 2.3.4.4) from the United States, part of the 2014 dispersion. All virus-inoculated ducks and contact exposed ducks became infected and shed moderate to high titers of the viruses, with the exception that mallards were resistant to Ck/Pennsylvania/83 and Ck/Queretaro/95 H5N2 HPAI virus infection. Clinical signs were only observed in ducks challenged with the H5N1 2005 virus, which all died, and with the H5N8 and H5N2 2014 viruses, which had decreased weight gain and fever. These three viruses were also shed in higher titers by the ducks, which could facilitate virus transmission and spread. This study highlights the possible role of wild waterfowl in the spread of HPAI viruses. IMPORTANCE The spread of H5 subtype highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) viruses of the Gs/GD lineage by migratory waterfowl is a serious concern for animal and public health. H5 and H7 HPAI viruses are considered to be adapted to gallinaceous species (chickens, turkeys, quail, etc.) and less likely to infect and transmit in wild ducks. In order to understand why this is different with certain Gs/GD lineage H5 HPAI viruses, we compared the pathogenicity and transmission of several H5 and H7 HPAI viruses from previous poultry outbreaks to Gs/GD lineage H5 viruses, including H5N1 (clade 2.2), H5N8 and H5N2 (clade 2.3.4.4) viruses, in mallards as a representative wild duck species. Surprisingly, most HPAI viruses examined in this study replicated well and transmitted among mallards; however, the three Gs/GD lineage H5 HPAI viruses replicated to higher titers, which could explain the transmission of these viruses in susceptible wild duck populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary J Pantin-Jackwood
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Athens, Georgia, USA
| | - Mar Costa-Hurtado
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Athens, Georgia, USA
| | - Eric Shepherd
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Athens, Georgia, USA
| | - Eric DeJesus
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Athens, Georgia, USA
| | - Diane Smith
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Athens, Georgia, USA
| | - Erica Spackman
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Athens, Georgia, USA
| | - Darrell R Kapczynski
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Athens, Georgia, USA
| | - David L Suarez
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Athens, Georgia, USA
| | - David E Stallknecht
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, The University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA
| | - David E Swayne
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Athens, Georgia, USA
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Bevins SN, Dusek RJ, White CL, Gidlewski T, Bodenstein B, Mansfield KG, DeBruyn P, Kraege D, Rowan E, Gillin C, Thomas B, Chandler S, Baroch J, Schmit B, Grady MJ, Miller RS, Drew ML, Stopak S, Zscheile B, Bennett J, Sengl J, Brady C, Ip HS, Spackman E, Killian ML, Torchetti MK, Sleeman JM, Deliberto TJ. Widespread detection of highly pathogenic H5 influenza viruses in wild birds from the Pacific Flyway of the United States. Sci Rep 2016; 6:28980. [PMID: 27381241 PMCID: PMC4933915 DOI: 10.1038/srep28980] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2016] [Accepted: 06/08/2016] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
A novel highly pathogenic avian influenza virus belonging to the H5 clade 2.3.4.4 variant viruses was detected in North America in late 2014. Motivated by the identification of these viruses in domestic poultry in Canada, an intensive study was initiated to conduct highly pathogenic avian influenza surveillance in wild birds in the Pacific Flyway of the United States. A total of 4,729 hunter-harvested wild birds were sampled and highly pathogenic avian influenza virus was detected in 1.3% (n = 63). Three H5 clade 2.3.4.4 subtypes were isolated from wild birds, H5N2, H5N8, and H5N1, representing the wholly Eurasian lineage H5N8 and two novel reassortant viruses. Testing of 150 additional wild birds during avian morbidity and mortality investigations in Washington yielded 10 (6.7%) additional highly pathogenic avian influenza isolates (H5N8 = 3 and H5N2 = 7). The geographically widespread detection of these viruses in apparently healthy wild waterfowl suggest that the H5 clade 2.3.4.4 variant viruses may behave similarly in this taxonomic group whereby many waterfowl species are susceptible to infection but do not demonstrate obvious clinical disease. Despite these findings in wild waterfowl, mortality has been documented for some wild bird species and losses in US domestic poultry during the first half of 2015 were unprecedented.
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Affiliation(s)
- S N Bevins
- US Department of Agriculture-National Wildlife Research Center, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA
| | - R J Dusek
- US Geological Survey-National Wildlife Health Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - C L White
- US Geological Survey-National Wildlife Health Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - T Gidlewski
- US Department of Agriculture-National Wildlife Research Center, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA
| | - B Bodenstein
- US Geological Survey-National Wildlife Health Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - K G Mansfield
- Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife, Olympia, Washington, USA
| | - P DeBruyn
- Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife, Olympia, Washington, USA
| | - D Kraege
- Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife, Olympia, Washington, USA
| | - E Rowan
- Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife, Olympia, Washington, USA
| | - C Gillin
- Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife, Corvallis, Oregon, USA
| | - B Thomas
- USDA Wildlife Services, Salem, Oregon, USA
| | - S Chandler
- USDA Wildlife Services, Sacramento, California, USA
| | - J Baroch
- US Department of Agriculture-National Wildlife Research Center, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA
| | - B Schmit
- US Department of Agriculture-National Wildlife Research Center, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA
| | - M J Grady
- US Department of Agriculture-National Wildlife Research Center, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA
| | - R S Miller
- USDA Veterinary Services, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA
| | - M L Drew
- Idaho Department of Fish and Game, Caldwell, Idaho, USA
| | - S Stopak
- USDA Wildlife Services, Boise, Idaho, USA
| | - B Zscheile
- USDA Wildlife Services, Salt Lake City, Utah, USA
| | - J Bennett
- USDA Wildlife Services, Reno, Nevada, USA
| | - J Sengl
- USDA Wildlife Services, Reno, Nevada, USA
| | - Caroline Brady
- California Waterfowl Association, Roseville, California, USA
| | - H S Ip
- US Geological Survey-National Wildlife Health Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - E Spackman
- USDA ARS Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, Athens, Georgia, USA
| | - M L Killian
- US Department of Agriculture, Ames, Iowa, USA
| | | | - J M Sleeman
- US Geological Survey-National Wildlife Health Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - T J Deliberto
- US Department of Agriculture-National Wildlife Research Center, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA
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Richt JA, Lager KM, Clouser DF, Spackman E, Suarez DL, Yoon KJ. Real–Time Reverse Transcription–Polymerase Chain Reaction Assays for the Detection and Differentiation of North American Swine Influenza Viruses. J Vet Diagn Invest 2016; 16:367-73. [PMID: 15460317 DOI: 10.1177/104063870401600501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Swine influenza is an acute respiratory disease of swine caused by type A influenza viruses. Before 1998, mainly “classical” H1N1 swine influenza viruses (SIVs) were isolated from swine in the United States. Since then, antigenically distinct reassortant H3 and H1 SIVs have been identified as causative agents of respiratory disease in pigs on US farms. Improvement in SIV diagnostics is needed in light of the recently observed rapid evolution of H1 and H3 SIVs and their zoonotic potential. To address this need, real-time reverse transcription–polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) assays for the detection of SIVs were developed. A highly sensitive matrix (M) gene–based RT-PCR assay that is able to detect both the H1 and H3 subtypes of SIVs, with a sensitivity per reaction of approximately 2 copies of in vitro–generated M-specific negative-sense RNA molecules and approximately 0.05 TCID50 in lung lavage of experimentally SIV-infected pigs, was established. This RT-PCR assay can be performed within a few hours and showed a sensitivity of 94% and a specificity of 85% when compared with virus isolation. In addition, H1-, H3-, N1-, and N2-specific primer and probe sets were designed for use in the differentiation of different SIV subtypes. The hemagglutinin (H)- and neuraminidase (N)-specific primer and probe sets were less sensitive than the M-specific assay, although they were found to be specific for their respective viral genes and able to distinguish between their respective SIV subtypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jürgen A Richt
- Virus and Prion Diseases of Livestock Research Unit, National Animal Disease Center, USDA Agricultural Research Service, Ames, IA 50010, USA
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45
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Spackman E, Suarez DL. Use of a Novel Virus Inactivation Method for a Multicenter Avian Influenza Real-Time Reverse Transcriptase—Polymerase Chain Reaction Proficiency Study. J Vet Diagn Invest 2016; 17:76-80. [PMID: 15690958 DOI: 10.1177/104063870501700117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Proficiency assessments are important elements in quality control for diagnostic laboratories. Traditionally, proficiency testing for polymerase chain reaction (PCR)–based assays has involved the use of clinical samples, samples “spiked” with live agents or DNA plasmids. Because of government regulations and biosecurity concerns, distribution of live high-consequence pathogens of livestock and poultry, such as avian influenza, is not possible, and DNA plasmids are not technically suitable for evaluating RNA virus detection. Therefore, a proficiency testing panel using whole avian influenza in a diluent containing a phenolic disinfectant that inactivates the virus while preserving the RNA for at least 8 weeks at −70 C was developed and used in a multicenter proficiency assessment for a type A influenza real-time reverse transcriptase (RT)–PCR test. The test, which was highly standardized, except for variation in the real-time RT-PCR equipment used, was shown to be highly reproducible by proficiency testing in 12 laboratories in the United States, Canada, and Hong Kong. Variation in cycle threshold values among 35 data sets and 490 samples was minimal (CV = 5.19%), and sample identifications were highly accurate (96.7% correct identifications) regardless of real-time PCR instrumentation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erica Spackman
- Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, USDA-ARS, Athens, GA 30605, USA
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46
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Sylte MJ, Torchetti MK, Killian ML, Spackman E, Pantin-Jackwood MJ, Kapczynski DR, Suarez DL, Swayne DE. Efficacy of H5 subunit vaccines to protect poultry against highly pathogenic North American H5N2 avian influenza virus. The Journal of Immunology 2016. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.196.supp.216.9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
Between December 2014 and June 2015, North America experienced the H5 highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) epizootic, the largest recorded animal disease outbreak to date where over 48 million commercial poultry (e.g., chickens and turkeys) were euthanized or died from viral exposure. Soon after the epizootic began, the U.S. Department of Agriculture began testing the efficacy of different vaccines as a possible future control strategy. It was unknown whether heterologous H5 vaccines would affect infection and shedding of HPAI H5 virus in experimentally infected commercial chickens and turkeys. Three vaccine technologies were evaluated for efficacy: 1) inactivated reverse genetic laboratory-generated low pathogenicity avian influenza (LPAI) H5 virus encoding H5 hemagglutinin (HA) gene (rgH5), 2) recombinant turkey herpes virus encoding H5 HA (rHVT-H5), and 3) recombinant replication-deficient alphavirus RNA particle vaccine encoding H5 HA (RP-H5). Among all experiments, the rgH5 vaccine (clade 2.3.4.4) gave the best results in preventing mortality and reducing shedding of the North American clade 2.3.4.4 HPAI H5N2 challenge virus in chickens and turkeys. The rHVT-H5 (Clade 2.2) and RP-H5 (clade 2.3.4.4) were most efficacious as a priming vaccine, followed by booster vaccinations with rgH5-inactivated or RP-H5. Heterologous prime (rHVT-H5) and boosting (RP-H5) provided 100% protection in turkeys challenged with HPAI H5N2, whereas a single dose of RP-H5 provided partial protection. Results of these studies led to the conditional approval for RP-H5 vaccine use in poultry as a control measure for future H5 HPAI outbreaks.
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Bertran K, Swayne DE, Pantin-Jackwood MJ, Kapczynski DR, Spackman E, Suarez DL. Lack of chicken adaptation of newly emergent Eurasian H5N8 and reassortant H5N2 high pathogenicity avian influenza viruses in the U.S. is consistent with restricted poultry outbreaks in the Pacific flyway during 2014-2015. Virology 2016; 494:190-7. [PMID: 27110710 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2016.04.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2016] [Revised: 04/13/2016] [Accepted: 04/15/2016] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
In 2014-2015, the U.S. experienced an unprecedented outbreak of Eurasian clade 2.3.4.4 H5 highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) virus, initially affecting mainly wild birds and few backyard and commercial poultry premises. To better model the outbreak, the pathogenesis and transmission dynamics of representative Eurasian H5N8 and reassortant H5N2 clade 2.3.4.4 HPAI viruses detected early in the North American outbreak were investigated in chickens. High mean chicken infectious doses and lack of seroconversion in survivors indicated the viruses were poorly chicken adapted. Pathobiological features were consistent with HPAI virus infection, although the delayed appearance of lesions, longer mean death times, and reduced replication in endothelial cells differed from features of most other Eurasian H5N1 HPAI viruses. Although these initial U.S. H5 HPAI viruses had reduced adaptation and transmissibility in chickens, multi-generational passage in poultry could generate poultry adapted viruses with higher infectivity and transmissibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kateri Bertran
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Research Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 934 College Station Rd, 30605 Athens, GA, USA.
| | - David E Swayne
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Research Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 934 College Station Rd, 30605 Athens, GA, USA.
| | - Mary J Pantin-Jackwood
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Research Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 934 College Station Rd, 30605 Athens, GA, USA.
| | - Darrell R Kapczynski
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Research Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 934 College Station Rd, 30605 Athens, GA, USA.
| | - Erica Spackman
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Research Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 934 College Station Rd, 30605 Athens, GA, USA.
| | - David L Suarez
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Research Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 934 College Station Rd, 30605 Athens, GA, USA.
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48
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Abstract
The movement of highly pathogenic avian influenza (H5N8) virus across Eurasia and into North America and the virus' propensity to reassort with co-circulating low pathogenicity viruses raise concerns among poultry producers, wildlife biologists, aviculturists, and public health personnel worldwide. Surveillance, modeling, and experimental research will provide the knowledge required for intelligent policy and management decisions.
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49
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Weaver JT, Malladi S, Spackman E, Swayne DE. Risk Reduction Modeling of High Pathogenicity Avian Influenza Virus Titers in Nonpasteurized Liquid Egg Obtained from Infected but Undetected Chicken Flocks. Risk Anal 2015; 35:2057-2068. [PMID: 25867713 DOI: 10.1111/risa.12374] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Control of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) outbreaks in poultry has traditionally involved the establishment of disease containment zones, where poultry products are only permitted to move from within a zone under permit. Nonpasteurized liquid egg (NPLE) is one such commodity for which movements may be permitted, considering inactivation of HPAI virus via pasteurization. Active surveillance testing at the flock level, using targeted matrix gene real-time reversed transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction testing (RRT-PCR) has been incorporated into HPAI emergency response plans as the primary on-farm diagnostic test procedure to detect HPAI in poultry and is considered to be a key risk mitigation measure. To inform decisions regarding the potential movement of NPLE to a pasteurization facility, average HPAI virus concentrations in NPLE produced from a HPAI virus infected, but undetected, commercial table-egg-layer flock were estimated for three HPAI virus strains using quantitative simulation models. Pasteurization under newly proposed international design standards (5 log10 reduction) is predicted to inactivate HPAI virus in NPLE to a very low concentration of less than 1 embryo infectious dose (EID)50 /mL, considering the predicted virus titers in NPLE from a table-egg flock under active surveillance. Dilution of HPAI virus from contaminated eggs in eggs from the same flock, and in a 40,000 lb tanker-truck load of NPLE containing eggs from disease-free flocks was also considered. Risk assessment can be useful in the evaluation of commodity-specific risk mitigation measures to facilitate safe trade in animal products from countries experiencing outbreaks of highly transmissible animal diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Todd Weaver
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Veterinary Services, Science Technology and Analysis Services, Center for Epidemiology and Animal Health, Natural Resources Research Center, Bldg. B MS-2W4, 2150 Centre, Avenue, Fort Collins, CO 80526, USA
| | - Sasidhar Malladi
- Center for Animal Health and Food Safety, University of Minnesota, 136 Andrew Boss Laboratory, 1354 Eckles Avenue, St. Paul, MN, 55108, USA
| | - Erica Spackman
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, 934 College Station Road, Athens, GA, 30605, USA
| | - David E Swayne
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, 934 College Station Road, Athens, GA, 30605, USA
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50
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Costa-Hurtado M, Afonso CL, Miller PJ, Shepherd E, Cha RM, Smith D, Spackman E, Kapczynski DR, Suarez DL, Swayne DE, Pantin-Jackwood MJ. Previous infection with virulent strains of Newcastle disease virus reduces highly pathogenic avian influenza virus replication, disease, and mortality in chickens. Vet Res 2015; 46:97. [PMID: 26394750 PMCID: PMC4579609 DOI: 10.1186/s13567-015-0237-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2015] [Accepted: 08/06/2015] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Highly pathogenic avian influenza virus (HPAIV) and Newcastle disease virus (NDV) are two of the most important viruses affecting poultry worldwide and produce co-infections especially in areas of the world where both viruses are endemic; but little is known about the interactions between these two viruses. The objective of this study was to determine if co-infection with NDV affects HPAIV replication in chickens. Only infections with virulent NDV strains (mesogenic Pigeon/1984 or velogenic CA/2002), and not a lentogenic NDV strain (LaSota), interfered with the replication of HPAIV A/chicken/Queretaro/14588-19/95 (H5N2) when the H5N2 was given at a high dose (106.9 EID50) two days after the NDV inoculation, but despite this interference, mortality was still observed. However, chickens infected with the less virulent mesogenic NDV Pigeon/1984 strain three days prior to being infected with a lower dose (105.3–5.5 EID50) of the same or a different HPAIV, A/chicken/Jalisco/CPA-12283-12/2012 (H7N3), had reduced HPAIV replication and increased survival rates. In conclusion, previous infection of chickens with virulent NDV strains can reduce HPAIV replication, and consequently disease and mortality. This interference depends on the titer of the viruses used, the virulence of the NDV, and the timing of the infections. The information obtained from these studies helps to understand the possible interactions and outcomes of infection (disease and virus shedding) when HPAIV and NDV co-infect chickens in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mar Costa-Hurtado
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, United States National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Athens, GA, USA.
| | - Claudio L Afonso
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, United States National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Athens, GA, USA.
| | - Patti J Miller
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, United States National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Athens, GA, USA.
| | - Eric Shepherd
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, United States National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Athens, GA, USA.
| | - Ra Mi Cha
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, United States National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Athens, GA, USA.
| | - Diane Smith
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, United States National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Athens, GA, USA.
| | - Erica Spackman
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, United States National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Athens, GA, USA.
| | - Darrell R Kapczynski
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, United States National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Athens, GA, USA.
| | - David L Suarez
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, United States National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Athens, GA, USA.
| | - David E Swayne
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, United States National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Athens, GA, USA.
| | - Mary J Pantin-Jackwood
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, United States National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Athens, GA, USA.
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