ADP Receptor Induced Activation of Guanine Nucleotide Binding Proteins in Rat Platelet Membranes– An Effect Selectively Blocked by the Thienopyridine Clopidogrel

The thienopyridine clopidogrel, a potent analog of ticlopidine, is a powerful inhibitor of ADP induced platelet aggregation and ADP induced inhibition of cyclic AMP accumulation in intact platelets but not of ADP induced shape change. We have recently demonstrated that ADP stimulates the binding of GTPγS to GTP binding proteins (G proteins) in human platelet membranes. We now studied the effects of clopidogrel, a specific inhibitor of ADP induced platelet aggregation on the stimulation of GTPγS binding to rat platelet membranes by ADP. Using the non hydrolyzable stable analog of ADP, 2MeSADP, we demonstrate that 2MeSADP stimulates the binding of [35S]GTPγS to rat platelet membranes in a concentration dependent manner, that this effect is inhibited by the specific ADP receptor antagonist Sp-ATPαS and that clopidogrel completely and selectively blocks the stimulation by 2MeSADP of [35S]GTPγS binding to platelet membranes of treated rats. We conclude that: i) rat platelet membranes possess an ADP receptor coupled to unidentified G protein(s) and ii) the thienopyridine clopidogrel impairs the interaction of the ADP receptor with its G protein by an irreversible modification the ADP receptor itself or its putative G protein.

8-pCPT-conjugated cyclic AMP analogs exert thromboxane receptor antagonistic properties

Membrane-permeable 8-(4-chlorophenylthio)-2'-O-methyl cyclic AMP (8-pCPT-2'-O-Me-cAMP) has been shown to specifically activate cAMP-regulated Epac proteins, without direct effects on protein kinase A and protein kinase G. During isometric tension measurements in thoracic aortic rings from Wistar rats, we observed that 8-pCPT-2'-O-Me-cAMP selectively induced a rightward shift of the concentration response curve for the thromboxane mimetic U46619, without altering the contractile response to noradrenaline. We hypothesised that 8-pCPT-2'-O-Me-cAMP and similar compounds may function as direct thromboxane receptor antagonists. Indeed, in addition to 8-pCPT-2'-O- Me-cAMP, also 8-pCPT-cAMP, 8-(4-chlorophenylthio)-adenosine-3',5'-cyclic monophosphorothioate, Rp-isomer (Rp-8-CPT-cAMPS) and 8-CPT-adenosine, but not 8-Bromo-2'-O-Me-cAMP, induced rightward shifts of the contractile response to U46619. Likewise, 8-pCPT-2'-O- Me-cAMP and Rp-8-CPT-cAMPS, but not 8-Bromo-2'-O-Me-cAMP, specifically reduced U46619-induced aggregation of human platelets. In addition, 8-pCPT-2'-O-Me-cAMP and Rp-8-CPT-cAMPS completely reversed U46619-induced reduction of intercellular adhesion molecule-1 expression and migration of human coronary artery endothelial cells. Most important, the cAMP analogs that reduced the contractile response to U46619 also concentration-dependently inhibited binding of the thromboxane receptor radioligand [5,6-3H]SQ29548 to human platelets. We conclude that 8-pCPT-conjugated cAMP analogs exert competitive thromboxane receptor antagonistic properties.

B cell receptor-induced growth arrest and apoptosis in WEHI-231 immature B lymphoma cells involve cyclic AMP and Epac proteins

Signaling by the B cell antigen receptor (BCR) is essential for B lymphocyte homeostasis and immune function. In immature B cells, ligation of the BCR promotes growth arrest and apoptosis, and BCR-driven balancing between pro-apoptotic extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1 and 2 (ERK1/2) and anti-apoptotic phosphoinositide 3-kinase-dependent Akt seems to define the final cellular apoptotic response. Dysfunction of these late BCR signaling events can lead to the development of immunological diseases. Here we report on novel cyclic AMP-dependent mechanisms of BCR-induced growth arrest and apoptosis in the immature B lymphoma cell line WEHI-231. BCR signaling to ERK1/2 and Akt requires cyclic AMP-regulated Epac, the latter acting as a guanine nucleotide exchange factor for Rap1 and H-Ras independent of protein kinase A. Importantly, activation of endogenously expressed Epac by a specific cyclic AMP analog enhanced the induction of growth arrest (reduced DNA synthesis) and apoptosis (nuclear condensation, annexin V binding, caspase-3 cleavage and poly-ADP-ribose polymerase processing) by the BCR. Our data indicate that cyclic AMP-dependent Epac signals to ERK1/2 and Akt upon activation of Rap1 and H-Ras, and is involved in BCR-induced growth arrest and apoptosis in WEHI-231 cells.

Direct stimulation of receptor-controlled phospholipase D1 by phospho-cofilin

The activity state of cofilin, which controls actin dynamics, is driven by a phosphorylation-dephosphorylation cycle. Phosphorylation of cofilin by LIM-kinases results in its inactivation, a process supported by 14-3-3zeta and reversed by dephosphorylation by slingshot phosphatases. Here we report on a novel cellular function for the phosphorylation-dephosphorylation cycle of cofilin. We demonstrate that muscarinic receptor-mediated stimulation of phospholipase D1 (PLD1) is controlled by LIM-kinase, slingshot phosphatase as well as 14-3-3zeta, and requires phosphorylatable cofilin. Cofilin directly and specifically interacts with PLD1 and upon phosphorylation by LIM-kinase1, stimulates PLD1 activity, an effect mimicked by phosphorylation-mimic cofilin mutants. The interaction of cofilin with PLD1 is under receptor control and encompasses a PLD1-specific fragment (aa 585-712). Expression of this fragment suppresses receptor-induced cofilin-PLD1 interaction as well as PLD stimulation and actin stress fiber formation. These data indicate that till now designated inactive phospho-cofilin exhibits an active cellular function, and suggest that phospho-cofilin by its stimulatory effect on PLD1 may control a large variety of cellular functions.

Regulator of G-protein signalling 3 redirects prototypical Gi-coupled receptors from Rac1 to RhoA activation

The small GTPases, Rac1 and RhoA, are pivotal regulators of several essential, but distinct cellular processes. Numerous G-protein-coupled receptors signal to these GTPases, but with different specificities. Specifically, Gi-coupled receptors (GiPCRs) are generally believed to activate Rac1, but not RhoA, a process involving Gbetagamma-dimers and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K). Here we show that, depending on the expression level of the 519 amino acid isoform of regulator of G-protein signalling 3 (RGS3L), prototypical GiPCRs, like M2 muscarinic, A1 adenosine, and alpha2-adrenergic receptors, activate either Rac1 or RhoA in human embryonic kidney cells and neonatal rat cardiomyocyte-derived H10 cells. The switch from Rac1 to RhoA activation in H10 cells was controlled by fibroblast growth factor-2 (FGF-2), lowering the expression of RGS3L. Activation of both, Rac1 and RhoA, seen at low and high expression levels of RGS3L, respectively, was sensitive to pertussis toxin and the PI3K inhibitor LY294002 and mediated by Gbetagamma-dimers. We conclude that RGS3L functions as a molecular switch, redirecting GiPCRs via Gbetagamma-dimers and PI3K from Rac1 to RhoA activation. Considering the essential roles of Rac1 and RhoA in many signalling pathways, this additional function of RGS3L indicates a specific role of this protein in cellular signalling networks.

Epac and the cardiovascular system

Exchange protein activated by cyclic AMP (Epac) -- a cyclic AMP-activated guanine nucleotide exchange factor for Ras-like GTPases -- has emerged as a novel mediator of pivotal processes in the cardiovascular system, including cellular calcium handling, hypertrophy, integrin-mediated cell adhesion, establishment of cell polarity, cell migration and endothelial barrier functioning. Epac controls these various cellular responses apparently by signaling to several effector proteins. Spatiotemporal dynamics in the subcellular distribution of Epac-driven signaling networks probably determine the net outcome of cyclic AMP signaling in the cardiovascular system.

Renal mesangial cells: moving on sphingosine kinase-1

Sphingosine kinase-1 (SphK1) catalyses the phosphorylation of sphingosine to sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P), which acts on at least five specific G-protein-coupled receptors and also intracellularly. SphK1 has been implicated in cell proliferation, cancer growth, chemoresistance, immune cell functions and cell migration. In this issue of the British Journal of Pharmacology, Klawitter et al. demonstrate that extracellular nucleotides stimulate the migration of renal mesangial cells. The nucleotides furthermore upregulated SphK1 expression and activity, and this enzyme was required for nucleotide-induced migration. Together with previous findings, these data raise exciting questions: by which mechanism does SphK1 regulate migration in mesangial cells, how is the interplay of purinoceptors and S1P receptors organized in these cells, and how would SphK1-deficient mice respond to kidney damage?

Lysophospholipid receptors: signalling, pharmacology and regulation by lysophospholipid metabolism

The lysophospholipids, sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P), lysophosphatidic acid (LPA), sphingosylphosphorylcholine (SPC) and lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC), activate diverse groups of G-protein-coupled receptors that are widely expressed and regulate decisive cellular functions. Receptors of the endothelial differentiation gene family are activated by S1P (S1P(1-5)) or LPA (LPA(1-3)); two more distantly related receptors are activated by LPA (LPA(4/5)); the GPR(3/6/12) receptors have a high constitutive activity but are further activated by S1P and/or SPC; and receptors of the OGR1 cluster (OGR1, GPR4, G2A, TDAG8) appear to be activated by SPC, LPC, psychosine and/or protons. G-protein-coupled lysophospholipid receptors regulate cellular Ca(2+) homoeostasis and the cytoskeleton, proliferation and survival, migration and adhesion. They have been implicated in development, regulation of the cardiovascular, immune and nervous systems, inflammation, arteriosclerosis and cancer. The availability of S1P and LPA at their G-protein-coupled receptors is regulated by enzymes that generate or metabolize these lysophospholipids, and localization plays an important role in this process. Besides FTY720, which is phosphorylated by sphingosine kinase-2 and then acts on four of the five S1P receptors of the endothelial differentiation gene family, other compounds have been identified that interact with more ore less selectivity with lysophospholipid receptors.

Dynamic phospholipid signaling by G protein-coupled receptors

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) control a variety of fundamental cellular processes by regulating phospholipid signaling pathways. Essential for signaling by a large number of receptors is the hydrolysis of the membrane phosphoinositide PIP(2) by phospholipase C (PLC) into the second messengers IP(3) and DAG. Many receptors also stimulate phospholipase D (PLD), leading to the generation of the versatile lipid, phosphatidic acid. Particular PLC and PLD isoforms take differential positions in receptor signaling and are additionally regulated by small GTPases of the Ras, Rho and ARF families. It is now recognized that the PLC substrate, PIP(2), has signaling capacity by itself and can, by direct interaction, affect the activity and subcellular localization of PLD and several other proteins. As expected, the synthesis of PIP(2) by phosphoinositide 5-kinases is tightly regulated as well. In this review, we present an overview of how these signaling pathways are governed by GPCRs, explain the molecular basis for the spatially and temporally organized, highly dynamic quality of phospholipid signaling, and point to the functional connection of the pathways.

Cyclic AMP-dependent and Epac-mediated activation of R-Ras by G protein-coupled receptors leads to phospholipase D stimulation

The activation of the Ras-related GTPase R-Ras, which has been implicated in the regulation of various cellular functions, by G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) was studied in HEK-293 cells stably expressing the M3 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor (mAChR), which can couple to several types of heterotrimeric G proteins. Activation of the receptor induced a very rapid and transient activation of R-Ras. Studies with inhibitors and activators of various signaling pathways indicated that R-Ras activation by the M3 mAChR is dependent on cyclic AMP formation but is independent of protein kinase A. Similar to the rather promiscuous M3 mAChR, two typical G(s)-coupled receptors also induced R-Ras activation. The receptor actions were mimicked by an Epac-specific cyclic AMP analog and suppressed by depletion of endogenous Epac1 by small interfering RNAs, as well as expression of a cyclic AMP binding-deficient Epac1 mutant, but not by expression of dominant negative Rap GTPases. In vitro studies demonstrated that Epac1 directly interacts with R-Ras and catalyzes GDP/GTP exchange at this GTPase. Finally, it is shown that the cyclic AMP- and Epac-activated R-Ras plays a major role in the M3 mAChR-mediated stimulation of phospholipase D but not phospholipase C. Collectively, our data indicate that GPCRs rapidly activate R-Ras, that R-Ras activation by the GPCRs is apparently directly induced by cyclic AMP-regulated Epac proteins, and that activated R-Ras specifically controls GPCR-mediated phospholipase D stimulation.

Antihypertensive action of 2-hydroxyoleic acid in SHRs via modulation of the protein kinase A pathway and Rho kinase

Olive oil consumption leads to high monounsaturated fatty acid intake, especially oleic acid, and has been associated with a reduced risk of hypertension. However, the molecular mechanisms and contribution of its different components to lower blood pressure (BP) require further evaluation. Here, we examined whether a synthetic, non-beta-oxidation-metabolizable derivative of oleic acid, 2-hydroxyoleic acid (2-OHOA), can normalize BP in adult spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHRs) and whether its antihypertensive action involves cAMP-dependent protein kinase A (PKA) and Rho kinase, two major regulators of vascular smooth muscle contraction. Oral administration of 2-OHOA to SHRs induced sustained systolic BP decreases in a time-dependent (1-7 days) and dose-dependent (100-900 mg/kg every 12 h) manner. After 7 days of treatment with 2-OHOA (600 mg/kg), the systolic BP of SHRs was similar to that of normotensive Wistar Kyoto rats, returning to its initial hypertensive level after withdrawal of 2-OHOA. This treatment strongly increased the protein expression of the catalytic and regulatory RIalpha and RIIalpha PKA subunits as well as PKA activity in aortas from SHRs. Consistently, administration of the PKA inhibitor 8-bromo adenosine-3',5'-cyclic monophosphorothioate, Rp isomer, to 2-OHOA-treated SHRs induced a pronounced reversal (up to 59%) of the antihypertensive effect of 2-OHOA. Additionally, 2-OHOA completely reversed the pathological overexpression of aortic Rho kinase found in SHRs, suppressing the vasoconstrictory Rho kinase pathway.

Defective RhoA/Rho-kinase signaling contributes to vascular hypocontractility and vasodilation in cirrhotic rats

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Portal hypertension is associated with arterial hypotension and vascular hypocontractility, which persists despite elevated plasma levels of vasoconstrictors. We investigated the role of the RhoA/Rho-kinase pathway in vascular smooth muscle hypocontractility of rats with secondary biliary cirrhosis.

METHODS

Aortic expressions of RhoA and Rho-kinase were analyzed in sham-operated and BDL rats by reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and immunoblots. Activation of aortic RhoA was examined by pull down of guanosine triphosphate (GTP)-RhoA and membrane translocation of RhoA. Rho-kinase activity was assessed as phosphorylation of its substrate, moesin. Contractility of isolated aortic rings was determined myographically. The hemodynamic effect of the Rho-kinase inhibitor (R)-(+)-trans-N-(4-pyridyl)-4-(1-aminoethyl)-cyclohexanecarboxamide (Y-27632) was determined in vivo by measuring changes in mean arterial pressure and systemic vascular resistance (SVR) (microspheres).

RESULTS

Contraction of aortic rings from BDL rats was impaired in response to the alpha(1)-adrenergic receptor agonist methoxamine but not to high molar KCl. Aortic expression of RhoA was unchanged in cirrhotic rats, whereas Rho-kinase was down-regulated posttranscriptionally. Methoxamine-induced activation of RhoA as well as basal and methoxamine-induced phosphorylation of moesin were strongly reduced in aortas from cirrhotic rats. Aortic rings from cirrhotic rats precontracted with methoxamine showed an increased sensitivity to relaxation with Y-27632. The drop in SVR induced by Y-27632 was larger in cirrhotic rats than in sham-operated rats.

CONCLUSIONS

An impaired vascular activation of RhoA and a down-regulation of Rho-kinase might contribute to vasodilation and vascular hypocontractility in BDL-induced cirrhosis.

Inhibition of phospholipase C-epsilon by Gi-coupled receptors

We recently reported that several Gs-coupled receptors stimulate phospholipase C (PLC)-epsilon via increased formation of cyclic AMP and subsequent activation of the small GTPase Rap2B by the cyclic AMP-activated exchange factor Epac1. Here we show by studies in HEK-293 and N1E-115 neuroblastoma cells that this stimulation induced by Gs-coupled receptors or the direct adenylyl cyclase activator, forskolin, is potently inhibited by Gi-coupled receptors, known to inhibit cyclic AMP formation. PLC inhibition by the overexpressed M2 muscarinic receptor and the endogenously expressed sphingosine-1-phosphate and delta-opioid receptors was fully pertussis toxin-sensitive and accompanied by a reduction in Rap2B activation induced by Gs-coupled receptors. In contrast, Rap2B activation and PLC stimulation induced by membrane-permeable cyclic AMP analogues, including an Epac-specific activator, or PLC stimulation caused by constitutively active Rap2B were not affected by the Gi-coupled receptors. In summary, our data indicate that Gi-coupled receptors can inhibit PLC-epsilon, most likely by suppressing formation of cyclic AMP required for Epac-mediated Rap2B activation.

The guanine nucleotide exchange factor p63RhoGEF, a specific link between Gq/11-coupled receptor signaling and RhoA

The monomeric GTPase RhoA, which is a key regulator of numerous cellular processes, is activated by a variety of G protein-coupled receptors, through either G12 or G(q) family proteins. Here we report that p63RhoGEF, a recently identified RhoA-specific guanine nucleotide exchange factor, enhances the Rho-dependent gene transcription induced by agonist-stimulated G(q/11)-coupled receptors (M3-cholinoceptor, histamine H1 receptor) or GTPase-deficient mutants of G alpha(q) and G alpha11. We further demonstrate that active G alpha(q) or G alpha11, but not G alpha12 or G alpha13, strongly enhances p63RhoGEF-induced RhoA activation by direct protein-protein interaction with p63RhoGEF at its C-terminal half. Moreover, the activation of p63RhoGEF by G alpha(q/11) occurs independently of and in competition to the activation of the canonical G alpha(q/11) effector phospholipase C beta. Therefore, our results elucidate a new signaling pathway by which G alpha(q/11)-coupled receptors specifically induce Rho signaling through a direct interaction of activated G alpha(q/11) subunits with p63RhoGEF.

Regulation and cellular roles of phosphoinositide 5-kinases

The membrane phospholipid, phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP(2)), plays a critical role in various, apparently very different cellular processes. As precursor for second messengers generated by phospholipase C isoforms and class I phosphoinositide 3-kinases, PIP(2) is indispensable for cellular signaling by membrane receptors. In addition, PIP(2) directly affects the localization and activity of many cellular proteins via specific interaction with unique phosphoinositide-binding domains and thereby regulates actin cytoskeletal dynamics, vesicle trafficking, ion channel activity, gene expression and cell survival. The activity and subcellular localization of phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate 5-kinase (PIP5K) isoforms, which catalyze the formation of PIP(2), are actively regulated by membrane receptors, by phosphorylation and by small GTPases of the Rho and ARF families. Spatially and temporally organized regulation of PIP(2) synthesis by PIP5K enables dynamic and versatile PIP(2) signaling and represents an important link in the execution of cellular tasks by Rho and ARF GTPases.

Epac- and Ca2+ -controlled activation of Ras and extracellular signal-regulated kinases by Gs-coupled receptors

We have recently reported that two typical Gs-coupled receptors, the beta2-adrenergic receptor and the receptor for prostaglandin E1, stimulate phospholipase C-epsilon (PLC-epsilon) and increase intracellular Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i) in HEK-293 cells and N1E-115 neuroblastoma cells, respectively, by a pathway involving Epac1, a cAMP-activated and Rap-specific guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF), and the GTPase Rap2B. Here we have demonstrated that these Gs-coupled receptors use this pathway to activate H-Ras and the extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1 and 2 (ERK1/2). Specifically, agonist activation of the receptors resulted in activation of H-Ras and ERK1/2. The latter action was suppressed by dominant negative H-Ras, but not Rap1A. The receptor actions were independent of protein kinase A but fully mimicked by an Epac-specific cAMP analog as well as by a constitutively active Rap2B mutant. On the other hand, a cAMP-binding-deficient Epac1 mutant, the Rap GTPase-activating proteinII, and a dominant negative Rap2B mutant suppressed receptor- and Epac-mediated activation of H-Ras and ERK1/2. Finally, we have demonstrated that activation of H-Ras and ERK1/2 requires the lipase activity of PLC-epsilon and the subsequent [Ca2+]i increase, suggesting that H-Ras activation is mediated by a Ca2+ -activated GEF. In line with this hypothesis, receptor-mediated activation of H-Ras and ERK1/2 was strongly enhanced by expression of RasGRP1, a Ca2+ -regulated Ras-GEF. Collectively, our data indicated that Gs-coupled receptors can activate H-Ras and subsequently the mitogen-activated protein kinases ERK1/2 by a Ca2+ -activated Ras-GEF, possibly RasGRP1, mediated by cAMP-activated Epac proteins, which then lead via Rap2B and PLC-epsilon stimulation to [Ca2+]i increase.

Rap2B-dependent stimulation of phospholipase C-epsilon by epidermal growth factor receptor mediated by c-Src phosphorylation of RasGRP3

Receptor tyrosine kinase regulation of phospholipase C-epsilon (PLC-epsilon), which is under the control of Ras-like and Rho GTPases, was studied with HEK-293 cells endogenously expressing PLC-coupled epidermal growth factor (EGF) receptors. PLC and Ca(2+) signaling by the EGF receptor, which activated both PLC-gamma1 and PLC-epsilon, was specifically suppressed by inactivation of Ras-related GTPases with clostridial toxins and expression of dominant-negative Rap2B. EGF induced rapid and sustained GTP loading of Rap2B, binding of Rap2B to PLC-epsilon, and Rap2B-dependent translocation of PLC-epsilon to the plasma membrane. GTP loading of Rap2B by EGF was inhibited by chelation of intracellular Ca(2+) and expression of lipase-inactive PLC-gamma1 but not of PLC-epsilon. Expression of RasGRP3, a Ca(2+)/diacylglycerol-regulated guanine nucleotide exchange factor for Ras-like GTPases, but not expression of various other exchange factors enhanced GTP loading of Rap2B and PLC/Ca(2+) signaling by the EGF receptor. EGF induced tyrosine phosphorylation of RasGRP3, but not RasGRP1, apparently caused by c-Src; inhibition of c-Src interfered with EGF-induced Rap2B activation and PLC stimulation. Collectively, these data suggest that the EGF receptor triggers activation of Rap2B via PLC-gamma1 activation and tyrosine phosphorylation of RasGRP3 by c-Src, finally resulting in stimulation of PLC-epsilon.

p63RhoGEF and GEFT are Rho-specific guanine nucleotide exchange factors encoded by the same gene

Activation of Rho GTPases, which play pivotal roles in diverse cellular functions, is catalysed by specific guanine nucleotide exchange factors (GEFs). We and others (Souchet et al. (2002)) independently cloned a human cDNA encoding a 580 aa protein (p63RhoGEF), which contains a tandem of Dbl homology and pleckstrin homology domains typical for RhoGEFs. In accordance with Souchet et al., recombinant p63RhoGEF interacted with and catalysed GDP/GTP exchange at RhoA, but not Rac1 or Cdc42. Recently, an N-terminally truncated form of p63RhoGEF, termed GEFT, was described as a Rac/Cdc42-specific GEF (Guo et al. 2003). As judged by RT-PCR with specific primers, we were able to detect mRNA variants encoding p63RhoGEF and GEFT within several tissues and cell lines. Apparently, they co-exist within one cell and are derived from the same gene. When expressed in human embryonic kidney cells, both p63RhoGEF and GEFT caused activation of RhoA, but not Rac1 or Cdc42, and induced serum response factor-mediated gene transcription, which was fully blunted by the Rho-inactivating C3 transferase. In line with these data, expression of either p63RhoGEF or GEFT in J82 human bladder carcinoma cells induced the formation of actin stress fibres. We therefore conclude that p63RhoGEF and GEFT are apparently isoforms derived from the same gene and that GEFT, similar to p63RhoGEF, activates RhoA in several cell types.

Activation of type I phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate 5-kinase isoforms by the Rho GTPases, RhoA, Rac1, and Cdc42

Type I phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate 5-kinase (PIP5K) catalyzes the formation of the phospholipid, phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP(2)), which is implicated in many cellular processes. The Rho GTPases, RhoA and Rac1, have been shown previously to activate PIP5K and to bind PIP5K. Three type I PIP5K isoforms (Ialpha,Ibeta, and Igamma) have been identified; however, it is unclear whether these isoforms are differentially or even sequentially regulated by Rho GTPases. Here we show that RhoA and Rac1, as well as Cdc42, but not the Ras-like GTPases, RalA and Rap1A, markedly stimulate PIP(2) synthesis by all three PIP5K isoforms expressed in human embryonic kidney 293 cells, both in vitro and in vivo. RhoA-stimulated PIP(2) synthesis by the PIP5K isoforms was mediated by the RhoA effector, Rho-kinase. Stimulation of PIP5K isoforms by Rac1 and Cdc42 was apparently independent of and additive with RhoA- and Rho-kinase, as shown by studies with C3 transferase and Rho-kinase mutants. RhoA, and to a lesser extent Rac1, but not Cdc42, interacted in a nucleotide-independent form with all three PIP5K isoforms. Binding of PIP5K isoforms to GTP-bound, but not GDP-bound, RhoA could be displaced by Rho-kinase, suggesting a direct and constitutive PIP5K-Rho GTPase binding, which, however, does not trigger PIP5K activation. In summary, our findings indicate that synthesis of PIP(2) by the three PIP5K isoforms is controlled by RhoA, acting via Rho-kinase, as well as Rac1 and Cdc42, implicating that regulation of PIP(2) synthesis has a central position in signaling by these three Rho GTPases.

Photolysis of intracellular caged sphingosine-1-phosphate causes Ca2+mobilization independently of G-protein-coupled receptors

Sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P), the product of sphingosine kinase, activates several widely expressed G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCR). S1P might also play a role as second messenger, but this hypothesis has been challenged by recent findings. Here we demonstrate that intracellular S1P can mobilize Ca(2+) in intact cells independently of S1P-GPCR. Within seconds, S1P generated by the photolysis of caged S1P raised the intracellular free Ca(2+) concentration in HEK-293, SKNMC and HepG2 cells, in which the response to extracellularly applied S1P was either blocked or absent. Ca(2+) transients induced by photolysis of caged S1P were caused by Ca(2+) mobilization from thapsigargin-sensitive stores. These results provide direct evidence for a true intracellular action of S1P.

Inhibition of Ca(2+) signalling by the sphingosine 1-phosphate receptor S1P(1)

The lysophospholipid, sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P), regulates a multitude of cellular functions by activating specific G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) (S1P(1-5), plus three newly identified S1P receptors). The G(i)-coupled S1P(1) receptor inhibits adenylyl cyclase, stimulates mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAP kinases) and cell migration, and is required for blood vessel maturation. Here, we report that S1P(1) inhibits Ca(2+) signalling in a number of cell types. In HEK-293 cells, which endogenously express S1P(1-3), overexpression of S1P(1) reduced intracellular free Ca(2+) concentration ([Ca(2+)](i)) increases induced by various receptor agonists as well as thapsigargin. The inhibitory Ca(2+) signalling of S1P(1) was blocked by pertussis toxin (PTX) and the protein kinase C (PKC) inhibitor, Gö6976, and imitated by phorbol ester and overexpression of classical PKC isoforms. Activation of S1P(1) stably expressed in RH7777 cells, which endogenously do not express S1P receptors, also inhibited Ca(2+) signalling, without mediating Ca(2+) mobilization on its own. It is concluded that the widely expressed S1P receptor S1P(1) inhibits Ca(2+) signalling, most likely via G(i) proteins and classical PKC isoforms. Co-expression of S1P(1) with S1P(3), but not S1P(2), reversed the inhibitory effect of S1P(1), furthermore suggesting a specific interplay of S1P receptor subtypes usually found within a single cell type.

Interaction of Gbeta3s, a splice variant of the G-protein Gbeta3, with Ggamma- and Galpha-proteins

The T-allele of a polymorphism (C825T) in the gene of the G-protein beta3-subunit is associated with a complex phenotype (hypertension, obesity, altered drug responses) and the occurrence of a splice variant termed Gbeta3s which lacks one of the seven WD-domains that compose Gbeta-proteins. Here, we analysed Gbetagamma dimer formation and Galpha activation by Gbeta3s, key functional characteristics of Gbeta-proteins. Cleavage protection assays frequently used to analyse Gbeta1gamma and Gbeta2gamma dimer formation failed for Gbeta3 and Gbeta3s, while in coprecipitation assays, dimerization of Gbeta3 and Gbeta3s with Ggamma5, Ggamma8(c) and Ggamma12 could be demonstrated. Upon expression of Gbeta3s in COS-7 and Sf9 insect cells, binding of GTPgammaS to Galpha-proteins induced by mastoparan-7 and the M(2) muscarinic acetylcholine receptor was facilitated in comparison with cells overexpressing wildtype Gbeta3, as indicated by twofold reduced agonist EC(50) values. Together, these results indicate that Gbeta3s is a biologically active Gbeta-protein that may mediate the enhanced signal transduction observed in cells with the 825T-allele.

Activation of heterotrimeric G proteins by a high energy phosphate transfer via nucleoside diphosphate kinase (NDPK) B and Gbeta subunits. Complex formation of NDPK B with Gbeta gamma dimers and phosphorylation of His-266 IN Gbeta

G protein betagamma dimers can be phosphorylated in membranes from various tissues by GTP at a histidine residue in the beta subunit. The phosphate is high energetic and can be transferred onto GDP leading to formation of GTP. Purified Gbetagamma dimers do not display autophosphorylation, indicating the involvement of a separate protein kinase. We therefore enriched the Gbeta-phosphorylating activity present in preparations of the retinal G protein transducin and in partially purified G(i/o) proteins from bovine brain. Immunoblots, autophosphorylation, and enzymatic activity measurements demonstrated enriched nucleoside diphosphate kinase (NDPK) B in both preparations, together with residual Gbetagamma dimers. In the retinal NDPK B-enriched fractions, a Gbeta-specific antiserum co-precipitated phosphorylated NDPK B, and an antiserum against the human NDPK co-precipitated phosphorylated Gbetagamma. In addition, the NDPK-containing fractions from bovine brain reconstituted the phosphorylation of purified Gbetagamma. For identification of the phosphorylated histidine residue, bovine brain Gbetagamma and G(t)betagamma were thiophosphorylated with guanosine 5'-O-(3-[(35)S]thio)triphosphate, followed by digestion with endoproteinase Glu-C and trypsin, separation of the resulting peptides by gel electrophoresis and high pressure liquid chromatography, respectively, and sequencing of the radioactive peptides. The sequence information produced by both methods identified specific labeled fragments of bovine Gbeta(1) that overlapped in the heptapeptide, Leu-Met-Thr-Tyr-Ser-His-Asp (amino acids 261-267). We conclude that NDPK B forms complexes with Gbetagamma dimers and contributes to G protein activation by increasing the high energetic phosphate transfer onto GDP via intermediately phosphorylated His-266 in Gbeta(1) subunits.

Activation of heterotrimeric G proteins by a high energy phosphate transfer via nucleoside diphosphate kinase (NDPK) B and Gbeta subunits. Specific activation of Gsalpha by an NDPK B.Gbetagamma complex in H10 cells

Formation of GTP by nucleoside diphosphate kinase (NDPK) can contribute to G protein activation in vitro. To study the effect of NDPK on G protein activity in living cells, the NDPK isoforms A and B were stably expressed in H10 cells, a cell line derived from neonatal rat cardiomyocytes. Overexpression of either NDPK isoform had no effect on cellular GTP and ATP levels, basal cAMP levels, basal adenylyl cyclase activity, and the expression of G(s)alpha and G(i)alpha proteins. However, co-expression of G(s)alpha led to an increase in cAMP synthesis that was largely enhanced by the expression of NDPK B, but not NDPK A, and that was confirmed by direct measurement of adenylyl cyclase activity. Cells expressing an inactive NDPK B mutant (H118N) exhibited a decreased cAMP formation in response to G(s)alpha. Co-immunoprecipitation studies demonstrated a complex formation of the NDPK with Gbetagamma dimers. The overexpression of NDPK B, but not its inactive mutant or NDPK A, increased the phosphorylation of Gbeta subunits. In summary, our data demonstrate a specific NDPK B-mediated activation of a G protein in intact cells, which is apparently caused by formation of NDPK B.Gbetagamma complexes and which appears to contribute to the receptor-independent activation of heterotrimeric G proteins.

Sphingosylphosphorylcholine, a naturally occurring lipid mediator, inhibits human platelet function

1 The lysophospholipids, lysophosphatidic acid and sphingosine 1-phosphate, have been reported to activate platelets. Here we examined effects of the naturally occurring related sphingosylphosphorylcholine (SPC) on human platelet function. 2 Platelet activation was determined as aggregation, elevation of intracellular Ca(2+) concentrations, surface expression of P-selectin, GP 53, and GP IIb/IIIa neoepitope PAC-1, and of fibrinogen binding to the platelet surface. 3 Platelets were activated by ADP (5 and 20 micro M), the thrombin receptor-activating peptide TRAP-6 (5 and 20 micro M), the thromboxane A(2) mimetic U-46619 (1 micro M) and collagen (20 and 50 micro g ml(-1)) but not by SPC (up to 20 micro M). 4 SPC concentration-dependently (IC(50) approximately 1-10 micro M) inhibited activation of washed human platelets in response to all of the above agonists, with almost complete inhibition occurring at 20 micro M SPC. 5 The SPC stereoisomers, D-erythro SPC and L-threo SPC, exhibited similar concentration-response curves in inhibiting 20 micro M ADP-induced platelet aggregation, suggesting that SPC did not act via specific lysophospholipid receptors. 6 Although SPC slightly activated platelet protein kinase A (as assessed by VASP phosphorylation), this effect could not explain the marked platelet inhibition. Possible protein kinase C inhibition also did not explain the inhibition of platelet activation by SPC. On the other hand, SPC suppressed agonist-induced Ca(2+) mobilization and phospholipase C stimulation. 7 These results indicate that the lysophospholipid SPC is an effective inhibitor of human platelet activation, apparently primarily by uncoupling agonist-activated receptors from their effectors.

Adhesiveness of human uterine epithelial RL95-2 cells to trophoblast: rho protein regulation

Embryo implantation involves adhesion of trophoblast cells to the epithelial lining of the endometrium. Using an in-vitro model to simulate this initial interaction, we previously reported that attachment of human trophoblast-like JAR spheroids to human uterine epithelial RL95-2 cells provokes a Ca(2+) influx in RL95-2 cells depending on apically localized integrin receptors. Here, we demonstrate that adhesiveness of RL95-2 cells for JAR spheroids, measured by a centrifugal force-based adhesion assay, is dependent on Rho GTPases, most likely RhoA. Cellular expression and distribution of RhoA were studied by fluorescence confocal microscopy, focusing on the localization of RhoA and F-actin within the adhesion sites between JAR and RL95-2 cells. Contact areas contained high amounts of RhoA and F-actin fibres near the plasma membrane. To determine whether Rho GTPases may influence JAR cell binding, we treated RL95-2 cells with Clostridium difficile toxin A, which specifically inactivates Rho GTPases. Toxin A treatment changed the subcellular distribution of endogenous RhoA in RL95-2 cells and altered RhoA and F-actin colocalization. Adhesion of JAR spheroids to RL95-2 cells treated with toxin A was largely suppressed. These data indicate that Rho GTPases, most likely RhoA, play an important role in uterine epithelial RL95-2 cells for trophoblast binding, and suggest that RhoA may be involved in local signalling cascades during early embryo implantation in vivo.

A mammalian Rho-specific guanine-nucleotide exchange factor (p164-RhoGEF) without a pleckstrin homology domain

Rho GTPases, which are activated by specific guanine-nucleotide exchange factors (GEFs), play pivotal roles in several cellular functions. We identified a recently cloned human cDNA, namely KIAA0337, encoding a protein containing 1510 amino acids (p164). It contains a RhoGEF-specific Dbl homology (DH) domain but lacks their typical pleckstrin homology domain. The expression of the mRNA encoding p164 was found to be at least 4-fold higher in the heart than in other tissues. Recombinant p164 interacted with and induced GDP/GTP exchange at RhoA but not at Rac1 or Cdc42. p164-DeltaC and p164-DeltaN are p164 mutants that are truncated at the C- and N-termini respectively but contain the DH domain. In contrast with the full-length p164, expression of p164-DeltaC and p164-DeltaN strongly induced actin stress fibre formation and activated serum response factor-mediated and Rho-dependent gene transcription. Interestingly, p164-DeltaN2, a mutant containing the C-terminus but having a defective DH domain, bound to p164-DeltaC and suppressed the p164-DeltaC-induced gene transcription. Overexpression of the full-length p164 inhibited M(3) muscarinic receptor-induced gene transcription, whereas co-expression with Gbeta(1)gamma(2) dimers induced transcriptional activity. It is concluded that p164-RhoGEF is a Rho-specific GEF with novel structural and regulatory properties and predominant expression in the heart. Apparently, its N- and C-termini interact with each other, thereby inhibiting its GEF activity.

Problem- vs. lecture-based pharmacology teaching in a German medical school

We have compared the effectiveness of problem-based learning (PBL) and classical lecture-based learning (LBL) in conveying medical facts in a general pharmacology class of third year medical students ( n=107). Three groups with a total of 31 students were randomly assigned to PBL. The PBL groups (9-12 students each) received ten 2-h sessions in which a clinical case was discussed and ten 2-h sessions in which areas of pharmacology not covered by the case discussions were presented in an LBL format (one group with all 31 students). The other students were assigned to groups of 14-15 students and received 20 2-h sessions in an LBL format. At the end of the semester all students received a questionnaire and participated in the same 30-question multiple-choice exam. The mean number of false answers was 7.6+/-4.0 and 9.7+/-4.7 in the PBL and LBL groups, respectively ( P<0.05 in a two-tailed t-test), and the percentage of failing students (>10 false answers) was 27% and 38%, respectively. Both groups were asked to rate their pharmacology class on a scale of 1 (lowest) to 10 (highest). In this questionnaire, PBL students by average rated generated interest in pharmacology, conveyed knowledge in pharmacology and understanding of medical questions approximately 1 point higher than LBL students. In an additional questionnaire given to the PBL students only, they reported to have prepared themselves 0.9+/-1.1 h for their lecture sessions but 3.0+/-1.4 h for their case discussions. The above findings were largely confirmed in the next semester when students were allowed to decide whether to participate in PBL or LBL classes. Moreover, PBL students did not score worse than LBL students in nation-wide pharmacology exams (523+/-76 vs. 500+/-91 points, P=0.09). We conclude that a switch from LBL to PBL teaching of pharmacology does not occur at the expense of factual knowledge transmission.

Sphingosylphosphorylcholine-biological functions and mechanisms of action

Compared to the lysophospholipid mediators, sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) and lysophosphatidic acid (LPA), little information is available regarding the molecular mechanisms of action, metabolism and physiological significance of the related sphingosylphosphorylcholine (SPC). S1P and LPA have recently been established as agonists at several G-protein-coupled receptors of the EDG family, S1P additionally serves an intracellular second messenger function. Several cellular effects of SPC can be explained by low-affinity binding to and activation of S1P-EDG receptors. However, certain cellular and subcellular actions of SPC are not shared by S1P, suggesting that SPC, which has been identified in normal blood plasma, ascites and various tissues, is a lipid mediator in its own right. This concept was corroborated by the recent discovery of specific high-affinity G-protein-coupled SPC receptors. In this article, our present knowledge on cellular actions and biological functions of SPC will be reviewed.

Stimulation of phospholipase C-epsilon by the M3 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor mediated by cyclic AMP and the GTPase Rap2B

Stimulation of phospholipase C (PLC) by G(q)-coupled receptors such as the M(3) muscarinic acetylcholine receptor (mAChR) is caused by direct activation of PLC-beta enzymes by Galpha(q) proteins. We have recently shown that G(s)-coupled receptors can stimulate PLC-epsilon, apparently via formation of cyclic AMP and activation of the Ras-related GTPase Rap2B. Here we report that PLC stimulation by the M(3) mAChR expressed in HEK-293 cells also involves, in part, similar mechanisms. M(3) mAChR-mediated PLC stimulation and [Ca(2+)](i) increase were reduced by 2',5'-dideoxyadenosine (dd-Ado), a direct adenylyl cyclase inhibitor. On the other hand, overexpression of Galpha(s) or Epac1, a cyclic AMP-regulated guanine nucleotide exchange factor for Rap GTPases, enhanced M(3) mAChR-mediated PLC stimulation. Inactivation of Ras-related GTPases with clostridial toxins suppressed the M(3) mAChR responses. The inhibitory toxin effects were mimicked by expression of inactive Rap2B, but not of other inactive GTPases (Rac1, Ras, RalA, Rap1A, and Rap2A). Activation of the M(3) mAChR induced GTP loading of Rap2B, an effect strongly enhanced by overexpression of Galpha(s) and inhibited by dd-Ado. Overexpression of PLC-epsilon and PLC-beta1, but not PLC-gamma1 or PLC-delta1, enhanced M(3) mAChR-mediated PLC stimulation and [Ca(2+)](i) increase. In contrast, expression of a catalytically inactive PLC-epsilon mutant reduced PLC stimulation by the M(3) mAChR and abrogated the potentiating effect of Galpha(s). In conclusion, our findings suggest that PLC stimulation by the M(3) mAChR is a composite action of PLC-beta1 stimulation by Galpha(q) and stimulation of PLC-epsilon apparently mediated by G(s)-dependent cyclic AMP formation and subsequent activation of Rap2B.

Comparison of problem-and lecture-based pharmacology teaching

Problem-based learning (PBL) is gaining interest in many medical schools. Although various approaches have been labelled PBL, it remains unclear which approach is most appropriate for pharmacology courses. Moreover, some teachers remain sceptical about whether PBL is adequate to convey the numerous facts medical students need to memorize about drugs. However, comparisons of PBL methods with conventional lecture-based learning (LBL) methods within general pharmacology courses for medical students show that PBL students are at least as successful in standardized tests but enjoy their course to a greater extent than do LBL students.

Distinct signaling pathways mediate cardiomyocyte phospholipase D stimulation by endothelin-1 and thrombin

Several G protein-coupled receptors which stimulate phospholipase C (PLC) also activate phospholipase D (PLD) in cardiomyocytes. Here, we characterized PLD activation in neonatal rat cardiomyocytes by the PLC-stimulatory thrombin receptor PAR1, in comparison to the endothelin-1 receptor ET(A)R, which induces PLD stimulation by activation of protein kinase C (PKC) delta and epsilon. Similar to ET(A)R, activation of PAR1 induced PLD stimulation, which, however, was insensitive to PKC inhibition. Furthermore, in contrast to ET(A)R, PLD stimulation by PAR1 was suppressed by overexpression of regulators of G protein signaling specific for G(12)-type G proteins and treatment with brefeldin A, an inhibitor of guanine nucleotide exchange factors for ADP-ribosylation factor (ARF) GTPases. On the other hand, inactivation of Rho GTPases by Clostridium difficile toxin B and treatment with general tyrosine kinase inhibitors suppressed PAR1- and ET(A)R- as well as phorbol ester-induced PLD stimulation and was associated with a fall in the cellular level of phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP(2)). We conclude that, in contrast to ET(A)R-PLD coupling, PAR1-induced cardiomyocyte PLD stimulation is PKC-independent and mediated by G(12)-type G proteins and ARF GTPases, while Rho and tyrosine kinases regulate PLD stimulation by either receptor, apparently by controlling the cellular level of PIP(2), a common regulator of PLD activity.

Spontaneous release of GDP from Gi proteins and inhibition of adenylyl cyclase in cardiac sarcolemmal membranes

Several studies have shown an activation of adenylyl cyclase by the G protein-inactivating guanine nucleotides, GDP and its phosphate transfer-resistant analog, guanosine 5'- O-(2-thiodiphosphate; GDPbetaS). Here, we studied the mechanism underlying this unconventional activation. Adenylyl cyclase activity in sarcolemmal membranes from failing human ventricular myocardium, at a low Mg2+ concentration, decreased rapidly during incubation at 37 degrees C. This decrease in enzyme activity was paralleled by a rapid release of GDP from Gi proteins, amounting to 75% release of total Gi-bound GDP within 10 min at 37 degrees C. In contrast, no GDP release was observed at 4 degrees C, and adenylyl cyclase activity remained stable for up to 20 min at 4 degrees C. GDPbetaS did not alter the initial rates of cyclic AMP formation by the adenylyl cyclase, at either 37 degrees C or 4 degrees C, but almost fully prevented the decrease in enzyme activity occurring at 37 degrees C. Hence, after 10 min of incubation at 37 degrees C, adenylyl cyclase activity in the presence of GDPbetaS was increased by 150%, while no difference in activity was observed at 4 degrees C. Under conditions where adenylyl cyclase is uncoupled from regulation by the inhibitory Gi proteins, i.e., at high concentrations of Mg2+ or Mn2+, adenylyl cyclase activity remained stable even at 37 degrees C and GDPbetaS did not stimulate activity. In conclusion, Gi proteins in sarcolemmal membranes from failing human hearts rapidly release bound GDP. The data, furthermore, suggest that this process results in adenylyl cyclase inhibition by the empty but apparently active Gi proteins.

Transient relaxation of rat mesenteric microvessels by ceramides

We have investigated the vasodilating effects of D-erythro-C2-ceramide (C2-ceramide) in methoxamine-contracted rat mesenteric microvessels. C2-ceramide (10 - 100 microM) caused a concentration-dependent, slowly developing relaxation which reached maximum values after approximately 10 min and partially abated thereafter. Endothelium removal or inhibitors of guanylyl cyclase (3 microM ODQ), protein kinase A (10 microM H7, 1 microM H89) and various types of K(+) channels (10 microM BaCl(2), 3 mM tetraethylammonium, 30 nM charybdotoxin, 30 nM iberiotoxin, 300 nM apamine, 10 microM glibenclamide) had only small if any inhibitory effects against C2-ceramide-induced vasodilation, but some of them attenuated vasodilation by sodium nitroprusside or isoprenaline. A combination of ODQ and charybdotoxin almost completely abolished C2-ceramide-induced vasodilation. A second administration of C2-ceramide caused a detectable but weaker relaxation. L-threo-C2-ceramide (100 microM), which should not be a substrate to ceramide metabolism, had no biphasic time course. The ceramidase inhibitor (1S,2R)-D-erythro-2-(N-myristoylamino)-1-phenyl-1-propanol (100 microM) alone caused some vasodilation, indicating vasodilation by endogenous ceramides, and also hastened relaxation by exogenous C2-ceramide. The late-developing reversal of C2-ceramide-induced vasodilation was absent when alpha-adrenergic tone was removed by addition of 10 microM phentolamine. We conclude that C2-ceramide relaxes rat resistance vessels in an endothelium-independent manner which is prevented only by combined inhibition of guanylyl cyclase and charybdotoxin-sensitive K(+) channels. The vasodilation abates with time partly due to desensitization of the ceramide response and partly due to metabolism of C2-ceramide to an inactive metabolite.

Depolarisation induces rapid and transient formation of intracellular sphingosine-1-phosphate

Formation of sphingosine-1-phosphate (SPP) by sphingosine kinase serves as a signalling pathway for various membrane receptors. Here, we show that membrane depolarisation is another mechanism by which this pathway can be activated. Formation of [(3)H]SPP as well as levels of endogenous SPP were rapidly and transiently increased in PC12 pheochromocytoma cells depolarised with high KCl. Time course and maximum were similar to those induced by bradykinin. Depolarisation-induced SPP production was also observed in RINm5F insulinoma cells, dependent on extracellular Ca(2+) and fully suppressed by verapamil, thus apparently caused by Ca(2+) influx via voltage-gated Ca(2+) channels. Studies with sphingosine kinase inhibitors and overexpression of sphingosine kinase revealed a partial contribution of this pathway to depolarisation-induced noradrenaline release and Ca(2+) increase.

A new phospholipase-C-calcium signalling pathway mediated by cyclic AMP and a Rap GTPase

Stimulation of phosphoinositide-hydrolysing phospholipase C (PLC) generating inositol-1,4,5-trisphosphate is a major calcium signalling pathway used by a wide variety of membrane receptors, activating distinct PLC-beta or PLC-gamma isoforms. Here we report a new PLC and calcium signalling pathway that is triggered by cyclic AMP (cAMP) and mediated by a small GTPase of the Rap family. Activation of the adenylyl cyclase-coupled beta2-adrenoceptor expressed in HEK-293 cells or the endogenous receptor for prostaglandin E1 in N1E-115 neuroblastoma cells induced calcium mobilization and PLC stimulation, seemingly caused by cAMP formation, but was independent of protein kinase A (PKA). We provide evidence that these receptor responses are mediated by a Rap GTPase, specifically Rap2B, activated by a guanine-nucleotide-exchange factor (Epac) regulated by cAMP, and involve the recently identified PLC-epsilon isoform.

Sphingosine kinase-mediated calcium signaling by muscarinic acetylcholine receptors

Based on the finding that G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) can induce Ca2+ mobilization, apparently independent of the phospholipase C (PLC)/inositol-1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3) pathway, we investigated whether sphingosine kinase, which generates sphingosine-1-phosphate (SPP), is involved in calcium signaling by mAChR and other GPCRs. Inhibition of sphingosine kinase by DL-threo-dihydrosphingosine and N,/N-dimethylsphingosine markedly inhibited [Ca2+]i increases elicited by M2 and M3 mAChRs in HEK-293 cells without affecting PLC activation. Activation of M2 and M3 mAChR rapidly and transiently stimulated production of SPP. Furthermore, microinjection of SPP into HEK-293 cells induced rapid and transient Ca2+ mobilization. Pretreatment of HEK-293 cells with the calcium chelator BAPTA/AM fully blocked mAChR-induced SPP production. On the other hand, incubation of HEK-293 cells with calcium ionophores activated SPP production. Similar findings were obtained for formyl peptide and P2Y2 purinergic receptors in HL-60 cells. On the basis of these studies we propose, that following initial IP3 production by receptor-mediated PLC activation, a local discrete increase in [Ca2+]i induces sphingosine kinase stimulation, which ultimately leads to full calcium mobilization. Thus, sphingosine kinase activation most likely represents an amplification system for calcium signaling by mAChRs and other GPCRs.

Lysosphingolipid receptor-mediated diuresis and natriuresis in anaesthetized rats

Lysosphingolipids such as sphingosine-1-phosphate (SPP) and sphingosylphosphorylcholine (SPPC) can act on specific G-protein-coupled receptors. Since SPP and SPPC cause renal vasoconstriction, we have investigated their effects on urine and electrolyte excretion in anaesthetized rats. Infusion of SPP (1 - 30 microg kg(-1) min(-1)) for up to 120 min dose-dependently but transiently (peak after 15 min, disappearance after 60 min) reduced renal blood flow without altering endogenous creatinine clearance. Nevertheless, infusion of SPP increased diuresis, natriuresis and calciuresis and, to a lesser extent, kaliuresis. These tubular lysosphingolipid effects developed more slowly (maximum after 60 - 90 min) and also abated more slowly upon lysosphingolipid washout than the renovascular effects. Infusion of SPPC, sphingosine and glucopsychosine (3 - 30 microg kg(-1) min(-1) each) caused little if any alterations in renal blood flow but also increased diuresis, natriuresis and calciuresis and, to a lesser extent, kaliuresis. Pretreatment with pertussis toxin (10 microg kg(-1) 3 days before the acute experiment) abolished the renovascular and tubular effects of 30 microg kg(-1) min(-1) SPP. These findings suggest that lysosphingolipids are a hitherto unrecognized class of endogenous modulators of renal function. SPP affects renovascular tone and tubular function via receptors coupled to G(i)-type G-proteins. SPPC, sphingosine and glucopsychosine mimic only the tubular effects of SPP, and hence may act on distinct sites.

Stimulation of intracellular sphingosine-1-phosphate production by G-protein-coupled sphingosine-1-phosphate receptors

Recently, a family of G-protein-coupled receptors named endothelial differentiation gene (Edg) receptor family has been identified, which are specifically activated by the two serum lipids, sphingosine-1-phosphate and lysophosphatidic acid. Sphingosine-1-phosphate can also act intracellularly to release Ca2+ from intracellular stores. Since in several cell types, G-protein-coupled lysophosphatidic acid or sphingosine-1-phosphate receptors mobilize Ca2+ in the absence of a measurable phospholipase C stimulation, it was analysed here whether intracellular sphingosine-1-phosphate production was the signalling mechanism used by extracellular sphingosine-1-phosphate for mobilization of stored Ca2+. Sphingosine-1-phosphate and the low affinity sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor agonist, sphingosylphosphorylcholine, induced a rapid, transient and nearly complete pertussis toxin-sensitive Ca2+ mobilization in human embryonic kidney (HEK-293) cells. The G-protein-coupled sphingosine-1-phosphate receptors, Edg-1, Edg-3 and Edg-5, were found to be endogenously expressed in these cells. Most interestingly, sphingosine-1-phosphate and sphingosylphosphorylcholine did not induce a measurable production of inositol-1,4,5-trisphosphate or accumulation of inositol phosphates. Instead, sphingosine-1-phosphate and sphingosylphosphorylcholine induced a rapid and transient increase in production of intracellular sphingosine-1-phosphate with a maximum of about 1.4-fold at 30 s. Stimulation of sphingosine-1-phosphate formation by sphingosine-1-phosphate and sphingosylphosphorylcholine was fully blocked by pertussis toxin, indicating that extracellular sphingosine-1-phosphate via endogenously expressed G(i)-coupled receptors induces a stimulation of intracellular sphingosine-1-phosphate production. As sphingosine-1-phosphate- and sphingosylphosphorylcholine-induced increases in intracellular Ca2+ were blunted by sphingosine kinase inhibitors, this sphingosine-1-phosphate production appears to mediate Ca2+ signalling by extracellular sphingosine-1-phosphate and sphingosylphosphorylcholine in HEK-293 cells.

The M3 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor expressed in HEK-293 cells signals to phospholipase D via G12 but not Gq-type G proteins: regulators of G proteins as tools to dissect pertussis toxin-resistant G proteins in receptor-effector coupling

The M(3) muscarinic acetylcholine receptor (mAChR) expressed in HEK-293 cells couples to G(q) and G(12) proteins and stimulates phospholipase C (PLC) and phospholipase D (PLD) in a pertussis toxin-insensitive manner. To determine the type of G protein mediating M(3) mAChR-PLD coupling in comparison to M(3) mAChR-PLC coupling, we expressed various Galpha proteins and regulators of the G protein signaling (RGS), which act as GTPase-activating proteins for G(q)- or G(12)-type G proteins. PLD stimulation by the M(3) mAChR was enhanced by the overexpression of Galpha(12) and Galpha(13), whereas the overexpression of Galpha(q) strongly increased PLC activity without affecting PLD activity. Expression of the RGS homology domain of Lsc, which acts specifically on Galpha(12) and Galpha(13), blunted the M(3) mAChR-induced PLD stimulation without affecting PLC stimulation. On the other hand, overexpression of RGS4, which acts on Galpha(q)- but not Galpha(12)-type G proteins, suppressed the M(3) mAChR-induced PLC stimulation without altering PLD stimulation. We conclude that the M(3) mAChR in HEK-293 cells apparently signals to PLD via G(12)- but not G(q)-type G proteins and that G protein subtype-selective RGS proteins can be used as powerful tools to dissect the pertussis toxin-resistant G proteins and their role in receptor-effector coupling.

Identification and characterization of a novel Rho-specific guanine nucleotide exchange factor

Rho GTPases are implicated in a multitude of cellular processes regulated by membrane receptors, such as cytoskeletal rearrangements, gene transcription and cell growth and motility. Activation of these GTPases is under the direct control of guanine nucleotide exchange factors (GEFs), the Dbl family proteins. By searching protein databases we have identified a novel Rho-GEF, termed p114-Rho-GEF, which similarly to other Rho-GEFs contains a Dbl homology domain followed by a pleckstrin homology domain. p114-Rho-GEF interacted specifically with RhoA, in its nucleotide-free and guanosine 5'-[gamma-thio]triphosphate-bound states, but not with Rac1 and Cdc42, and efficiently catalysed guanine nucleotide exchange of RhoA. Consistent with these results in vitro was our finding that the overexpression of p114-Rho-GEF in J82 and HEK-293 cells induced the formation of actin stress fibres and stimulated serum-response-factor-mediated gene transcription in a Rho-dependent manner. Rho-mediated transcriptional activation induced by M(3) muscarinic acetylcholine and lysophosphatidic acid receptors was enhanced by p114-Rho-GEF, suggesting that the activity of this novel Rho-GEF, which is widely expressed in human tissues, can be controlled by G-protein-coupled receptors.

G protein-coupled receptor-induced sensitization of phospholipase C stimulation by receptor tyrosine kinases

Activation of stably expressed M(2) and M(3) muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (mAChRs) as well as of endogenously expressed lysophosphatidic acid and purinergic receptors in HEK-293 cells can induce a long lasting potentiation of phospholipase C (PLC) stimulation by these and other G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). Here, we report that GPCRs can induce an up-regulation of PLC stimulation by receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) as well and provide essential mechanistic characteristics of this sensitization process. Pretreatment of HEK-293 cells for 2 min with carbachol, a mAChR agonist, lysophosphatidic acid, or ATP, followed by agonist washout, strongly increased (by 2-3-fold) maximal PLC stimulation (measured >/=40 min later) by epidermal growth factor and platelet-derived growth factor, but not insulin, and largely enhanced PLC sensitivity to these RTK agonists. The up-regulation of RTK-induced PLC stimulation was cycloheximide-insensitive and was observed for up to approximately 90 min after removal of the GPCR agonist. Sensitization of receptor-induced PLC stimulation caused by prior M(2) mAChR activation was fully prevented by pertussis toxin and strongly reduced by expression of Gbetagamma scavengers. Furthermore, inhibition of conventional protein kinase C (PKC) isoenzymes and chelation of intracellular Ca(2+) suppressed the sensitization process, while overexpression of PKC-alpha, but not PKC-betaI, further enhanced the M(2) mAChR-induced sensitization of PLC stimulation. None of these treatments affected acute PLC stimulation by either GPCR or RTK agonists. Taken together, short term activation of GPCRs can induce a strong and long lasting sensitization of PLC stimulation by RTKs, a process apparently involving G(i)-derived Gbetagammas as well as increases in intracellular Ca(2+) and activation of a PKC isoenzyme, most likely PKC-alpha.

Stimulation of sphingosine-1-phosphate formation by the P2Y(2) receptor in HL-60 cells: Ca(2+) requirement and implication in receptor-mediated Ca(2+) mobilization, but not MAP kinase activation

Sphingosine-1-phosphate (SPP), produced by sphingosine kinase, has recently been reported to act as an intracellular second messenger for Ca(2+) and mitogenic responses triggered by membrane receptors and as an extracellular ligand for specific SPP receptors. Here, we investigated the signaling pathway leading to SPP production by the G protein-coupled P2Y(2) receptor and its functional implication in human leukemia (HL-60) cells, which do not respond to extracellular SPP. P2Y(2) receptor activation by UTP or ATP resulted in rapid and transient production of SPP, which was insensitive to pertussis toxin and blocked by the sphingosine kinase inhibitor, DL-threo-dihydrosphingosine. Treatment of HL-60 cells with this inhibitor did not affect activation of mitogen-activated protein kinases, but suppressed Ca(2+) mobilization by the P2Y(2) receptor. However, receptor-induced SPP production apparently required an increase in intracellular Ca(2+) concentration, but not Ca(2+) influx, and was mimicked by exposure of cells to Ca(2+) ionophores. Taken together, activation of the P2Y(2) receptor stimulates SPP production in HL-60 cells, a process apparently not required for mitogen-activated protein kinase activation, but most likely representing an amplification system for receptor-mediated Ca(2+) signaling.