Investigating the Impact of Tillage and Crop Rotation on the Prevalence of phlD-Carrying Pseudomonas Potentially Involved in Disease Suppression

Winter oilseed rape (OSR) is becoming an increasingly popular crop in rotations as it provides a cash crop and reduces the incidence of take-all fungal disease (caused by Gaeumannomyces graminis) in subsequent wheat production. The exact mechanism of this inhibition of fungal pathogens is not fully understood; however, the selective recruitment of bacterial groups with the ability to suppress pathogen growth and reproduction is thought to play a role. Here we examine the effect of tillage practice on the proliferation of microbes that possess the phlD gene involved in the production of the antifungal compound 2,4-diacetylphloroglucinol (2,4-DAPG), in the rhizospheres of both winter oilseed rape and winter wheat grown in rotation over a two-year period. The results showed that conservation strip tillage led to a significantly greater phlD gene copy number, both in the soil and in the roots, of oilseed rape and wheat crops, whereas crop rotation of oilseed rape and wheat did not increase the phlD gene copy number in winter wheat.

Food inauthenticity: Authority activities, guidance for food operators, and mitigation tools

Historically, food fraud was a major public health concern which helped drive the development of early food regulations in many markets including the US and EU market. In the past 10 years, the integrity of food chains with respect to food fraud has again been questioned due to high profile food fraud cases. We provide an overview of the resulting numerous authoritative activities underway within different regions to counter food fraud, and we describe the guidance available to the industry to understand how to assess the vulnerability of their businesses and implement appropriate mitigation. We describe how such controls should be an extension of those already in place to manage wider aspects of food authenticity, and we provide an overview of relevant analytical tools available to food operators and authorities to protect supply chains. Practical Application: Practical Application of the provided information by the food industry in selecting resources (guidance document, analytical methods etc.).

Natural Co-Occurrence of Multiple Mycotoxins in Unprocessed Oats Grown in Ireland with Various Production Systems

The natural co-occurrence of 42 mycotoxins was investigated in unprocessed oat grains grown in Ireland. The sample set included a total of 208 oat crops harvested during 2015–2016 and produced using conventional, organic, or gluten free farming systems. A range of different toxins was identified, including the major type A (neosolaniol, HT-2 and T-2 toxins, T-2 triol, and T-2-glucoside, co-occurring in 21 samples) and B trichothecenes (deoxynivalenol, nivalenol, and deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside), enniatins (B1, B, and A1, co-occurring in 12 samples), as well as beauvericin, alternariol, mycophenolic acid, and sterigmatocystin. The influences of sowing season, year, and production system were investigated, eventually indicating that the latter factor may have a higher impact than others on the production of certain mycotoxins in oats. The most frequently quantified compounds were HT-2 (51%) and T-2 (41%) toxins, with gluten free oats containing significantly lower concentrations of HT-2 compared to conventionally produced oats. Although the prevalence and concentrations of mycotoxin found in oat samples in this study should be substantially reduced by processing. However, as mycotoxin occurrence is clearly influenced by multiple factors, controlled field trials should be carried out to define optimal agronomic practices and mitigate mycotoxin production. Furthermore, this work highlights the need for regularly testing cereal-based foods with multi-residue analytical methods with wider specificities than the traditionally screened and regulated toxins, to generate knowledge on the occurrence of several mycotoxins that are, to date, rarely investigated.

Genetic Analysis Using a Multi-Parent Wheat Population Identifies Novel Sources of Septoria Tritici Blotch Resistance

Zymoseptoria tritici is the causative fungal pathogen of septoria tritici blotch (STB) disease of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) that continuously threatens wheat crops in Ireland and throughout Europe. Under favorable conditions, STB can cause up to 50% yield losses if left untreated. STB is commonly controlled with fungicides; however, a combination of Z. tritici populations developing fungicide resistance and increased restrictions on fungicide use in the EU has led to farmers relying on fewer active substances. Consequently, this serves to drive the emergence of Z. tritici resistance against the remaining chemistries. In response, the use of resistant wheat varieties provides a more sustainable disease management strategy. However, the number of varieties offering an adequate level of resistance against STB is limited. Therefore, new sources of resistance or improved stacking of existing resistance loci are needed to develop varieties with superior agronomic performance. Here, we identified quantitative trait loci (QTL) for STB resistance in the eight-founder "NIAB Elite MAGIC" winter wheat population. The population was screened for STB response in the field under natural infection for three seasons from 2016 to 2018. Twenty-five QTL associated with STB resistance were identified in total. QTL either co-located with previously reported QTL or represent new loci underpinning STB resistance. The genomic regions identified and the linked genetic markers serve as useful resources for STB resistance breeding, supporting rapid selection of favorable alleles for the breeding of new wheat cultivars with improved STB resistance.

International Survey of Food Fraud and Related Terminology: Preliminary Results and Discussion

The food industry is advancing at a rapid pace and consumer sensitivity to food safety scares and food fraud scandals is further amplified by rapid communication such as by social media. Academia, regulators, and industry practitioners alike struggle with an evolving issue regarding new terms and definitions including food fraud, food authenticity, food integrity, food protection, economically motivated adulteration, food crime, food security, contaminant, adulterant, and others. This research addressed some of the global need for clarification and harmonization of commonly used terminology. The 150 survey responses were received from various food-related workgroups or committee members, communication with recognized experts, and announcements to the food industry in general. Overall food fraud was identified as a "food safety" issue (86%). The food quality and manufacturing respondents focused mainly on incoming goods and adulterant-substances (<50%) rather than the other illegal activities such as counterfeiting, theft, gray market/diversion, and smuggling. Of the terms included to represent "intentional deception for economic gain" the respondents generally agreed with food fraud as the preferred term. Overall, the preference was 50% "food fraud," 15% "economically motivated adulteration" EMA, 9% "food protection," 7% "food integrity," 5% "food authenticity," and 2% "food crime." It appears that "food protection" and "food integrity" are terms that cover broader concepts such as all types of intentional acts and even possibly food safety or food quality. "Food authenticity" was defined with the phrase "to ensure" so seemed to be identified as an "attribute" that helped define fraudulent acts. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Food Fraud-illegal deception for economic gain using food-is a rapidly evolving research topic and is facing confusion due to the use of different terms and definitions. This research survey presented common definitions and publication details to gain insight that could help provide clarity. The insight from this report provides guidance for others who are harmonizing terminology and setting the overall strategic direction.

Global perspectives on food fraud: results from a WHO survey of members of the International Food Safety Authorities Network (INFOSAN)

This survey of International Food Safety Authorities Network (INFOSAN) members regarding food fraud prevention, management, education, and information sharing included 166 WHO member states that resulted in 175 responses. The respondents engage in food fraud prevention (70%) or are responsible for food fraud incident response (74%). Nearly all respondents acknowledged a desire for more guidance and information on best practices in managing the full range of “food safety events involving food fraud” (97%), but also for prevention of such events (97%), indicating a need to provide technical support beyond acute incident response. The scope of food fraud covered in the survey comprised the full range of fraudulent activities, including the addition of adulterant-substances, tampering (including mislabeling), theft, smuggling, gray market/diversion, and counterfeiting (intellectual property rights). Key needs included: capacity-building/education; a platform for information sharing; and utilization of INFOSAN as an interagency/intergovernmental collaboration point.

Food fraud risk is an intentional act driven by economical profits and not intended to pose a public health threat like food terrorism. Spink from Michigan State University and coworkers reported the results of a WHO food fraud survey of members of the International Food Safety Authorities Network (INFOSAN). Most of these INFOSAN members are involved in food fraud prevention or food fraud incident response in their agencies/organizations. The respondents consider the food fraud activities or prevention programs to include adulterant-substances, tampering, counterfeits, theft, smuggling, and gray market/diversion. This study revealed their concerns about food safety events involving food fraud and the needs of educating, managing, and preventing fraud related food safety events. These understandings are important for the further considerations of next steps.

Food fraud data collection needs survey

This research project was conducted to understand the data collection needs when addressing food fraud prevention. The foundation for an understanding of the fraud opportunity utilizes a holistic and all-encompassing information sharing system. The anonymous online survey was distributed first to a targeted group of food fraud leaders from manufacturer or brand owner companies and then to a public group. From the 96 survey responses, first, regarding "data" there is generally "enough" and "good enough" data to meet the current assessments and compliance needs. Second, regarding the process, there is a need for more guidance or harmonization on vulnerability assessments, strategy development and management, and correlation to all other enterprise-wide risks (ERM/COSO). Third, there is the general activity of conducting food fraud vulnerability assessments, but there is a lack of clarity or direction on the scope (all types of fraud) and confidence in the conclusions (a clear insight or diagnosis of root-cause). This survey suggests there is a need for more definition and formality of the method and process for addressing food fraud. Finally, a focus on harmonizing terms, vulnerability assessment methods, and then of common policy/strategy will enable the risk assessors to define their future data collection requirements and needs. Further research should explore the specifics of the data collection needs and expand to other stakeholders such as regulators and enforcement.

Application of Endophytic Pseudomonas fluorescens and a Bacterial Consortium to Brassica napus Can Increase Plant Height and Biomass under Greenhouse and Field Conditions

Plant associated bacteria with plant growth promotion (PGP) properties have been proposed for use as environmentally friendly biofertilizers for sustainable agriculture; however, analysis of their efficacy in the field is often limited. In this study, greenhouse and field trials were carried out using individual endophytic Pseudomonas fluorescens strains, the well characterized rhizospheric P. fluorescens F113 and an endophytic microbial consortium of 10 different strains. These bacteria had been previously characterized with respect to their PGP properties in vitro and had been shown to harbor a range of traits associated with PGP including siderophore production, 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) deaminase activity, and inorganic phosphate solubilization. In greenhouse experiments individual strains tagged with gfp and Km^r were applied to Brassica napus as a seed coat and were shown to effectively colonize the rhizosphere and root of B. napus and in addition they demonstrated a significant increase in plant biomass compared with the non-inoculated control. In the field experiment, the bacteria (individual and consortium) were spray inoculated to winter oilseed rape B. napus var. Compass which was grown under standard North Western European agronomic conditions. Analysis of the data provides evidence that the application of the live bacterial biofertilizers can enhance aspects of crop development in B. napus at field scale. The field data demonstrated statistically significant increases in crop height, stem/leaf, and pod biomass, particularly, in the case of the consortium inoculated treatment. However, although seed and oil yield were increased in the field in response to inoculation, these data were not statistically significant under the experimental conditions tested. Future field trials will investigate the effectiveness of the inoculants under different agronomic conditions.

Crop Establishment Practices Are a Driver of the Plant Microbiota in Winter Oilseed Rape (Brassica napus)

Gaining a greater understanding of the plant microbiota and its interactions with its host plant heralds a new era of scientific discovery in agriculture. Different agricultural management practices influence soil microbial populations by changing a soil's physical, chemical and biological properties. However, the impact of these practices on the microbiota associated with economically important crops such as oilseed rape, are still understudied. In this work we investigated the impact of two contrasting crop establishment practices, conventional (plow based) and conservation (strip-tillage) systems, on the microbiota inhabiting different plant microhabitats, namely rhizosphere, root and shoot, of winter oilseed rape under Irish agronomic conditions. Illumina 16S rRNA gene sequence profiling showed that the plant associated microhabitats (root and shoot), are dominated by members of the bacterial phyla Proteobacteria, Actinobacteria and Bacteroidetes. The root and shoot associated bacterial communities displayed markedly distinct profiles as a result of tillage practices. We observed a very limited 'rhizosphere effect' in the root zone of WOSR, i.e., there was little or no increase in bacterial community richness and abundance in the WOSR rhizosphere compared to the bulk soil. The two tillage systems investigated did not appear to lead to any major long term differences on the bulk soil or rhizosphere bacterial communities. Our data suggests that the WOSR root and shoot microbiota can be impacted by management practices and is an important mechanism that could allow us to understand how plants respond to different management practices and environments.

Detection of Zymoseptoria tritici SDHI-insensitive field isolates carrying the SdhC-H152R and SdhD-R47W substitutions

BACKGROUND

Succinate dehydrogenase inhibitor (SDHI) fungicides are important in the management of Zymoseptoria tritici in wheat. New active ingredients from this group of fungicides have been introduced recently and are widely used. Because the fungicides act at a single enzyme site, resistance development in Z. tritici is classified as medium-to-high risk.

RESULTS

Isolates from Irish experimental plots in 2015 were tested against the SDHI penthiopyrad during routine monitoring. The median of the population was approximately 2 times less sensitive than the median of the baseline population. Two of the 93 isolates were much less sensitive to penthiopyrad than the least sensitive of the baseline isolates. These isolates were also insensitive to most commercially available SDHIs. Analysis of the succinate dehydrogenase coding genes confirmed the presence of the substitutions SdhC-H152R and SdhD-R47W in the very insensitive isolates.

CONCLUSION

This is the first report showing that the SdhC-H152R mutation detected in laboratory mutagenesis studies also exists in the field. The function and relevance of this mutation, combined with SdhD-R47W, still needs to be determined. © 2016 Society of Chemical Industry.

Food Fraud Prevention: Policy, Strategy, and Decision-Making - Implementation Steps for a Government Agency or Industry

This paper addresses the role of governments, industry, academics, and non-governmental organizations in Food Fraud prevention. Before providing strategic concepts for governments and authorities, definitions of Food Fraud are reviewed and discussed. Next there is a review of Food Fraud activities by the Global Food Safety Initiative (GFSI), the Elliott Review in the United Kingdom, the European Commission resolution on Food Fraud, and the US Food Safety Modernization Act including the Preventative Controls Rule. Two key concepts for governments or a company are: (1) formally, and specifically, mention food fraud as a food issue and (2) create an enterprise-wide Food Fraud prevention plan. The research includes a case study of the implementation of the concepts by a state or provincial agency. This analysis provides a foundation to review the role of science and technology in detection, deterrence and then contributing to prevention.

The effect of succinate dehydrogenase inhibitor/azole mixtures on selection of Zymoseptoria tritici isolates with reduced sensitivity

BACKGROUND

Combining fungicides with different modes of action is regarded as one of the most effective means of slowing the selection of resistance. Field trials were used to study the effects of such mixtures on selection for Zymoseptoria tritici with reduced sensitivity to the succinate dehydrogenase inhibitors (SDHIs) and azole fungicides. The SDHI isopyrazam and the azole epoxiconazole were applied individually as solo products, and together in a preformulated mixture. All fungicide treatments were included at both full and half the recommended doses.

RESULTS

Compared with using epoxiconazole alone, mixing epoxiconazole with isopyrazam led to an increase in epoxiconazole-sensitive isolates. In contrast, all treatments containing isopyrazam reduced the sensitivity of Z. tritici to isopyrazam compared with those without. Reducing doses to half the recommended rate had no effect on sensitivity of isolates to either active ingredient. In a subgroup of isolates least sensitive to isopyrazam, non-synonymous mutations were found in the SdhC and SdhD subunits, but their presence was unrelated to sensitivity.

CONCLUSION

Mixing an azole and SDHI was clearly beneficial for the azole, but not for the SDHI component. This dynamic might change if strains conferring reduced sensitivity to the SDHIs were to arise. © 2015 Society of Chemical Industry.

The wheat-Septoria conflict: a new front opening up?

In the utopic absence of abiotic and/or biotic stressors, attaining the predicted increase (up to 70%) in wheat demand by 2050 in response to global population trends is a challenge. This objective becomes daunting, however, when one factors in the continuous constraint on global wheat production posed by Septoria tritici blotch (STB) disease. This is because, despite resistant loci being identified, a deficit of commercially relevant STB-resistant wheat germplasm remains. The issue is further compounded for growers by the emergence and prevalence of fungicide-resistant/insensitive strains of the causative pathogen Zymoseptoria tritici (formerly known as Mycosphaerella graminicola/Septoria tritici). However, biotechnology-based research is providing new opportunities in this struggle. As the exome response of wheat to STB attack begins to be deciphered, genes intrinsic to resistant and susceptible phenotypes will be identified. Combined with the application of genome-editing techniques and a growing appreciation of the complexity of wheat's and the dynamism of Z. tritici's genome, the generation of resulting STB-resistant wheat varieties will counter the prevalent threat of STB disease in wheat-production systems.

Defining the Public Health Threat of Dietary Supplement Fraud

 Adverse health events resulting from dietary supplement fraud (DSF)-fraud conducted for economic gain using dietary supplements-have received increased recognition from agencies and industry. There is a growing awareness that this issue represents a significant public health threat. With increasing consumption of supplements, there are increasing consequences-good and bad-for food science and food safety. "Dietary supplements" are a special category of food that consists of finished products (for example, a vitamin D tablet) that contain 1 or more dietary ingredients. "Dietary ingredients" are the components of those finished products (for example, vitamin D added to a food product such as breakfast cereal). Due to a number of factors, potentially harmful dietary supplements reach-and often remain-in the market. DSF is a type of product fraud, as is food fraud, which is often classified by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration as Economically Motivated Adulteration (EMA). Since the adulterants are unconventional, DSF may represent an even greater public health threat than traditional dietary supplement safety issues (though it is important to note that adulteration is only one type of fraud). Criminology concepts such as situational crime prevention and the crime triangle deepen understanding of the relationship of fraud opportunity as it relates to fraudsters and established hurdles to fraud. The purpose of this research is to provide a comprehensive overview on the public health threat of DSF, and to focus on altering current intervention and response-based approaches that are prevention-based.

Economically motivated adulteration (EMA) of food: common characteristics of EMA incidents

Economically motivated adulteration (EMA) of food, also known as food fraud, is the intentional adulteration of food for financial advantage. A common form of EMA, undeclared substitution with alternative ingredients, is usually a health concern because of allergen labeling requirements. As demonstrated by the nearly 300,000 illnesses in China from melamine adulteration of infant formula, EMA also has the potential to result in serious public health consequences. Furthermore, EMA incidents reveal gaps in quality assurance testing methodologies that could be exploited for intentional harm. In contrast to foodborne disease outbreaks, EMA incidents present a particular challenge to the food industry and regulators because they are deliberate acts that are intended to evade detection. Large-scale EMA incidents have been described in the scientific literature, but smaller incidents have been documented only in media sources. We reviewed journal articles and media reports of EMA since 1980. We identified 137 unique incidents in 11 food categories: fish and seafood (24 incidents), dairy products (15), fruit juices (12), oils and fats (12), grain products (11), honey and other natural sweeteners (10), spices and extracts (8), wine and other alcoholic beverages (7), infant formula (5), plant-based proteins (5), and other food products (28). We identified common characteristics among the incidents that may help us better evaluate and reduce the risk of EMA. These characteristics reflect the ways in which existing regulatory systems or testing methodologies were inadequate for detecting EMA and how novel detection methods and other deterrence strategies can be deployed. Prevention and detection of EMA cannot depend on traditional food safety strategies. Comprehensive food protection, as outlined by the Food Safety Modernization Act, will require innovative methods for detecting EMA and for targeting crucial resources toward the riskiest food products.

Defining the public health threat of food fraud

Food fraud, including the more defined subcategory of economically motivated adulteration, is a food risk that is gaining recognition and concern. Regardless of the cause of the food risk, adulteration of food is both an industry and a government responsibility. Food safety, food fraud, and food defense incidents can create adulteration of food with public health threats. Food fraud is an intentional act for economic gain, whereas a food safety incident is an unintentional act with unintentional harm, and a food defense incident is an intentional act with intentional harm. Economically motivated adulteration may be just that-economically motivated-but the food-related public health risks are often more risky than traditional food safety threats because the contaminants are unconventional. Current intervention systems are not designed to look for a near infinite number of potential contaminants. The authors developed the core concepts reported here following comprehensive research of articles and reports, expert elicitation, and an extensive peer review. The intent of this research paper is to provide a base reference document for defining food fraud-it focuses specifically on the public health threat-and to facilitate a shift in focus from intervention to prevention. This will subsequently provide a framework for future quantitative or innovative research. The fraud opportunity is deconstructed using the criminology and behavioral science applications of the crime triangle and the chemistry of the crime. The research provides a food risk matrix and identifies food fraud incident types. This project provides a starting point for future food science, food safety, and food defense research.

PRACTICAL APPLICATION

Food fraud, including the more defined subcategory of economically motivated adulteration, is a food protection threat that has not been defined or holistically addressed. The terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, led to the development of food defense as an autonomous area of study and a new food protection discipline. As economically motivated adulteration grows in scope, scale, and awareness, it is conceivable that food fraud will achieve the same status as an autonomous concept, between food safety and food defense. This research establishes a starting point for defining food fraud and identifying the public health risks.

Epidemiological analysis of take-all decline in winter wheat

Take-all dynamics within crops differing in cropping history (the number of previous consecutive wheat crops) were analyzed using an epidemiological model to determine the processes affected during take-all decline. The model includes terms for primary infection, secondary infection, inoculum decay, and root growth. The average rates of root production did not vary with cropping history. The force of primary infection increased from a low level in 1st wheat crops, to a maximum in 2nd to 4th wheat crops, and then to intermediate levels thereafter. The force of secondary infection was low but increased steadily during the season in first wheat crops, was delayed but rose and fell sharply in 2nd to 4th wheat crops, and for 5th and 7th wheat crops returned to similar dynamics as that for 1st wheat crops. Chemical seed treatment with silthiofam had no consistent effect on the take-all decline process. We conjecture that these results are consistent with (i) low levels of particulate inoculum prior to the first wheat crop leading to low levels of primary infection, low levels of secondary infection, and little disease suppression; (ii) net amplification of inoculum during the first wheat crop and intercrop period; (iii) increased levels of primary and secondary infection in subsequent crops, but higher levels of disease suppression; and (iv) an equilibrium between the pathogen and antagonist populations by the 5th wheat, reflected by lower overall rates of primary infection, secondary infection, disease suppression and hence, disease severity.

Gene therapy progress and prospects: bringing gene therapy into medical practice: the evolution of international ethics and the regulatory environment

The concept and application of ethical principles in the context of medical research is changing rapidly. This is especially true for fast moving fields such as gene therapy, a relatively new but rapidly maturing field offering opportunities to influence health at a fundamental level, which may become a cornerstone of medicine. By 2004, over 700 gene therapy clinical protocols had been initiated worldwide, and two highly publicized gene therapy-related side effects have helped to shape recent ethical debate. These events have influenced not only clinical trial design but also public opinion and systems of independent oversight. Both the science of gene therapy and the regulatory environment are continually evolving. How well the field is able to respond to these challenges will determine the extent to which gene therapy will ultimately be integrated into medical practice.

Epidemiology and chemical control of take-all on seminal and adventitious roots of wheat

ABSTRACT Epidemiological modeling is used to examine the effect of silthiofam seed treatment on field epidemics of take-all in winter wheat. A simple compartmental model, including terms for primary infection, secondary infection, root production, and decay of inoculum, was fitted to data describing change in the number of diseased and susceptible roots per plant over thermal time obtained from replicated field trials. This produced a composite curve describing change in the proportion of diseased roots over time that increased monotonically to an initial plateau and then increased exponentially thereafter. The shape of this curve was consistent with consecutive phases of primary and secondary infection. The seed treatment reduced the proportion of diseased roots throughout both phases of the epidemic. However, analysis with the model detected a significant reduction in the rate of primary, but not secondary, infection. The potential for silthiofam to affect secondary infection from diseased seminal or adventitious roots was examined in further detail by extending the compartmental model and fitting to change in the number of diseased and susceptible seminal or adventitious roots. Rates of secondary infection from either source of infected roots were not affected. Seed treatment controlled primary infection of seminal roots from particulate inoculum but not secondary infection from either seminal or adventitious roots. The reduction in disease for silthiofam-treated plants observed following the secondary infection phase of the epidemic was not due to long-term activity of the chemical but to the manifestation of disease control early in the epidemic.

Consumer health information. What the research is telling us

BACKGROUND

Consumer health information is a necessary component of patient care and consumer participation.

OBJECTIVE

To outline the findings of the 'Assessing the Quality of Consumer Health Information Project' and discuss strategies for improving consumer information.

DISCUSSION

The pamphlets identified in this study were not developed with consumer input with consequent deficits apparent. Providers and consumers appeared to use the information for very different purposes but both groups were critical of the ambiguous terminology and lack of quantified data. The provision of relevant information is a fundamental prerequisite of consumer participation in decision making in health care. Such information needs to be available, accurate, and understandable.

Isolation, characterization, and avenacin sensitivity of a diverse collection of cereal-root-colonizing fungi

A total of 161 fungal isolates were obtained from the surface-sterilized roots of field-grown oat and wheat plants in order to investigate the nature of the root-colonizing fungi supported by these two cereals. Fungi were initially grouped according to their colony morphologies and then were further characterized by ribosomal DNA sequence analysis. The collection contained a wide range of ascomycetes and also some basidiomycete fungi. The fungi were subsequently assessed for their abilities to tolerate and degrade the antifungal oat root saponin, avenacin A-1. Nearly all the fungi obtained from oat roots were avenacin A-1 resistant, while both avenacin-sensitive and avenacin-resistant fungi were isolated from the roots of the non-saponin-producing cereal, wheat. The majority of the avenacin-resistant fungi were able to degrade avenacin A-1. These experiments suggest that avenacin A-1 is likely to influence the development of fungal communities within (and possibly also around) oat roots.

Development of a consumer survey for behavioral health services

A consumer survey was designed to assess the quality of mental health and substance abuse services and evaluate insurance plans that provide such services. This paper describes the development of the Consumer Assessment of Behavioral Health Services instrument, which began with a review of existing consumer satisfaction surveys and input from several groups working toward development of nationally standardized satisfaction instruments. Consumer focus groups were used to ensure that all the important domains of quality were included, and group members were interviewed to ensure that all items on the instrument were understandable. Results of a pilot test conducted with 160 consumers, 82 enrolled in Medicaid plans and 78 in commercial plans, suggested that the survey was able to distinguish between the two groups in terms of evaluations of their care and insurance plans. Future efforts will focus on further testing of larger, more diverse samples and on developing scoring and reporting formats for the survey that will be useful to consumers and purchasers in choosing behavioral health services and plans.

Cytokine regulation of inducible nitric oxide synthase in vascular smooth muscle cells

NO is an important mediator in sepsis. It has been unequivocally established that it is the major determinant in the vasodilatation and consequent hypotension in experimental animals following the administration of LPS. It is cytotoxic, particularly in combination with superoxide anions, and exerts negative inotropic and chronotropic effects on the heart. The exact role that these functions play in sepsis, however, remain unclear. Similarly, its immunomodulatory and cerebral effects, although potentially important, remain of uncertain significance in sepsis. Regulation of such a pivotal molecule is clearly extremely important: the data described here show that not only is this regulation extremely complex, but it appears to vary in different cell types. The implication of this finding for future clinical work is clear. NO production is not all bad: in some circumstances, it may be desirable to differentially regulate iNOS activity such that production is restricted in some cell types but not in others. The work described here begins to offer the possibility of identifying new molecular targets which allow this kind of differential regulation.

Binding of the transcription factor interferon regulatory factor-1 to the inducible nitric-oxide synthase promoter

Nitric oxide production in a variety of inflammatory conditions is dependent on the synthesis of the enzyme, inducible nitric-oxide synthase (iNOS). The gene for this enzyme is regulated by a number of inflammatory cytokines, including interferon-gamma. Transcriptional activation of the gene is dependent on the interferon-gamma-induced transcription factor, interferon regulatory factor-1 (IRF-1). Using a 99-base pair segment of the iNOS gene promoter encompassing nucleotides -979 to -881, a region essential for gene activation by cytokines, we show that with increasing concentrations of added IRF-1, a monomeric then a dimeric complex form. Molecular footprinting analysis shows that the factor binds initially to a canonical IRF-1 site as a monomer. The region of binding is then extended both in a 5' and 3' direction on formation of the dimeric complex, with additional contacts in the minor groove of DNA. Binding of the second molecule of IRF-1 is dependent on the presence of the initial bound protein. Sequential binding of IRF-1 to form a dimeric complex has not been described previously, and we show that formation of this dimeric complex is essential for full activation of the iNOS gene by cytokines in vascular smooth muscle cells.

Synergy and specificity in induction of gene activity by proinflammatory cytokines: potential therapeutic targets

This review focuses on two important routes of gene activation mediated by proinflammatory cytokines, which serve as a paradigm for mechanisms of specificity and synergy in cytokine regulated gene activity: STAT (signal transducers and activators of transcription)-related gene activation and the pathways initiated by proinflammatory cytokines leading to the activation of the NF-kappa B family of transcriptional activators. The proinflammatory cytokine cascade is involved in both the normal immune response and in the pathogenesis of several disease states. An understanding of specificity and synergism in these pathways offers an opportunity to develop novel therapeutic drugs for the selective manipulation of these disease processes. Such potential targets are examined in this review.

The cytokine responsive vascular smooth muscle cell enhancer of inducible nitric oxide synthase. Activation by nuclear factor-kappa B

The production of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) within vascular smooth muscle (VSM) cells following exposure to proinflammatory cytokines is a major cause of the vasorelaxation and hypotension of septic shock. We have defined the cytokine-responsive element of the murine iNOS promoter, transfected into a VSM cell line, and the role of the NF-kappa B/Rel family of proteins in iNOS gene activation in these cells. The combination of interleukin-1, interferon-gamma, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha stimulates promoter activity by a factor of 8.1-fold; single cytokines show little activity, while pairs of cytokines produce an intermediate effect. Using a series of promoter deletion mutants, we have defined the cytokine-responsive element from position -890 to -1002; this region contains an NF-kappa B-binding site as well as a number of interferon response elements. Nuclear proteins from cytokine-stimulated VSM cells which bind to an oligonucleotide containing this kappa B site are composed of p65 together with an unidentified protein of 50 kDa, which is not a known Rel family member. A promoter mutant with a 2-base pair change within this kappa B site, which abolishes NF-kappa B binding, has an activity of only approximately 34% (S.E. +/- 1.5) of the wild-type promoter. In addition, protein binding to this site is abolished by a specific inhibitor of NF-kappa B activation, which also abrogates iNOS activity. Residual inducibility in such mutant promoters is attributable to the presence of an independently functioning downstream kappa B site (-85 to -75). The mechanism by which NF-kappa B activates the iNOS promoter in VSM cells in response to cytokines appears to be markedly different to that operative in macrophages in response to lipopolysaccharide.

Functional myocardial impairment in children treated with anthracyclines for cancer

A non-invasive exercise method was used to look for myocardial damage in apparently normal children who had received moderate doses of anthracyclines for treatment of cancer. 19 children (mean [SD] age 10.6 [4.3] years) who had received anthracyclines (mean total dose 230 [119] mg/m2) and 10 who had received other cytotoxic drugs (mean age 13.3 [4.9] years) were selected from 263 children attending routine follow-up examinations. They underwent measurement of heart rate, blood pressure, and left ventricular dimensions by echocardiography before and after exercise on a bicycle for a maximum of 10 min. All 29 were in remission. All the subjects showed normal fractional shortening (FS = left ventricular end-diastolic minus end-systolic diameter as a percentage of the end-diastolic diameter) at rest, but the increase in FS on exercise was significantly lower in the children who had received anthracyclines than in those who had not (3 [16]% vs 23 [17]%; p less than 0.05). This difference remained significant after adjustment for age and drug exposure. However, there were no significant differences between the groups in the adjusted mean percentage changes on exercise in heart rate or systolic or diastolic blood pressure. Disease type had no effect on the cardiological indices. Thus, many children who have received anthracyclines may have suffered subclinical myocardial damage. Post-exercise echocardiography seems a useful non-invasive method for detecting such damage. Long-term cardiological follow-up of these patients is needed.