Implications of childhood adversity for women's perinatal sleep quality and depressive symptoms over time: A serial mediation model

This study sought to examine the effects of childhood adversity on the longitudinal associations between perinatal sleep quality and depressive symptoms, and to determine the prospective associations between these constructs over time. A cross-lagged autoregressive model was used to examine the longitudinal association between sleep quality and depressive symptoms at four points during the perinatal period: 18 and 32 weeks of pregnancy, and 6 and 12 weeks postpartum. Longitudinal mediation models were used to examine whether sleep quality or depressive symptoms mediated the effects of childhood adversity on these symptoms. Most participants (86%) reported poor sleep quality during pregnancy. Significant cross-lagged effects of depressive symptoms on subsequent sleep quality were observed during pregnancy and postpartum. Depressive symptoms significantly mediated the effects of childhood trauma on sleep quality during pregnancy, but sleep quality did not significantly mediate the effects of childhood trauma on depressive symptoms. While sleep quality and depressive symptoms tend to co-occur, our analyses indicate that perinatal depressive symptoms work as the primary driver of sleep quality over time. Childhood adversity may have long-reaching effects in women as it was associated with more depressive symptoms in the perinatal period, which in turn appeared to undermine sleep quality.

Interactions between poor sleep and negative social cognition pose risk for lower maternal sensitivity

The extent to which mother and infant sleep predict maternal sensitivity as (a) main effects and (b) moderate the association between social cognition about infant crying (i.e., cry processing) and maternal sensitivity was examined in a sample of 299 mother-infant dyads (43% of mothers non-White; 50.5% of infants female). Infant- and mother-oriented cry processing were assessed prenatally using a video recall procedure and mothers self-reported demographics and characteristics reflecting emotional risk. When infants were 2 months old, mothers reported their depressive symptoms and mother and infant sleep. Maternal sensitivity and infant negative mood were observed during free play and the still face. There were no main effects of mother or infant sleep on maternal sensitivity over and above covariates. However, infant total sleep duration across night and day and mother sleep disturbance moderated the effect of mother-oriented cry processing on sensitivity. Specifically, mother-oriented cry processing was associated with lower maternal sensitivity only among mothers whose infants had lower sleep duration and who reported more sleep disturbances. Moderating effects were not apparent for infant night wakings or time awake or mothers' total sleep problems. Constrained opportunities for sleep or respite across the entire day and the totality of mothers' nighttime sleep disturbances, not just those specific to infants' night wakings, undermine maternal sensitivity by exacerbating mothers' preexisting tendency to have self-focused and negative reactions to infant distress. The efficacy of interventions designed to facilitate maternal sensitivity and infant adjustment may be enhanced by adding targeted foci on maternal and infant sleep. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Primiparous mothers' parenting self-efficacy in managing toddler distress: Childhood nonsupportive emotion socialization, adult attachment style, and toddler temperament as antecedents

Early maternal sensitivity to child distress is predictive of child subsequent social-emotional adjustment. A mother's global parenting self-efficacy shapes her adaptive responses to child challenging behaviors (e.g., negative emotions). However, little is known about the antecedents of maternal self-efficacy in managing child distress. Using longitudinal data from a diverse sample of 259 primiparous mothers and their toddlers, we tested a model predicting maternal self-efficacy in managing toddler distress. Mothers' remembered childhood experiences of maternal nonsupportive emotional socialization were positively associated with their self-reports of attachment avoidance and anxiety. Furthermore, a negative link between mothers' self-reports of attachment avoidance and their self-efficacy in managing toddler distress was identified when toddlers displayed higher negative affect. Most importantly, a conditional indirect pathway was found. That is, only when toddlers displayed higher negative affect, mothers' remembered early experiences of maternal nonsupportive emotional socialization were negatively associated with their self-efficacy in managing toddler distress through a positive association with their self-reports of attachment avoidance. Although maternal attachment assessed with Adult Attachment Interview was also included in analyses as a parallel mediator to self-reported attachment, no relevant effects emerged. These results suggest that by disrupting attachment development, parents' early emotion socialization experiences hold long-standing implications for their subsequent confidence in managing child distress. Child distress as a threatening, attachment-related stimulus may contextualize such effects via interfering with the operation of caregiving system, especially for avoidant parents. Such findings may inform the designs of more targeted interventions to assist first-time mothers in navigating emotionally evocative challenges during toddlerhood. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Associations among eating behaviors, food security status, and dietary intake during pregnancy

Dietary intake of certain food groups and/or nutrients during pregnancy has been associated with maternal and infant pregnancy-related outcomes. Few studies have examined how behavioral and environmental factors interact to influence prenatal diet. We examined associations between eating behaviors (dietary restraint, emotional eating, external eating) and food security status regarding dietary intake of selected nutrients/food groups during pregnancy. Participants (N = 299; 29% Non-Hispanic Black; 16% ≤ high school education; 21% food insecure) completed validated questionnaires to assess estimated daily intake of food groups/nutrients during pregnancy [e.g., added sugars from sugar-sweetened beverages (SSBs), % of energy from fat, fruit and vegetable (FV) intake] via National Cancer Institute Dietary Screener Questionnaires); eating behaviors (Dutch Eating Behavior Questionnaire); and food security status (6-item USDA Food security Module). Separate hierarchical multiple regressions for each dietary outcome were conducted controlling for maternal age, education, income-to-needs, race/ethnicity, pre-pregnancy BMI, and gestational diabetes. A significant interaction was found between dietary restraint and food security status on added sugar intake from SSBs (β = -0.15, p = 0.02). The negative association between restraint and added sugar from SSBs was stronger among food insecure participants (β = -0.47, p < 0.001 vs. β = -0.15, p = 0.03). Higher external eating (β = 0.21, p < 0.01) and lower restraint (β = -0.13, p = 0.03) were associated with higher % of energy from fat and living in a food insecure household (β = -0.15, p = 0.01) was associated with lower FV intake. Understanding dietary intake during pregnancy requires consideration of the broader context in which eating behaviors occur.

Component-specific developmental trajectories of ERP indices of cognitive control in early childhood

Early childhood is characterized by robust developmental changes in cognitive control. However, our understanding of intra-individual change in neural indices of cognitive control during this period remains limited. Here, we examined developmental changes in event-related potential (ERP) indices of cognitive control from preschool through first grade, in a large and diverse sample of children (N = 257). We recorded ERPs during a visual Go/No-Go task. N2 and P3b mean amplitudes were extracted from the observed waveforms (Go and No-Go) and the difference wave (No-Go minus Go, or ∆). Latent growth curve modeling revealed that while N2 Go and No-Go amplitudes showed no linear change, P3b Go and No-Go amplitudes displayed linear decreases in magnitude (became less positive) over time. ∆N2 amplitude demonstrated a linear increase in magnitude (became more negative) over time whereas ∆P3b amplitude was more positive in kindergarten compared to preschool. Younger age in preschool predicted greater rates of change in ∆N2 amplitude, and higher maternal education predicted larger initial P3b Go and No-Go amplitudes in preschool. Our findings suggest that observed waveforms and difference waves are not interchangeable for indexing neurodevelopment, and the developmental trajectories of different ERP indices of cognitive control are component-specific in early childhood.

Origins and development of maternal self-efficacy in emotion-related parenting during the transition to parenthood: Toward an integrative process framework beyond Bandura's model

For new mothers, coping with infant distress is challenging. Mothers' self-efficacy in emotion-related parenting plays critical roles in shaping their adaptation and children's development. Research on antecedents of maternal parenting self-efficacy has been predominantly based on the global self-efficacy theory outlined by Bandura in the 1970s. Despite the utility of Bandura's theory, subsequent research on emotion-related parenting has highlighted avenues for extending and adapting his model to more adequately elucidate the cognitive, affective, and behavioral processes underlying the development of maternal emotion-related parenting self-efficacy. In view of the basic and applied value of a clearer account of how new mothers' emotion-related parenting self-efficacy emerges and evolves, the increasing amount of research on this topic, and the absence of syntheses of extant studies, we reviewed relevant literature. First, constructs and propositions in prevailing theoretical perspectives are examined for their utility to elucidate the development of new mothers' emotion-related parenting self-efficacy, particularly the implicated cognitive, affective, and behavioral mechanisms and how they work together. Second, a framework is outlined that integrates strengths of various theories to delineate processes underlying the emergence and evolution of new mothers' emotion-related parenting self-efficacy. Third, findings across disparate studies are summarized to provide a foundation for the offered framework. To better inform future research, we demonstrated how to build testable mid-range models with substantive constructs and hypotheses from the proposed framework through deductive theorizing process. We also evaluated the utility of the proposed model for studying new fathers. Last, implications for future research and practice are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Racial Identification as a Protective Factor for At-Risk Parenting in Black Parents: A Longitudinal, Multi-Method Investigation

Although considerable literature focuses on risk factors predicting parents' likelihood to engage in maltreatment, relatively less work evaluates potentially protective parental resources, particularly culturally relevant qualities. The current investigation utilized a multi-method longitudinal study to examine parents' racial identification as a possible resource, hypothesizing that Black parents with stronger racial group identification would demonstrate lower at-risk parenting, operationalized as lower child abuse risk and less negative observed parenting. In a sample of 359 mothers and fathers (half self-identified Black, half non-Hispanic White), controlling for socioeconomic status, findings partially supported the hypothesis. Black parents' greater racial identification was associated with lower child abuse risk and less observed negative parenting, whereas the reverse was true for White parents. The potential limitations of current assessment approaches to gauge at-risk parenting in parents of color are discussed, as well as how racial identification could be considered in culturally informed prevention programming for at-risk parenting.

Childhood maltreatment predicts maternal sensitivity to distress: Negative attributions during the transition to parenthood

Childhood maltreatment is a predictor of subsequent parenting behaviors; however, the mechanisms explaining this association have been understudied. The present study examined the indirect effect of childhood maltreatment on maternal sensitivity to distress via (a) emotion regulation difficulties, (b) negative attributions about infant crying, (c) minimizing attributions about infant crying, and (d) situational attributions about infant crying. The sample included 259 primiparous mothers (131 Black and 128 White) and their 6-month-old infants (52% female). Mothers retrospectively reported on their childhood history of maltreatment when their infants were about 2 years old. Emotion regulation difficulties and causal attributions about infant crying were assessed prenatally. Maternal sensitivity to distress was rated during three distress-eliciting tasks when children were 6 months old. Results from the structural equation model demonstrated that maternal childhood maltreatment was significantly positively associated with negative attributions about infant crying but not with emotion regulation difficulties, minimizing attributions, or situational attributions about crying. Furthermore, negative attributions about crying were associated with lower sensitivity to distress, and there was an indirect effect of childhood maltreatment on sensitivity to distress via negative attributions about infant distress. These effects were significant above and beyond the effects of coherence of mind, concurrent depressive symptoms, infant affect, maternal age, race, education, marital status, and income-to-needs ratio. The results suggest that altering negative attributions about infant crying may be an important area to intervene during the prenatal period to reduce continuity in maladaptive parenting across generations. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Transactional associations between infant negative emotionality and maternal sensitivity: Maternal emotion dysregulation as a moderator

The relations between maternal sensitivity and infant negative emotionality have been tested extensively in the previous literature. However, the extent to which these associations reflect unidirectional or bidirectional effects over time remains somewhat uncertain. Further, the possibility that maternal characteristics moderate the extent to which infant negative emotionality predicts maternal sensitivity over time has yet to be tested in cross-lag models. The goal of the present study is to address these gaps. First time mothers (N = 259; 50% White; 50% Black) and their infants participated when infants were 6, 14, and 26 months of age. Infant negative emotionality was assessed via maternal report and direct observation during standardized laboratory tasks, which were subsequently combined to yield a multimethod measure at each wave. Maternal sensitivity was observationally coded at each wave and mothers self-reported emotion dysregulation at 6 and 14 months. A random intercepts cross-lagged model with maternal emotion dysregulation specified as a moderator revealed that infant negative emotionality at 6 months was negatively associated with maternal sensitivity at 14 months, but only among mothers higher in emotion dysregulation. Higher maternal sensitivity was in turn associated with lower infant negative emotionality when infants were 26 months of age. The indirect pathway was significant, lending support for the transactional model. Implications for future research and prevention/intervention are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Childhood Adversity Predicts Maternal Pre-Pregnancy BMI but not Gestational Weight Gain

INTRODUCTION

Obesity and excessive weight gain during pregnancy have lasting implications for both women and infant health. Adverse childhood experiences and stressful life events have been associated with pre-pregnancy obesity and excessive gestational weight gain. However, the effect of each has been examined independently and scant work has investigated the effects of both in the same analysis. The current study examined the unique and conjoint effects of adverse childhood experiences and recent stressful life events on women's pre-pregnancy BMI and gestational weight gain.

METHODS

A racially and socioeconomically diverse sample of 176 pregnant women completed questionnaires and anthropometric measurements during the third trimester and two months postpartum.

RESULTS

Maternal adverse childhood experiences were uniquely associated with pre-pregnancy BMI (β = 0.21, p = .02), but not gestational weight gain. Recent stressful life events did not uniquely predict pre-pregnancy BMI or gestational weight gain, nor did it explain the association between adverse childhood experiences and pre-pregnancy BMI. Adverse childhood experiences and recent stressful life events did not interact to predict either of the women's weight outcomes.

DISCUSSION

Adverse childhood experiences have lasting unique effects on women's pre-pregnancy BMI. Obesity is related to several perinatal health issues for the mother and child, thus understanding the effects of childhood adversity on women's weight outcomes is critical. Routine screening for ACEs among women of childbearing age and pregnant women, paired with referrals and educational resources, can mitigate the deleterious effects of childhood adversity on women and infant health.

Interactive effects of maternal physiological arousal and regulation on maternal sensitivity: Replication and extension in an independent sample

This study examined the extent to which mothers' physiological arousal (i.e., skin conductance level [SCL] augmentation) and regulation (i.e., respiratory sinus arrhythmia [RSA] withdrawal) interacted to predict subsequent maternal sensitivity. Mothers' (N = 176) SCL and RSA were measured prenatally during a resting baseline and while watching videos of crying infants. Maternal sensitivity was observed during a free-play task and the still-face paradigm when their infants were 2 months old. The results demonstrated that higher SCL augmentation but not RSA withdrawal predicted more sensitive maternal behaviors as a main effect. Additionally, SCL augmentation and RSA withdrawal interacted, such that well-regulated maternal arousal was associated with greater maternal sensitivity at 2 months. Further, the interaction between SCL and RSA was only significant for the negative dimensions of maternal behavior used to derive the measure of maternal sensitivity (i.e., detachment and negative regard) suggesting that well-regulated arousal is particularly important for inhibiting the tendency to engage in negative maternal behaviors. The results replicate findings from mothers in previous studies and demonstrate that the interactive effects of SCL and RSA in relation to parenting outcomes are not sample specific. Considering joint effects of physiological responding across multiple biological systems may enhance understanding of the antecedents of sensitive maternal behavior.

Longitudinal Associations Among Food Insecurity During Pregnancy, Parental Mental Health Symptoms, Controlling Feeding Styles, and Infant Food Responsiveness

BACKGROUND

Research is needed to identify pathways by which household food insecurity (FI) contributes to parental controlling feeding styles and infant food responsiveness, 2 factors that play a role in shaping obesity risk across infancy and early childhood.

OBJECTIVES

This longitudinal study tested the hypothesis that prenatal FI would be positively associated with higher infant food responsiveness via greater parental mental health symptomatology and controlling feeding styles (pressuring, restrictive).

METHODS

Participants included a community sample of 170 birth parents and their infants participating in an ongoing longitudinal study. Parents self-reported household FI and mental health symptoms (depression and anxiety) during pregnancy. Postnatally, parents reported their mental health symptoms, their use of controlling feeding styles, and infant food responsiveness. Path analyses with bias-corrected 95% bootstrapped CIs tested direct and indirect associations between prenatal FI and infant food responsiveness.

RESULTS

Prenatal FI was indirectly associated with higher infant food responsiveness via greater parental mental health symptomatology and pressuring to finish (b = 0.01; 95% CI: 0.001, 0.025). Prenatal FI was associated with greater parental mental health symptomatology across the peripartum period (β = 0.54; P < 0.001), which in turn was associated with more pressuring to finish at 2 months pospartum (β = 0.29; P = 0.01) and higher infant food responsiveness at 6 months (β = 0.17; P = 0.04). There were no direct effects of prenatal FI on controlling feedings styles or infant food responsiveness.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings point to parental mental health as a potential pathway by which FI may be associated with obesity-promoting parental feeding styles and infant appetitive behaviors. In addition to ensuring reliable access to enough quality food during pregnancy, multipronged assistance that promotes emotional well-being during the peripartum period and clinical guidance on noncontrolling feeding styles could benefit parent and infant health and well-being.

Racial Disparities in Neighborhood and Household Socioeconomic Disadvantage Predict Postpartum Weight Retention

Introduction

Structural racism leads to neighborhood-level socioeconomic disadvantage, which determines adverse birth outcomes. Individual socioeconomic disadvantage is associated with compromised healthy pregnancy outcomes. This study aimed to investigate the pathways by which race, neighborhood socioeconomic disadvantage, and household socioeconomic disadvantage predict subsequent maternal postpartum weight retention.

Method

A total of 176 (N=176) racially diverse women were studied from the third trimester to 6 months after delivery. Neighborhood socioeconomic disadvantage was defined by information from the American Community Survey based on women's census tract and self-reports of neighborhood healthy food availability, safety, violence, and walking environment. Household socioeconomic disadvantage included food insecurity, income-to-needs ratio, and maternal education. Pregnancy health risk was operationalized using a summative index that included prepregnancy overweight/obesity, excessive gestational weight gain, and diagnosed hypertensive disorders during pregnancy. Postpartum weight retention was operationalized as a 6-month postpartum weight minus prepregnancy weight. Data were analyzed using structural equation modeling with bootstrapped CIs to estimate indirect effects.

Results

One third of participants retained more than 22 lbs. of pregnancy weight gain 6 months after delivery. Increased household socioeconomic disadvantage (β=0.64, p=0.039) and pregnancy health risk (β=0.34, p=0.002) were directly associated with higher postpartum weight retention. Maternal race/ethnicity had an indirect impact on postpartum weight retention through neighborhood socioeconomic disadvantage and household socioeconomic disadvantage. Non-Hispanic Black women had greater neighborhood socioeconomic disadvantage than non-Hispanic White women (White vs Black β= -0.62; p<0.001) and all other women (other vs Black β= -0.22; p=0.013). In addition, Black women had greater household socioeconomic disadvantage than White women (White vs Black β= -0.35; p=0.004), both of which in turn predicted higher postpartum weight retention.

Conclusions

To prevent postpartum weight retention, education on behavior change to lose weight is essential, but it must be offered in the context of basic resources, at both the neighborhood and household levels.

Bidirectional associations between maternal controlling feeding and food responsiveness during infancy

Parental controlling feeding styles and practices have been associated with greater food-approaching appetitive behaviors (i.e., food responsiveness) linked to childhood obesity. Recent longitudinal research suggests that this relationship may be reciprocal such that controlling feeding predicts child appetite and vice versa. However, to date no studies have considered these associations during infancy. The current study investigates prospective bidirectional associations between controlling feeding (restriction, pressure, and food to soothe) and infant food responsiveness. Mothers (N = 176) reported their controlling feeding and their infant's food responsiveness at infant age 2, 6, and 14 months. A 3-wave cross-lagged panel model was used to test the effect of controlling feeding at an earlier time point on infant food responsiveness at a later time point, and vice versa. Maternal controlling feeding and infant food responsiveness showed moderate stability across infancy. Net of covariates, we observed parent-driven prospective relations between pressuring feeding styles and food to soothe with infant food responsiveness. Pressuring to finish was a significant predictor of increases in food responsiveness from 2 to 6 months (p = 0.004) and pressuring with cereal was a significant predictor of increases in food responsiveness from 6 to 14 months (p = 0.02). Greater use of situational food to soothe was marginally associated with higher food responsiveness from 2 to 6 months (p = 0.07) and 6 to 14 months (p = 0.06). Prospective associations between restrictive feeding styles and infant food responsiveness were not observed. Findings point to pressuring feeding styles and food to soothe as potential early life intervention targets to prevent increases in food responsiveness in infancy. Longitudinal research with follow-up in the toddler and preschool years are needed to understand how these associations unfold over time and whether child-driven effects of food responsiveness become apparent as children get older.

Autonomic profiles and self-regulation outcomes in early childhood

This study examined autonomic profiles in preschoolers (N = 278, age = 4.7 years) and their relations to self-regulation outcomes concurrently and one year later, in kindergarten. Children's sympathetic (preejection period [PEP]) and parasympathetic activity (respiratory sinus arrythmia [RSA]) were measured at rest and during cognitive and emotional tasks. Three self-regulatory competencies were assessed: executive functions, emotion regulation and behavioral regulation. Executive functioning was measured at ages 4 and 5 using laboratory tasks designed to assess updating/working memory, inhibitory control, and cognitive flexibility. Emotion regulation was observed during emotionally distressing tasks in the laboratory, both at ages 4 and 5. Behavioral regulation and emotional reactivity were assessed via teacher ratings in kindergarten, at age 5. Latent profile analysis yielded four autonomic profiles: moderate parasympathetic inhibition (45%), reciprocal sympathetic activation (26%), coinhibition (25%), and high sympathetic activation (7%). The reciprocal sympathetic activation group showed better executive functioning in preschool and kindergarten, particularly compared to the high sympathetic activation group. The moderate parasympathetic inhibition group showed lower emotional reactivity and better behavioral regulation in kindergarten, compared to the other three groups. Findings suggest that autonomic profiles meaningfully associate with self-regulation outcomes in early childhood, such that certain profiles relate to better self-regulation than others.

Infant appetite and weight gain in early infancy: Moderating effects of controlling feeding styles

Excessive infant weight gain is a strong predictor of later obesity. While controlling feeding has been linked to negative weight outcomes, research has not considered associations between infant appetite and maternal feeding simultaneously in relation to infant weight. This longitudinal study examined infant food responsiveness and slowness in eating as predictors of infant weight outcomes and tested controlling feeding styles (restrictive and pressuring) as moderators. Data came from a diverse sample of mothers and their infants participating in an ongoing longitudinal study. Mothers (n = 159) reported infant appetite and feeding styles at 2 postnatal timepoints (2-month visits and 6-month visits). The infant weight outcomes included change in weight-for-age z-scores (WAZ-change) and rapid weight gain (RIWG; WAZ-change ≥ 0.67 SD) from birth to the second postnatal visit. Data were analyzed using hierarchical multiple and logistic regressions, controlling for birthweight, gestational age, maternal race/ethnicity, feeding mode, and residing with an intimate partner. Over 25% of infants exhibited RIWG. Greater infant food responsiveness predicted both greater infant weight gain and RIWG status. Infant food responsiveness and slowness in eating interacted with controlling feeding styles in a unique way. Infants with higher food responsiveness whose mothers were less restrictive had greater weight gain (b = 0.61, p < 0.001) and increased probability of RIWG (b = 2.71, p < 0.01) than infants with more restrictive mothers. Higher slowness in eating was associated with a lower RIWG probability among infants of mothers with lower pressuring feeding (b = -1.86, p < 0.05). For infants with a large appetite, some level of restrictive feeding may be beneficial for preventing excessive weight gain while pressuring may exacerbate the positive association between faster eating and RIWG.

Women's Social Well-Being During Pregnancy: Adverse Childhood Experiences and Recent Life Events

BACKGROUND

Adverse experiences during childhood and recent stressful life events are each associated with women's reduced well-being and poorer health during pregnancy. Few studies, however, have focused upon pregnant women's social well-being, and inclusion of both independent variables in the same analysis is rare. This study focuses upon adverse experiences during childhood as well as recent life events in relationship to four aspects of social well-being: social support, couple aggression for partnered women, neighborhood safety, and food insecurity.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A diverse community sample of 176 pregnant women completed questionnaires during their third trimester. A cross-sectional design was used that included retrospective reports of childhood experiences, as well as reports of recent life events and current well-being.

RESULTS

Adverse experiences during childhood were uniquely associated with couple aggression (β = 0.206, p = 0.026) and lower neighborhood safety (β = -0.185, p = 0.021). Recent stressful life events were uniquely associated with lower social support (β = -0.247, p = 0.001) and greater food insecurity (β = 0.494, p = 0.000). For social support and food insecurity, there was a significant indirect pathway from adverse childhood experiences through recent stressful life events. Adverse child experiences and recent stressful life events did not interact.

CONCLUSIONS

A life-course perspective that considers women's experiences across their life span is critical for use by both researchers and health practitioners. Adverse childhood experiences and recent stressful life events are important for understanding social features of pregnant women's daily lives.

Mothers' preparation for bias and responses to children's distress predict positive adjustment among Black children: an attachment perspective

Traditional conceptualizations of maternal sensitivity overlook the adaptive function of some parenting behaviors. This study examined mothers' preparation for bias, suppression responses, and supportive responses to their Black children's distress as indicators of secure base provision at age five and predictors of children's age six emotional and behavioral self-regulation. Participants included 91 Black children (52% female) and their mothers. Results indicated a significant 3-way interaction such that mothers' preparation for bias predicted children's greater self-regulation when mothers reported high support and moderate suppression in response to children's distress, b = .40, p < .001. Preparation for bias predicted children's lower self-regulation when mothers were highly supportive yet low on suppression responses to distress, b = -.31, p < .01. Attachment researchers should consider evaluating caregiving behaviors traditionally deemed insensitive (e.g. parental suppression) through the lens of serving an adaptive function within a complex system of protective practices among Black families.

A comprehensive model of women's social cognition and responsiveness to infant crying: Integrating personality, emotion, executive function, and sleep

Disparate lines of research suggest that women's (a) emotion regulation and personality, (b) executive function and (c) sleep may be important predictors of mothers' cry responding in part through their effects on social cognition. However, the extent to which each contributes to cry responding independently remains unknown. We examined this question in a convenience sample of 109 nulliparous undergraduate women. Women completed online surveys to assess personality and emotion dysregulation traits, then visited the lab for a testing session during which they reported on sleep the night before and reactions to videotapes of crying infants and completed computerized working memory and inhibitory control tasks under challenging noise conditions (exposure to traffic and cry sounds). Results indicate that women's positive personality and higher working memory were associated with higher levels of infant-oriented cry processing (i.e., accurate distress detection, empathy and situational/emotional attributions about distress), which in turn was associated with higher intended responsiveness to infant crying. Emotion dysregulation and deficits in inhibitory control were associated with higher levels of self-oriented cry processing (i.e., anger, anxiety, negative and emotion minimizing attributions in response to infant distress), which in turn was associated with lower cry responsiveness. Short-term sleep deprivation was associated with lower intended responsiveness via the above path from poorer inhibitory control to heightened self-oriented cry processing. Findings suggest that sleep, emotional and cognitive factors are associated with cry processing and subsequent responsiveness independent of one another.

The etiology of maternal postpartum depressive symptoms: Childhood emotional maltreatment, couple relationship satisfaction, and genes

There is a call for integrative studies examining the roles of biological and psychosocial factors and their interrelations in shaping maternal postpartum psychopathology. Using longitudinal data from 198 primiparous mothers, we tested a biopsychosocial model for the etiology of maternal postpartum depressive symptoms that integrated childhood emotional maltreatment, couple relationship satisfaction, and oxytocin and dopamine D4 receptor genes (i.e., OXTR rs53576 and DRD4). Results indicate (a) two indirect effects from childhood emotional maltreatment and DRD4 to depressive symptoms at 1 year postpartum through couple relationship satisfaction at 6 months postpartum; (b) an interactive effect between DRD4 and couple relationship satisfaction at 6 months postpartum in predicting depressive symptoms at 1 year postpartum, which is in concert with the differential susceptibility hypotheses; and (c) no mediating effects or moderating effects (after adjusting for multiple testing with Bonferroni correction) involving OXTR rs53576. Notably, all associations were identified after controlling for several key covariates (e.g., maternal prenatal depressive symptoms). Last, robustness of the currently identified interactive effect involving DRD4 was demonstrated by an extensive set of additional analyses considering the effects of rGE, G × Covariates, and/or E × Covariates. Taken altogether, this study represents one of the initial efforts for a more sophisticated portrayal of how nature and nurture forces may work in conjunction with each other to shape new mothers' psychopathology. Yet given the current modest sample size and candidate gene approach, our findings are preliminary, should be cautiously interpreted, and need to be replicated with more rigorous designs. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Testosterone Associations With Parents' Child Abuse Risk and At-Risk Parenting: A Multimethod Longitudinal Examination

The current investigation considered salivary testosterone as a potential biomarker of physical child abuse risk. Parents enrolled in a prospective, longitudinal, multimethod study beginning prenatally provided saliva when their toddlers were 18 months old. Mothers and fathers self-reported on their empathy, frustration tolerance, and child abuse risk, as well as completing analog tasks of frustration intolerance and child abuse risk and participating in structured parent-child interactions. In contrast to mothers, fathers' higher testosterone levels were associated with increased child abuse risk, less observed positive parenting, more observed negative parenting, and an analog task of frustration intolerance; such findings were reflected across time. Further, fathers' socioeconomic status moderated the association between testosterone levels and abuse risk. No evidence of partner effects was observed in dyadic analyses. The current findings suggest that higher testosterone levels reflect an increased likelihood that paternal physically abusive behavior may be expressed.

Protocol for iGrow (Infant Growth and Development Study): biopsychosocial predictors of childhood obesity risk at 2 years

Background

Childhood obesity remains a significant public health problem. To date, most research on the causes and correlates of obesity has focused on a small number of direct predictors of obesity rather than testing complex models that address the multifactorial nature of the origins of obesity in early development. We describe the rationale and methods of iGrow (Infant Growth and Development Study) which will test multiple pathways by which (a) prenatal maternal psychobiological risk predicts infant weight gain over the first 6 months of life, and (b) this early weight gain confers risk for obesity at age 2. Infant hormonal and psychobiological risk are proposed mediators from prenatal risk to early weight gain, though these are moderated by early maternal sensitivity and obesogenic feeding practices. In addition, higher maternal sensitivity and lower obesogenic feeding practices are proposed predictors of adaptive child self-regulation in the second year of life, and all three are proposed to buffer/reduce the association between high early infant weight gain and obesity risk at age 2.

Methods

iGrow is a prospective, longitudinal community-based study of 300 diverse mothers and infants to be followed across 5 data waves from pregnancy until children are age 2. Key measures include (a) maternal reports of demographics, stress, well-being, feeding practices and child characteristics and health; (b) direct observation of maternal and infant behavior during feeding, play, and distress-eliciting tasks during which infant heart rate is recorded to derive measures of vagal withdrawal; (c) anthropometric measures of mothers and infants; and (d) assays of maternal prenatal blood and infant saliva and urine. A host of demographic and other potential confounds will be considered as potential covariates in structural equation models that include tests of mediation and moderation. Efforts to mitigate the deleterious effects of COVID-19 on study success are detailed.

Discussion

This study has the potential to inform (1) basic science about early life processes casually related to childhood obesity and (2) development of targeted intervention and prevention approaches that consider mother, infant, and family risks and resources.

Maternal Personality Predicts Insensitive Parenting: Effects through Causal Attributions about Infant Distress

The association between parent personality and parenting has been established in the literature; however, the mechanisms explaining this relationship remain poorly understood. In the current study, we examined associations between maternal personality and maternal insensitive behaviors through causal attributions about infant distress. Primiparous mothers (N = 259) reported maternal personality during the third trimester of pregnancy. Mothers and 6-month-old infants were videotaped during distress eliciting tasks and mothers' causal attributions were assessed using a video recall method. Maternal unresponsiveness and negativity were coded. Maternal neuroticism was indirectly associated with more overtly negative maternal behaviors through negative attributions, whereas agreeableness was directly associated with fewer unresponsive maternal behaviors. Additionally, mothers who made more situational attributions engaged in fewer unresponsive behaviors. Results suggest maternal personality and causal attributions play an important role in maternal behavior in distressing contexts. Directions for intervention, parent education, and future research are discussed.

Childhood emotional maltreatment and couple functioning among women across transition to parenthood: A process model

Research on the implications of childhood emotional maltreatment for later romantic relationship well-being has been accumulating. More efforts are needed to systematically delineate the etiological chains of the more proximal processes explaining why childhood emotional maltreatment, as a more distal risk factor, might ultimately result in later romantic relationship malfunctioning. Using multiple-wave data from a diverse community sample of primiparous women across the transition to parenthood (N = 159), we conducted a process model in which adult attachment, emotion regulation difficulties, and depressive symptoms were examined as potential mediators for the associations between childhood emotional maltreatment and various aspects of later couple functioning. Results demonstrate that adult attachment anxiety played a key role in accounting for the associations between childhood emotional maltreatment and the negative aspects of later couple functioning (i.e., conflict and ambivalence) through its associations with emotion regulation difficulties and depressive symptoms. In contrast, adult attachment avoidance more directly mediated the associations between childhood emotional maltreatment and the positive dimensions of later couple functioning (i.e., love and maintenance), without other intervening mediators. Overall, the currently identified risk chains contribute to a more nuanced understanding of the mechanisms via which childhood emotional maltreatment shapes later romantic relationship functioning and also help clinicians specify potential targets for effective interventions aimed at diminishing the detrimental consequences of childhood emotional maltreatment for later intimate relationship well-being. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

The intergenerational transmission of emotion socialization

We examined the extent to which new mothers' recollections of their mothers' emotion socialization practices during childhood predict sensitive/supportive responses to their own toddlers in distressing situations both directly and indirectly via effects on mothers' social information processing about infant cry signals. Mothers' adult attachment was tested as a possible moderator and we tested model invariance across racial groups. These questions were assessed using a 3-wave longitudinal study of first-time mothers (131 African American, 128 European American) followed from pregnancy until children were 14 months old. Expectant mothers were administered the Adult Attachment Interview and self-report measures of remembered childhood emotion socialization. When infants were 6 months old, mothers' cry processing was assessed using a video-recall method in which they watched videos of their interactions with their infants during distress tasks and reported on their emotions and cognitions during the interaction. Maternal sensitivity to distress at 14 months was assessed via observed maternal sensitivity during distress tasks and mothers' self-reported responses to child distress. Consistent with prediction, mothers who recalled their own mothers as high on nonsupportive responses to their distress in childhood engaged in more self-focused and negative cry processing at 6 months, which in turn predicted less supportive responding to their toddlers in distressing situations. This indirect effect was statistically significant. These effects were not moderated by adult attachment coherence. The full model was invariant across racial groups. Thus, remembered childhood emotion socialization experiences have longstanding consequences for subsequent social behavior, including parenting the next generation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Mothers' self-reported emotion dysregulation: A potentially valid method in the field of infant mental health

In the current study, we evaluated the extent to which mothers reported emotion dysregulation on the Difficulties with Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (DERS) (a) converged with physiological indices of emotion dysregulation while parenting, (b) correlated with maternal sensitivity, and (c) predicted infant attachment disorganization and behavior problems in a sample of 259 mothers and their infants. When infants were 6 months old, mothers' physiological arousal and regulation were measured during parenting tasks and mothers completed the DERS. Maternal sensitivity was observed during distress-eliciting tasks when infants were 6 and 14 months old. Infant attachment disorganization was assessed during the Strange Situation when infants were 14 months old and mothers reported on infants' behavior problems when infants were 27 months old. Mothers who reported greater emotion regulation difficulties were more physiologically dysregulated during stressful parenting tasks and also showed lower levels of maternal sensitivity at 6 months. Mother-reported dysregulation predicted higher likelihood of infant attachment disorganization and more behavior problems. Results suggest that the DERS is a valid measure of maternal emotional dysregulation and may be a useful tool for future research and intervention efforts aimed toward promoting positive parenting and early child adjustment.

Autonomic nervous system functioning in early childhood: Responses to cognitive and negatively valenced emotional challenges

Although autonomic nervous system (ANS) functioning is "context-dependent," few studies examined children's normative sympathetic and parasympathetic autonomic responses to distinct challenges in early childhood years. Examining children's ANS responsivity to distinct challenges is important for understanding normative autonomic responses toward everyday life stressors and identifying paradigms that effectively elicit a "stress response." We examined children's (N = 278) sympathetic (preejection period [PEP]) and parasympathetic (respiratory sinus arrhythmia [RSA]) responses to cognitive (i.e., problem-solving and cognitive control) and negatively valenced emotional (i.e., blocked goal and unfairness) challenges in preschool, kindergarten, and grade 1. Children, on average, demonstrated parasympathetic inhibition (RSA withdrawal) in response to all challenges but the magnitude of these responses depended on the task. Children showed sympathetic activation (PEP shortening) toward the problem-solving task at each assessment and there was no sample-level change in the magnitude of this response over time. Children showed greater sympathetic responsivity toward the cognitive control task over time, with evidence for a sympathetic activation response only in grade 1. Children experienced sympathetic inhibition (PEP lengthening) toward the unfairness tasks but did not experience significant sympathetic responsivity toward the blocked goal tasks. Parasympathetic responsivity to most challenges were modestly stable but there was no stability in sympathetic responsivity across time.

The My Emotions Questionnaire: A self-report of mothers' emotional responses to infant crying

The purpose of this article was to examine the psychometrics of the My Emotions Questionnaire, a self-report designed to assess mothers' emotional reactions when their infants cry. Participants were 240 first-time mothers. When infants were 6 months and 1 year old, mothers completed the new questionnaire and measures assessing beliefs and behavioral responses to infant crying, and interview-based measures of mothers' emotional reactions and causal attributions about crying were administered. Maternal sensitivity and negative behaviors were observed when infants were 6 months and 1 and 2 years old. Mothers reported on their discipline practices when children were 2 years old. Five emotion factors emerged based on exploratory factor analysis (EFA) of the 6-month data: Amusement, Anxiety, Frustration, Sympathy, and Protective. The five-factor structure was supported via a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) of the 1-year data. All scales demonstrated adequate internal consistency reliability and significant stability from 6 months to 1 year. Amusement, Frustration, and Protectiveness demonstrated the best convergent validity with cry cognitions and predictive validity to parenting measures, followed by Anxiety, although effects tended to be small to moderate. Evidence for the validity of Sympathy was less compelling. The potential utility of the questionnaire for basic and applied research is discussed.

Associations between maternal physiology and maternal sensitivity vary depending on infant distress and emotion context

Individual differences in maternal sensitivity to infant distress were examined by testing whether mothers' physiological responses interacted to predict sensitivity differently in a fear task relative to an anger task, and based on the level of distress displayed by the infant. Mothers' (N = 208) physiological arousal (skin conductance level [SCL] arousal) and physiological regulation (respiratory sinus arrhythmia [RSA] withdrawal/augmentation) were measured during a baseline task and while interacting with their 1-year-old infants during tasks that elicited infant fear and infant anger. Infant negative affect and maternal sensitivity were assessed during these interactions, and mothers later reported on their perceptions of infant distress during the tasks. Results indicated that the mother SCL arousal × RSA change interaction predicted sensitivity only with infants who displayed higher distress, and in a different pattern across tasks. In the fear task, for mothers of infants displaying higher distress, SCL arousal related to greater sensitivity only for mothers who displayed RSA withdrawal. In the anger task, for mothers of infants displaying higher distress, SCL arousal related to greater sensitivity only for mothers who displayed RSA augmentation. Further, although infants displayed similar levels of distress in each task, maternal SCL arousal, sensitivity, and perceptions of distress differed across tasks. These results suggest that contextual cues and infant distress cues both contribute to associations between mothers' physiological responses and maternal sensitivity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Individual Differences in Maternal, Marital, Parenting and Child Outcomes Following Perinatal Loss: A Longitudinal Study

Objective: To examine the impact of past perinatal loss on mothers and children in a community sample and to consider maternal race and adult attachment status as moderators.Background: Prior perinatal loss has been shown to impact subsequent maternal parenting and child outcomes, but findings have been inconsistent particularly in minority mothers and samples not chosen due to perinatal loss history.Methods: Participants were 204 first-time mothers from a longitudinal study about predictors of sensitivity. Mothers completed the Adult Attachment Interview prenatally and reported on depressive symptoms and marital satisfaction prenatally and at 6 months and 1 year postpartum. Maternal sensitivity was observed at 6 months and 1 year, and infant-mother attachment security was assessed via the Strange Situation when children were 1 year old. Mothers reported on their reproductive history and current attitudes about the target child during the preschool period.Results: Fifty-eight (28.43%) mothers had a history of prior perinatal loss. Between group analysis revealed no differences based on perinatal loss and no moderation by maternal race or adult attachment. However, within the loss group, mothers who experienced losses later in the gestational period had less positive feelings about parenting and their children had less secure attachments to them; and mothers who had more perinatal losses had higher depressive symptoms at 1 year postpartum and less positive attitudes about parenting independent of race and SES.Conclusion: In the circumstance of multiple and later perinatal losses maternal well-being and child outcomes may be negatively impacted.

Attentional fluctuations in preschoolers: Direct and indirect relations with task accuracy, academic readiness, and school performance

Attentional control fluctuates in the presence of internal and external distractors, wandering on and off a given task. The current study investigated individual differences in attentional fluctuations in 250 preschoolers. Attentional fluctuations were assessed via intra-individual variability in response time in a Go/No-Go task. Greater fluctuations in attentional control were linked to lower task accuracy. In addition, greater attentional fluctuations predicted lower performance in a task of cognitive flexibility, the Dimensional Change Card Sort task. Attentional fluctuations were also associated with laboratory measures of academic readiness in preschool, as assessed by the Applied Problems and Letter-Word Identification subscales of the Woodcock-Johnson III Tests of Achievement, which in turn predicted teacher reports of academic performance in first grade. Attentional fluctuations also had indirect associations with emergent math skills in preschool, via cognitive flexibility, as well as indirect associations with first-grade teacher reports of academic performance, via the relations between cognitive flexibility and emergent math skills in preschool. These results suggest that consistency is an important aspect of attentional control during early childhood.

Maternal emotional support but not cognitive support during problem-solving predicts increases in cognitive flexibility in early childhood

Cognitive flexibility is a sophisticated form of executive functions that predicts a range of adaptive outcomes; however, little is known about which caregiving behaviors predict the rapid improvements in children’s cognitive flexibility during early childhood. This study examined whether ordinary variations in mothers’ provision of emotional and cognitive support during problem-solving predict children’s cognitive flexibility and tested whether children’s cognitive flexibility predicts caregiving behaviors across time. Two hundred and seventy-eight children and their caregivers (96% mothers) participated in laboratory visits when children were in preschool, kindergarten, and first grade. At each visit, cognitive flexibility was measured via a computerized version of the Dimensional Change Card Sort task and mothers’ behaviors were observed during a semi-structured problem-solving board game task. Results from autoregressive cross-lagged structural regression analyses indicated that mothers’ emotional support predicted greater child cognitive flexibility from preschool to kindergarten, and from kindergarten to first grade, after accounting for the stability in these constructs over time and controlling for the influence of maternal education, and child age and minority status. Mothers’ cognitive support did not predict child cognitive flexibility over time. Child cognitive flexibility did not lead to changes in caregiving behaviors over time. Findings suggest that mothers’ provision of emotional support during problem-solving may be an important proximal mechanism that contributes to children’s cognitive flexibility across early childhood.

Longitudinal associations between conflict monitoring and emergent academic skills: An event-related potentials study

Identifying the links between specific cognitive functions and emergent academic skills can help determine pathways to support both early academic performance and later academic achievement. Here, we investigated the longitudinal associations between a key aspect of cognitive control, conflict monitoring, and emergent academic skills from preschool through first grade, in a large sample of socioeconomically diverse children (N = 261). We recorded event-related potentials (ERPs) during a Go/No-Go task. The neural index of conflict monitoring, ΔN2, was defined as larger N2 mean amplitudes for No-Go versus Go trials. ΔN2 was observed over the right hemisphere across time points and showed developmental stability. Cross-lagged panel models revealed prospective links from ΔN2 to later math performance, but not reading performance. Specifically, larger ΔN2 at preschool predicted higher kindergarten math performance, and larger ΔN2 at kindergarten predicted higher first-grade math performance, above and beyond the behavioral performance in the Go/No-Go task. Early academic skills did not predict later ΔN2. These findings provided electrophysiological evidence for the contribution of conflict monitoring abilities to emergent math skills. In addition, our findings suggested that neural indices of cognitive control can provide additional information in predicting emergent math skills, above and beyond behavioral task performance.

Maternal sensitivity to distress and attachment outcomes: Interactions with sensitivity to nondistress and infant temperament

The extent to which maternal sensitivity to infant distress predicts specific attachment outcomes independent of and in conjunction with maternal sensitivity to infant nondistress and in conjunction with infant-negative emotionality was examined in a sample of 259 mother-infant dyads. Maternal sensitivity to infant distress and nondistress was observed in a series of distress-eliciting tasks when infants were 6 months and 1-year-old. Mothers rated infant-negative emotionality at 6 months. Infant-mother attachment was observed during the "strange situation" (Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters, & Wall, 1978) at 1 year. Four attachment outcomes were considered: the dichotomous security/insecurity classification, avoidant and resistant behaviors across both reunion episodes, and a single rating for disorganized behavior. Maternal sensitivity to distress and nondistress at 1 year were treated as covariates. Sensitivity to distress and nondistress at 6 months and 1 year did not predict more adaptive attachment outcomes as main effects. However, sensitivity to distress and nondistress at 6 months interacted significantly in relation to avoidance, such that sensitivity to nondistress was significantly associated with higher avoidance when sensitivity to distress was low, but not when sensitivity to distress was high. Furthermore, sensitivity to distress at 6 months interacted with infant-negative emotionality in relation to security and both resistant and disorganized behaviors, such that sensitivity to distress was positively associated with security and negatively associated with resistant and disorganized behaviors only among infants who were high on mother-reported negative emotionality. Implications for future research and intervention are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record

DRD4 interacts with adverse life events in predicting maternal sensitivity via emotion regulation

We examined whether and how the dopamine receptor D4 (DRD4) interacts with adverse life events to predict maternal sensitivity directly and indirectly via emotion regulation. The sample included 209 (106 European American, 103 African American) mothers and their children (52% female). Sensitive maternal behavior was rated and aggregated across five stress-free and stress-inducing tasks when children were about 2 years old, when mothers also retrospectively reported on their adverse life experiences and transitions throughout childhood from birth to age 20. When children were about 1 year old, mothers reported on their difficulties with emotion regulation. Results from path analysis indicated that mothers who carried the long allele of DRD4 and experienced more adverse life events were less sensitive in interactions with their children. These mothers were also more likely to have difficulties with emotion regulation, which in turn predicted lower maternal sensitivity. These effects were significant above and beyond the effects of maternal education, coherence of mind, race, or infants' DRD4 genotype, and did not vary for African American and European American mothers. Results suggest that genetic predispositions modify the effects of maternal experience of adverse life events on maternal sensitivity and that emotion regulation serves as one mechanism by which genetic factors and gene-environment interactions affect maternal behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record

Maternal behavior predicts neural underpinnings of inhibitory control in preschoolers

Separate lines of research have revealed that the rapid development of inhibitory control in the preschool period is closely tied to normative brain development and influenced by early mother-child interactions. One potential theory is that maternal behavior in the context of early interactions influences the neural underpinnings of inhibitory control in development, with implications for child behavior. The purpose of this paper was to examine whether maternal emotional support, measured during a mother-child problem-solving game, predicted child neural responses (frontal-central N2 event-related potential) and behavioral performance (discrimination index, d') in a go/no-go task of inhibitory control in a large, diverse sample of mother-child dyads (N = 276) observed in children's last year of preschool (mean age = 56 months). Results of a structural equation model revealed significant direct effects from maternal emotional support to child right hemisphere frontal-central N2 responses to no-go (inhibitory control) trials; greater observed emotional support predicted larger N2 responses. Larger right hemisphere N2 responses to no-go trials were also associated with better overall observed task performance (d'). A test of indirect effects from maternal emotional support to child observed performance via right hemisphere N2 responses was significant, suggesting that underlying neurophysiology is one mechanism through which maternal emotional support is associated with a child's rapidly developing inhibitory control behavior in the preschool period. This work joins a growing literature demonstrating that caregiver behavior within a "normative" range is an important environmental factor contributing to the development of neural processes supporting child functioning.

Multiple domains of new mothers' adaptation: Interrelations and roots in childhood maternal nonsupportive emotion socialization

This study focused on the interrelations among different domains of maternal adaptation (i.e., emotion-regulation difficulties, depressive symptoms, and couple-relationship satisfaction) over the transition to parenthood and also their associations with mothers' recalled childhood maternal nonsupportive emotion socialization. Data were obtained from a socioeconomically and racially diverse sample of 196 primiparous mothers during the 3rd trimester of pregnancy and at 6 months postpartum. Results indicated that (a) mothers' adaptation in different domains had shared roots in their recalled childhood maternal nonsupportive emotion socialization; (b) maternal adaptation in various domains were interrelated with rather than independent of each other, and such associations were unidirectional rather than reciprocal (e.g., mothers' prenatal couple-relationship satisfaction was negatively associated with their depressive symptoms at 6 months postpartum rather than the reverse); and (c) mothers' adaptation in a given domain served as the mechanism via which their recalled childhood maternal nonsupportive emotion socialization shaped their adaptation in the other domains (e.g., mothers' recalled maternal nonsupportive emotion socialization was positively associated with their depressive symptoms at 6 months postpartum via its positive association with their prenatal emotion-regulation difficulties). These associations were independent of several critical covariates (e.g., child negative affect, maternal attachment). Such findings contribute to a more nuanced understanding of the complexity inherent within maternal adaptation over the transition to parenthood and highlight potential avenues for interventions aimed at promoting mothers' successful navigation of challenges over this transition. (PsycINFO Database Record

Relations between early maternal sensitivity and toddler self-regulation: Exploring variation by oxytocin and dopamine D2 receptor genes

Gene-by-environment interactions between maternal sensitivity during infancy and child oxytocin receptor gene (OXTR rs53576) and D2 dopamine receptor gene (DRD2 TaqIA, rs1822497) genotypes were explored as predictors of toddlers' well-regulated behavioral and physiological responses to maternal compliance demands. Maternal sensitivity was assessed across a range of mother-child interactions when children were 6 months and 1 year of age (N = 186), and toddler self-regulatory responses were assessed through compliance and vagal withdrawal during a toy clean-up task when children were 2 years of age. Sensitivity-by-OXTR interactions suggested two diathesis-stress patterns, predicting compliance for the GG genotype group, and predicting physiological regulation for the AA/AG genotype group. A main effect for DRD2 genotype indicated that children with an A1 allele displayed less-compliant behavior in toddlerhood. These results suggest that genetic differences may contribute to variation both in risk for self-regulatory difficulties, and in relations between maternal sensitivity and children's responses to compliance demands at different levels of analysis.

Examining pathways linking maternal depressive symptoms in infancy to children's behavior problems: The role of maternal unresponsiveness and negative behaviors

The extent to which maternal depressive symptoms in the first 6 months of life is linked with internalizing and externalizing behaviors in childhood through specific insensitive maternal behaviors (unresponsive and overtly negative behaviors) was examined in a sample of 259 mother-infant dyads. In addition, the extent to which these paths were moderated by infant negative emotionality was also examined. Maternal depressive symptoms were assessed prenatally and when infants were 6 months and 2 years old. Maternal unresponsive and overtly negative behaviors and infant negative emotionality were observed when infants were 6 months old. Mothers reported on infant's internalizing and externalizing behaviors when infants were 2 years old. Maternal depressive symptoms were directly associated with higher internalizing behaviors; this path was not mediated by maternal behaviors. Depressive symptoms were unrelated to externalizing symptoms. Infant negative emotionality did not moderate these effects, but was related positively to overtly negative maternal behaviors, and temperament interacted with maternal depressive symptoms to predict unresponsive maternal behaviors. Results suggest that early maternal depressive symptoms, infant negative emotionality, and negative maternal behavior pose risk for infants' later internalizing behaviors, but the proposed moderated mediation model was not supported.

Interparental conflict and infants' behavior problems: The mediating role of maternal sensitivity

Although the negative effect of interparental conflict on child behavior problems has been well established, few studies have examined this association during infancy. This study examined the associations between mother-reported interparental conflict and young children's behavior problems over the first 2 years of their lives in a sample of 212 mothers and infants. Two aspects of maternal sensitivity, sensitivity during distressing and nondistressing contexts, were examined as possible mediators between interparental conflict and infants' behavior problems. Results indicated that interparental conflict was associated directly with infants' externalizing problems over time but was associated indirectly with infants' internalizing problems over time via compromised maternal sensitivity within distressing contexts but not through maternal sensitivity within nondistressing contexts. No significant child gender differences were found. Such findings add to a limited body of research suggesting that the early interparental relationship context is relevant for infant adjustment. The salient mediating role of maternal sensitivity within distressing contexts provides important theoretical and practical insights for future studies. (PsycINFO Database Record

Interparental conflict and infants' behavior problems: The mediating role of maternal sensitivity

Although the negative effect of interparental conflict on child behavior problems has been well established, few studies have examined this association during infancy. This study examined the associations between mother-reported interparental conflict and young children's behavior problems over the first 2 years of their lives in a sample of 212 mothers and infants. Two aspects of maternal sensitivity, sensitivity during distressing and nondistressing contexts, were examined as possible mediators between interparental conflict and infants' behavior problems. Results indicated that interparental conflict was associated directly with infants' externalizing problems over time but was associated indirectly with infants' internalizing problems over time via compromised maternal sensitivity within distressing contexts but not through maternal sensitivity within nondistressing contexts. No significant child gender differences were found. Such findings add to a limited body of research suggesting that the early interparental relationship context is relevant for infant adjustment. The salient mediating role of maternal sensitivity within distressing contexts provides important theoretical and practical insights for future studies. (PsycINFO Database Record

Pathways from maternal effortful control to child self-regulation: The role of maternal emotional support

This study examined the direct and indirect pathways from maternal effortful control to 2 aspects of children's self-regulation-executive functioning and behavioral regulation-via maternal emotional support. Two hundred seventy-eight children and their primary caregivers (96% mothers) participated in laboratory visits when children were 4 and 5 years, and teachers reported on children's behavior at kindergarten. At the 4-year assessment, maternal effortful control was measured using the Adult Temperament Questionnaire (Evans & Rothbart, 2007) and maternal emotional support was observed during a semistructured mother-child problem-solving task. At the 5-year assessment, children's executive functioning was measured using laboratory tasks designed to assess updating/working memory, inhibitory control, and cognitive flexibility, whereas behavioral regulation was assessed via teacher-report questionnaires on children's attention control, discipline and persistence, and work habits. Results from structural equation modeling indicated that, after controlling for child gender and minority status, and maternal education, maternal effortful control was indirectly associated with both child executive functioning and behavioral regulation through maternal emotional support. Maternal effortful control had a direct association with children's teacher-reported behavioral regulation but not observed executive functioning. These findings suggest that maternal effortful control may be a key contributing factor to the development of children's self-regulatory competencies through its impact on maternal emotional support. (PsycINFO Database Record

Establishing the Measurement Invariance of the Very Short Form of the Infant Behavior Questionnaire Revised for Mothers Who Vary on Race and Poverty Status

We examined the measurement invariance of the Infant Behavior Questionnaire Revised-Very Short Form (IBQR-VSF; Putnam, Helbig, Gartstein, Rothbart, & Leerkes, 2014 ) in a sample of 470 racially (185 White, 285 African American) and socioeconomically diverse mothers (158 below federal poverty threshold, 296 above federal poverty threshold) of infants. Using multigroup confirmatory factor analysis, we demonstrated configural, full metric, and full scalar invariance demonstrating that the 3-factor structure (negative emotionality, positive affectivity/surgency, orienting/regulatory capacity), pattern of item loadings, and item means were comparable for White and African American mothers, and for poor and not poor mothers. In addition, we demonstrated full error invariance across racial groups and partial error variance invariance across poverty status, demonstrating that item reliability was comparable for White and African American mothers, and both those above and below the poverty line (with the exception of a subset of items). Thus, the IBQR-VSF appears appropriate for use in racially and socioeconomically diverse samples.

The role of sociodemographic risk and maternal behavior in the prediction of infant attachment disorganization

Predictors of infant attachment disorganization were examined among 203 primiparous mothers (52% European American, 48% African American) and their infants (104 female). The Strange Situation Procedure was administered at one year. Global maternal insensitivity and overtly negative maternal behavior were observed during distress-eliciting tasks when infants were six months and one year old. Mothers reported on their demographics to yield a measure of sociodemographic risk (i.e., age, education, income-to-needs). Overtly negative maternal behavior was positively associated with the infant attachment disorganization rating scale score, but did not predict being classified as disorganized. Global maternal insensitivity was associated with higher attachment disorganization, both the rating and the classification, when sociodemographic risk was high but not when sociodemographic risk was low. The pattern of results did not vary by maternal race. The results provide some support for the view that negative maternal behavior and the combination of sociodemographic risk and global maternal insensitivity play a role in the development of infant attachment disorganization.

Further evidence of the limited role of candidate genes in relation to infant-mother attachment outcomes

In this paper, we examine the associations between specific candidate genes (DRD2, DRD4, COMT, biallelic and tri-allelic 5HTTLPR, and OXTR) and infant attachment outcomes as main effects and in conjunction with maternal sensitivity. The sample included 200 infants (97 European American, 94 African-American, and 9 biracial) and their mothers. Maternal sensitivity and overtly negative maternal behavior were observed when infants were 6 months and 1 year old in distress-eliciting contexts, attachment was assessed via the Strange Situation at age 1, and DNA samples were collected when children were 2 years old. Consistent with recent research in large samples, there was little evidence that these genes are associated with attachment security, disorganization, or distress as main effects (in additive, dominant, and homozygous models) or in conjunction with maternal sensitivity or overtly negative behavior (primarily dominance models). Furthermore, there was little evidence that associations vary as a function of race.

Variation in mothers' arginine vasopressin receptor 1a and dopamine receptor D4 genes predicts maternal sensitivity via social cognition

We examined the extent to which the arginine vasopressin receptor 1a (AVPR1a) and dopamine receptor D4 (DRD4) were related to sensitive maternal behavior directly or indirectly via maternal social cognition. Participants were 207 (105 European-American and 102 African-American) mothers and their children (52% females). Sensitive maternal behavior was rated and aggregated across a series of tasks when infants were 6 months, 1 year and 2 years old. At 6 months, mothers were interviewed about their empathy, attributions about infant behavior and beliefs about crying to assess their parenting-related social cognition. Mothers with long alleles for AVPR1a and DRD4 engaged in more mother-oriented social cognition (i.e. negative attributions and beliefs about their infants' crying, β = 0.13, P < 0.05 and β = 0.16, P < 0.05, respectively), which in turn predicted less sensitive maternal behavior (β = -0.23, P < 0.01). Both indirect effects were statistically significant independent of one another and covariates [95% confidence interval (CI): -0.22, -0.03 and β = -0.03 for AVPR; 95% CI: -0.20, -0.03 and β = -0.04 for DRD4]. There were no significant direct effects of AVPR1a or DRD4 on maternal sensitivity (β = 0.02, P = .73 and β = -0.10, P = .57, respectively). The results did not vary for African-American and European-American mothers (Δχ²  = 18.76, Δdf = 16, P = 0.28). Results support the view that one mechanism by which maternal genes are associated with parental behavior is via social cognition.

Pathways by which mothers' physiological arousal and regulation while caregiving predict sensitivity to infant distress

Pathways by which maternal physiological arousal (skin conductance level [SCL]) and regulation (respiratory sinus arrhythmia [RSA] withdrawal) while parenting are linked with concurrent and subsequent maternal sensitivity were examined. Mothers' (N = 259) SCL and RSA were measured during a resting baseline and while interacting with their 6-month-old infants during tasks designed to elicit infant distress. Then, mothers were interviewed about their emotional and cognitive responses to infant cues (i.e., cry processing) while caregiving using a video recall procedure. Maternal sensitivity was observed during the distressing tasks at 6 months and again when children were 1-year-old. Mothers who were well-regulated (higher RSA suppression from baseline to parenting tasks) engaged in less negative and self-focused cry processing while interacting with their infants, which in turn predicted higher maternal sensitivity at both time points. In addition, SCL arousal and RSA regulation interacted such that maternal arousal was associated with more empathic/infant focused cry processing among mothers who were simultaneously well-regulated, which in turn predicted maternal sensitivity, albeit only at 6 months. These effects were independent of a number of covariates demonstrating the unique role of mothers' physiological regulation while caregiving on sensitivity. Implications for intervention are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record