Sources and reporting of oil spills and impacts on wildlife 1970-2018

The extraction, transport, and consumption of hydrocarbons occur daily worldwide and can lead to environmental pollution and significant incidents of wildlife mortality. This review of literature and publicly available databases from 1970 to 2018 summarises records on oil spill incidents, sources of spills, and reported effects on wildlife. During this time period, millions of tonnes of oil were released from over 1700 acute oil spills, with only 312 (18%) reporting wildlife effects. The most numerous reported spill source was shipping. From this review, there are obvious global gaps in reporting of oil spills and recording of effects on wildlife. We recommend there is a global need for increased consistency of reporting and availability of data of oil spills, and wildlife impacts. This information is critical to preparedness and response procedures for industry (shipping and oil) and governments.

Apparent lack of efficacy of toltrazuril against Eimeria species affecting brown kiwi (Apteryx mantelli) at a captive rearing facility

AIM

To assess the efficacy of toltrazuril against the Eimeria spp. affecting brown kiwi (Apteryx mantelli).

METHODS

Droppings were collected from three brown kiwi, aged <6 months old, at a captive rearing facility in the North Island of New Zealand, between 22 February and 20 April 2017, on 14 sampling dates. Only droppings (n=30) that were excreted between 03:00 and 07:00, as determined using video surveillance, were included for analysis, reflecting the peak time for shedding of coccidial oocysts for brown kiwi. Oocysts were quantified in each sample and Eimeria species identified on the basis of oocyst morphology. All samples were collected between 2 and 10 days after the birds had been treated with 25 mg/kg toltrazuril.

RESULTS

Eimeria spp. oocysts were identified in 28/30 individual samples and on 14/14 sampling dates. Oocyst counts varied from 0 to 328,080 oocysts per gram (opg), and at least one oocyst count >10,000 opg was measured on 12/14 sampling dates. Three species of Eimeria were observed, with Eimeria apteryxii and E. kiwii most commonly encountered, whereas only one sample contained E. paraurii.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

In the three birds monitored at this research site, there was a high abundance of E. apteryxii and E. kiwii oocysts in droppings despite recent administration of toltrazuril. These results suggest that the populations of Eimeria spp. affecting brown kiwi at this location appear to possess an ability to survive exposure to toltrazuril. Toltrazuril is widely used at captive rearing facilities to limit the effects of coccidiosis in juvenile kiwi. If a lack of efficacy is confirmed, it will be necessary to investigate alternative treatment regimens alongside broader environmental management strategies.

The circadian variation of oocyst shedding of Eimeria spp. affecting brown kiwi (Apteryx mantelli)

Captive rearing of wild brown kiwi (Apteryx mantelli) is widely carried out to assist in the recovery of this declining species. As a consequence, high densities of immunologically naïve kiwi are commonly housed in semi-captive conditions, with the potential to result in substantial morbidity and mortality from coccidiosis caused by multiple species of Eimeria. Previous research has described circadian variation in oocyst shedding across multiple avian host species. The aim of this research was to describe any circadian variation in oocyst shedding in brown kiwi. Droppings were collected from brown kiwi (n = 4) at a single captive rearing facility using video surveillance to determine the time of excretion, and oocyst counts were undertaken. Results show that two of the Eimeria spp. affecting brown kiwi exhibit a peak in oocyst shedding between 03.00 and 07.00 with few or no oocysts shed between 08.00 and midnight. These results are not able to be explained by the current hypotheses theorising the evolutionary forces behind the development of this adaptive trait. Our findings increase the current understanding of the biology of the Eimeria spp. affecting brown kiwi and have important implications for the management of captive-reared kiwi, in particular for the accurate interpretation of faecal oocyst counts.

Corticosterone stress hormone responses in oil rehabilitated and non-rehabilitated little penguins

Whether oiled wildlife should be rehabilitated during an oil spill is internationally debated. Research on little penguins (LP, Eudyptula minor) rehabilitated and released back into a cleaned environment after the New Zealand C/V Rena grounding oil spill in 2011 found the rehabilitation process was effective at treating and reversing the negative effects of oil-contamination on penguin post-release survival, productivity and diving behaviour. Here we investigated the acute corticosterone stress response of LPs to determine if responses of rehabilitated birds differed from those of "control" birds. Corticosterone responses of LPs two years after an oil spill did not differ between rehabilitated and non-rehabilitated penguins. These results show that the rehabilitation process for LP did not affect their long-term physiological responses to humans. This indicates that wildlife can be rehabilitated and returned to the wild with similar human tolerance levels to non-rehabilitated birds and an absence of habituation.

Stat5 is critical for the development and maintenance of myeloproliferative neoplasm initiated by Nf1 deficiency

Juvenile myelomonocytic leukemia is a rare myeloproliferative neoplasm characterized by hyperactive RAS signaling. Neurofibromin1 (encoded by the NF1 gene) is a negative regulator of RAS activation. Patients with neurofibromatosis type 1 harbor loss-of-function mutations in NF1 and have a 200- to 500-fold increased risk of juvenile myelomonocytic leukemia. Leukemia cells from patients with juvenile myelomonocytic leukemia display hypersensitivity to certain cytokines, such as granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor. The granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor receptor utilizes pre-associated JAK2 to initiate signals after ligand binding. JAK2 subsequently activates STAT5, among other downstream effectors. Although STAT5 is gaining recognition as an important mediator of growth factor signaling in myeloid leukemias, the contribution of STAT5 to the development of hyperactive RAS-initiated myeloproliferative disease has not been well described. In this study, we investigated the consequence of STAT5 attenuation via genetic and pharmacological approaches in Nf1-deficient murine models of juvenile myelomonocytic leukemia. We found that homozygous Stat5 deficiency extended the lifespan of Nf1-deficient mice and eliminated the development of myeloproliferative neoplasm associated with Nf1 gene loss. Likewise, we found that JAK inhibition with ruxolitinib attenuated myeloproliferative neoplasm in Nf1-deficient mice. Finally, we found that primary cells from a patient with KRAS-mutant juvenile myelomonocytic leukemia displayed reduced colony formation in response to JAK2 inhibition. Our findings establish a central role for STAT5 activation in the pathogenesis of juvenile myelomonocytic leukemia and suggest that targeting this pathway may be of clinical utility in these patients.

Is the way an oil spill response is reported in the media important for the final perception of the clean-up?

This research investigates the media coverage during the C/V Rena grounding in New Zealand (NZ), in 2011, to analyze if information reported in printed media is important for the final perception of the overall oil spill response. We took all articles available from NZ's largest circulated newspaper and the regional newspaper closest to the incident and analyzed the themes within each article; the article's tone (positive, neutral or negative); the time of the report relative to incident events and any differences between the regional and national papers. This analysis indicates that oil spills are reported and perceived as inherently negative incidents. However, along with coordinating an effective spill response, fast, factual and frequent media releases and increased effect in media liaison in areas of response with high public intrinsic value such as oiled wildlife response can significantly influence tone of media coverage and likely overall public perception.

Baseline hydrocarbon levels in New Zealand coastal and marine avifauna

The external effects of oil on wildlife can be obvious and acute. Internal effects are more difficult to detect and can occur without any external signs. To quantify internal effects from oil ingestion by wildlife during an oil spill, baseline levels of ubiquitous hydrocarbon fractions, like polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), need to be established. With these baseline values the extent of impact from exposure during a spill can be determined. This research represents the first investigation of baseline levels for 22 PAHs in New Zealand coastal and marine avian wildlife. Eighty-five liver samples were tested from 18 species. PAHs were identified in 98% of livers sampled with concentrations ranging from 0 to 1341.6 ng/g lipid wt or on wet wt basis, 0 to 29.5 ng/g. Overall, concentrations were low relative to other globally reported avian values. PAH concentration variability was linked with species foraging habitat and migratory patterns.

Ventral dermatitis in rowi (Apteryx rowi) due to cutaneous larval migrans

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Rowi on a crèche island showed loss of feathers and dermatitis.

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We identified cutaneous larval migrans, possibly due to Trichostrongylus.

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This is the first instance of cutaneous larval migrans to be recorded in birds.

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Fatal complications resulted in the death of eight birds from aspergillosis.

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Intensive conservation management can result in pathways for novel infections.

The rowi is a critically endangered species of kiwi. Young birds on a crèche island showed loss of feathers from the ventral abdomen and a scurfy dermatitis of the abdominal skin and vent margin. Histology of skin biopsies identified cutaneous larval migrans, which was shown by molecular sequencing to be possibly from a species of Trichostrongylus as a cause of ventral dermatitis and occasional ulcerative vent dermatitis. The predisposing factors that led to this disease are suspected to be the novel exposure of the rowi to parasites from seabirds or marine mammals due to the island crèche and the limited management of roost boxes. This is the first instance of cutaneous larval migrans to be recorded in birds. Severe and fatal complications of the investigation resulted in the death of eight birds of aspergillosis and pulmonary complications associated with the use of bark as a substrate in hospital. Another bird died of renal failure during the period of hospitalisation despite oral and intravenous fluid therapy. The initiating cause of the renal failure was not determined. These complications have the potential to undermine the working relationship between wildlife veterinarians and conservation managers. This case highlights that intensive conservation management can result in increased opportunities for novel routes of cross-species pathogen transmission.

Prevalence of and risk factors for coccidiosis in kiwi between 1977 and 2011

AIMS

To identify risk factors associated with coccidiosis in kiwi (Apteryx spp.) using a retrospective analysis of historical data from kiwi examined post-mortem, and to determine the prevalence of coccidial oocysts in the droppings of wild and captive kiwi.

METHODS

Necropsy reports were examined from kiwi submitted to the National Wildlife Mortality Database of New Zealand (Huia) between February 1977 and May 2011. All cases that reported histological examination of one or more hepatic, intestinal or renal tissues were included in the study (n=372). Data collated for analysis included the presence or absence of coccidiosis in one or more tissues, age, host species, habitat, and season of submission. Fisher's exact test was used to determine the association between each independent variable and the prevalence of coccidiosis. Droppings opportunistically collected from wild and captive kiwi between January 2008 and June 2010 were also examined for the presence of coccidial oocysts.

RESULTS

Coccidiosis was evident in 47/372 (12.6%) kiwi examined post-mortem and was considered the primary cause of death in 12/47 (26%) infected cases. Examination of 412 droppings from wild and captive kiwi collected over a 29-month period revealed that 98 (23.8%) samples contained coccidia at the time of sampling. Enteric (n=27) coccidiosis was the most common form diagnosed using histology, followed by renal (n=19) and hepatic (n=11), with splenic (n=2) and pulmonary (n=1) infections infrequently seen. Many kiwi demonstrated infections in multiple tissues. The prevalence of coccidiosis was greater in juvenile kiwi (36/148, 24.3%) than adults (8/133, 6.0%) or chicks (2/83, 2.4%) (p<0.001), although there was no difference in mortality between age groups. Season of year was also associated with overall prevalence (p=0.05), with most cases being diagnosed in the autumn and winter. Coccidiosis was histologically evident in four of five species of kiwi examined, and in all host species upon analysis of droppings. Host species or habitat (captive vs. wild) did not influence the prevalence of disease detected histologically.

CONCLUSIONS

Age and season were the only factors that influenced the prevalence of coccidiosis in kiwi in this study. Coccidiosis was present in all species of kiwi, and this is the first report of coccidiosis in rowi (Apteryx rowi).

Enteric coccidiosis in the brown kiwi (Apteryx mantelli)

Enteric coccidiosis may cause significant morbidity and mortality in juvenile brown kiwi (Apteryx mantelli). Morphology of sporulated oocysts indicates that at least two Eimeria species are able to infect the brown kiwi. A histological study of the endogenous stages of coccidia was undertaken in the intestinal tracts of ten naturally infected young kiwi. Sequential sectioning of the entire intestinal tract allowed identification and recording of the distribution of the various coccidial life stages. Macromeronts measuring 268 × 162 μm when mature were found mainly within the lamina propria of the proximal one third of the small intestine. A smaller form of lamina propria meront was also identified (8.7 × 6.4 μm) with a similar distribution to the macromeronts. Small meronts (4.4 × 3.8 μm) were also identified in mucosal epithelial cells, with the overall peak in distribution within the intestinal tract being distal to the lamina propria meronts. Three morphologically distinctive gametocytes were identified. Type A gametocytes contained within epithelial cells shared the same distribution as the epithelial meronts. Polyps containing large numbers of type B gametocytes within the distal intestinal tract were found in two cases, and type C gametocytes were identified throughout the entire intestinal tract in one case only. The observational nature of this study precludes complete knowledge of the parasite life cycles using histology alone. However, it is likely that each of the three morphologically distinct gametocytes represents a separate species of enteric coccidia.

Nf1 mutant mice with p19ARF gene loss develop accelerated hematopoietic disease resembling acute leukemia with a variable phenotype

Juvenile Myelomonocytic Leukemia (JMML) is a relentlessly progressive myeloproliferative/myelodysplastic (MPD/MDS) hematopoietic disorder more common in patients with any one of at least three distinct genetic lesions, specifically NF1 gene loss and PTPN11 and NRAS mutations. NF1 and PTPN11 are molecular lesions associated with Neurofibromatosis Syndrome Type I (NF1 Syndrome) and Noonan's Syndrome, respectively. The occurrence of JMML is rare; even among those predisposed with these syndromes to development of disease, and secondary genetic events likely contribute to the development and progression of disease. In NF1 syndrome, loss of p53 function is a common event in solid tumors, but uncommon in JMML, suggesting that the p53 pathway may be modified by other events in this hematopoietic disorder. The work presented here investigates the possible role of the p19(Arf) (p19) tumor suppressor in development of MPD associated with Nf1 gene loss in mice. We find that Nf1 mutant hematopoietic cells with loss of p19 develop accelerated hematopoietic disease similar to acute leukemia with a variable phenotype. This suggests that p19 may play a role in development of JMML and evaluation of the human p19 homolog (p14(ARF)) in JMML may be informative.

A role for JAK2 mutations in myeloproliferative diseases

Myeloproliferative disorders (MPDs) are characterized by a clonal expansion of myeloid cells. Over the past two years, the identification of the JAK2V617F mutation in most cases of polycythemia vera (PV) as well as approximately 50% of patients with essential thrombocythemia (ET) and idiopathic myelofibrosis (IMF) has greatly advanced our understanding of MPDs. The JAK2V617F mutation alters the JAK2 tyrosine kinase to confer constitutive activation and affect downstream signaling pathways. Data from mouse models demonstrate that the mutation is sufficient for development of PV, but additional work is needed to better understand how this allele functions in ET and IMF. Regardless of the various pathologies, the JAK2V617F discovery highlights the importance of JAK-STAT signaling in myeloid differentiation and focuses effort on developing a clinically relevant JAK2 inhibitor.

The GAP-related domain of neurofibromin attenuates proliferation and downregulates N- and K-Ras activation in Nf1-negative AML cells

Inactivation of the NF1 tumor suppressor causes myeloproliferative diseases. NF1 encodes a GTPase activating protein (GAP) for Ras. Myeloid cells with loss of NF1 have high levels of Ras-GTP, functionally equivalent to the effects of RAS oncogenes. We investigated the effects of the NF1 GAP-related domain (GRD) in proliferation, apoptosis and Ras-GTP levels in Nf1-negative acute myeloid leukemia (AML) cells. In AML cells, with cooperating mutations, the expression of the neurofibromin GRD causes significant reductions of N- and K-Ras-GTP levels, which is not incompatible with AML cell survival, but which is strongly selected against due to suppression of proliferation.

Aspergillosis in a North Island robin (Petroica longipes)

CASE HISTORY

A 3-year-old female North Island robin (Petroica longipes) was found dead on Tiritiri Matangi Island during the breeding season.

CLINICAL FINDINGS

The bird was in poor condition, and there was a 13 x 8 mm granulomatous mass in the thoracic cavity causing displacement of the heart and left lung. Histologically, the mass was a large granuloma infiltrated with fungal hyphae, and the liver contained multifocal aggregates of inflammatory cells.

DIAGNOSIS

Thoracic aspergillosis and multifocal hepatitis.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Determining the causes of death in populations of wild birds is often hampered by a lack of recovery of carcasses, autolysis and poor clinical history. In this case, the life history of the bird was known and recovery of the body was relatively swift. This is the first published description of aspergillosis in a free-living North Island robin.

Motor vehicle-related fatalities: implications for home healthcare

A nationwide epidemic of motor vehicle-related fatalities is increasing that can have a direct effect on home care employees. Managers in home care need to become involved immediately to assure that this epidemic does not affect their staffs.

The effects of sugars intake and frequency of ingestion on dental caries increment in a three-year longitudinal study

A three-year longitudinal study was carried out with a group of children, initially aged 11-15, residing in non-fluoridated rural communities in south-central Michigan. This report analyzes the relation between caries increment and consumption of sugars from all sources to see if accepted relationships have changed with the caries decline in the United States. There were 499 children who provided three or more 24-hour dietary recall interviews, and who received dental examinations at baseline and after three years. Caries increment averaged 2.91 DMFS over the three years, with 81% of new lesions on pit-and-fissure surfaces. Consumption of sugars from all sources averaged 156 g per day for males and 127 g per day for females, an average of 52 kg per person per year. Sugars constituted one-quarter of total caloric intake for both boys and girls, and the average number of eating occasions per day was 4.3. Children who consumed a higher proportion of their total energy intake as sugars had a higher increment of approximal caries, though there was little relation to pit-and-fissure caries. The average number of daily eating occasions was not related to caries increment, nor was the average number of sugary snacks (defined as foods with 15% or more of sugars) consumed between meals, but the average consumption of between-meal sugars was related to the approximal caries increment. When children were categorized by high caries increment compared with no caries increment, a tendency toward more frequent snacks was seen in the high-caries children.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Variability of food intakes. An analysis of a 12-day data series using persistence measures

Data from the US Department of Agriculture's Exploratory Study of Longitudinal Measures of Individual Food Intake, conducted in 1982, were used to evaluate individual intakes for day-to-day patterns and to relate these patterns to the reliability of estimated daily energy and nutrient intake means. Generalized least squares estimators incorporating a simple persistence hypothesis showed the importance of including day-to-day patterns in estimating mean daily intake levels. The simple persistence hypothesis was that day-to-day intakes follow a first-order autoregressive process. Results on the accuracy of mean intake estimates and sample size suggested that for the dietary components examined, greatest gains in accuracy of estimated mean daily intake were generally obtained with the first six days of intake data. This conclusion was, however, highly conditioned by the inclusion of the persistence hypothesis in the calculations. It was concluded that additional investigations exploring alternative and perhaps more physiologically justified persistence hypotheses for food intakes would improve the use of sample data in estimating mean daily intakes of diet components.

Collection of food intake data: an evaluation of methods

Using USDA's recently completed methodological survey designed to evaluate longitudinal measures of food intake, the authors assessed nine methods for measuring dietary status. Methods evaluated included various combinations of prospective and retrospective recording of daily intake; personal, telephone, and mail- and telephone-assisted reporting; semistructured and open-ended recording documents; and number and spacing of days for recording intakes. Results from tabular and regression analyses indicated that the most effective and least costly methods for assessing mean intakes for groups of individuals were those using telephone and/or personal contact and collecting 24-hour recalls for several selected nonconsecutive days during the survey period. More specifically, it was concluded that the method including an initial personal interview for 24-hour recall followed by three telephone interviews for 24-hour recalls over a 1-year period and the method including four telephone interviews for 24-hour recalls for a 1-year period provided food energy intake data comparable with the data collected with other methods and with less effort or cost. Additional analyses were recommended to determine the numbers of days required to obtain estimates of usual intake for individuals and for diet components other than food energy.

The role of breakfast in diet adequacy of the U.S. adult population

Breakfast consumption patterns of the U.S. adult population were examined by using the U.S.D.A. Nationwide Food Consumption Survey. Results indicated that approximately one-quarter of the adult population skipped breakfast regularly. For those adults who consumed breakfast, the four most commonly consumed breakfasts were eggs, bread, and coffee; ready-to-eat cereal with milk; coffee and bread; and eggs, bread, and milk. The sample was partitioned by six age/sex classes and by four breakfast consumption patterns. Assessments of average intakes of seven frequently underconsumed nutrients showed that omission of the breakfast meal had a significant negative impact, particularly among adult females, on the diet quality. Findings indicated that for all age/sex classes, consumption of ready-to-eat cereal at breakfast, whether frequently or on a more limited basis, increased the average daily intake levels of the underconsumed nutrients. Further, groups of adults who regularly consumed ready-to-eat cereal at breakfast had, on average, lower average daily intakes of fat and cholesterol. It was concluded that regular breakfast consumption greatly enhanced the overall diet quality of the U.S. adult population.

Magnesium and calcium dietary intakes of the U.S. population

Dietary intake levels of calcium and magnesium, as well as calcium/magnesium ratios, were assessed for 12 age/sex groups of the U.S. population through use of USDA's 1977-78 Nationwide Food Consumption Survey. Results indicated that a majority of the U.S. population consumed less than recommended amounts (NRC-RDA) of both calcium and magnesium. Approximately 60% of 0 to 5 year olds and 40% of 6 to 11 year olds had average daily calcium intakes of less than 800 mg, while 60 and 85% of the male and female adolescents, respectively, had intakes below the recommended level of 1,200 mg/day. Approximately 80 to 85% of the adult female groups and 50 to 65% of the adult male groups had average intakes below recommended levels. With the exception of children ages 0 to 5 years, the average daily magnesium intakes of all age/sex classes were below the NRC-RDA. Magnesium consumption was particularly low among adolescent females, adult females, and elderly men, with 85, 80-85 and 75%, respectively, of the population groups having average magnesium intakes below their respective NRC-RDA. Furthermore, the majority of the population groups did not consume appropriate proportions of these two minerals to obtain optimal calcium/magnesium ratios. While adolescent females and adult females had more appropriate ratio values than other segments of the population, these ratios principally resulted from their very low intakes of calcium. The most inappropriate calcium/magnesium ratios, observed for children, male adolescents, and young adult males, were, in general, due to their more appropriate calcium intakes and their low magnesium intakes.

Cholesterol, saturated fatty acids, polyunsaturated fatty acids, sodium, and potassium intakes of the United States population

The USDA's 1977-1978 Nationwide Food Consumption Survey was utilized to assess dietary intake levels of cholesterol, fatty acids, sodium, and potassium by several age/sex groups of the U.S. population. Results indicated that mean cholesterol intakes for all male age groups of 12 yr and older exceeded 300 mg/day while the mean intakes of females and children were less than 300 mg/day. However, approximately 30% of each age group of adult females exceeded 300 mg cholesterol per day and only about one-third of the adult males had average intakes of less than 300 mg/day. Between 39% and 44% of total kilocalories were obtained from fat consumption with saturated fatty acids contributing 13-15%, polyunsaturated fatty acids contributing 5-6% and oleic acid contributing 12-14% of total kilocaloric intake. We found that 90% of children ages 6-11 yr and adult females had saturated fatty acids intakes of less than 40 gm/day; 90% of all men had intakes of less than 55 gm/day. At least 90% of all age/sex groups averaged intakes of polyunsaturated fatty acids of less than 26 gm/day. Average daily sodium intakes for each age/sex group (excluding table salt) were within the limits considered safe and adequate. However, approximately 4% of each age group of adult females and about 25% of each of the three younger adult male groups had average sodium intakes of 4000 mg/day or more. Average daily potassium intakes were somewhat low, ranging from 1584 mg/day for children ages 0-5 yr to 2735 mg/day for males ages 51-64 yr.

The influence of ready-to-eat cereal consumption at breakfast on nutrient intakes of individuals 62 years and older

From 7-day food diaries of a cross-sectional sample of American elderly individuals (n = 561), breakfast consumption patterns were assessed and related to average daily nutrient intake patterns. Results indicated that, in general, breakfast consumption made a significant contribution to the average elderly individual's daily nutrient intake and, in particular, breakfasts containing ready-to-eat cereal had a greater impact on nutrient intake levels than did breakfasts not containing ready-to-eat cereal. More specifically, elderly individuals who had ready-to-eat cereal at breakfast 4-7 times during the week surveyed consumed significantly less (P less than or equal to 0.05) fat and cholesterol and significantly more fiber, carbohydrate, total sugar, protein, thiamin, niacin, riboflavin, vitamins B6, B12, and A, iron, calcium, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, copper, and zinc at the breakfast meal than those who had no ready-to-eat cereal at breakfast. Fewer statistically significant differences between the two groups were evidenced when vitamin/mineral supplement usage was included in the analysis. Average daily intake levels of frequent consumers of ready-to-eat cereal were significantly (P less than or equal to 0.05) greater than those of nonconsumers for all dietary components except protein, fat, cholesterol, vitamin E, and sodium when supplement usage was excluded from the calculations. When supplements were included, significant differences between the two groups decreased to nine dietary components. Comparison of the average nutrient composition of breakfasts containing ready-to-eat cereal and those not containing ready-to-eat cereal revealed those including ready-to-eat cereal contained significantly greater quantities of all nutrients assessed regardless of whether or not vitamin/mineral supplements were included in the calculations.

Dietary lead intake of preschool children

A nationwide, seven-day food consumption survey of 371 preschool children between the ages of birth and five years indicated that a direct linear relationship existed between age and increased dietary lead intake from foods consumed. Daily dietary lead intake averaged 62 micrograms and ranged from 15 micrograms to 234 micrograms. The various levels of lead intake were attributed to frequency of consumption of food items, quantity of food consumed, and the lead content of particular food items. To account for variation in the quantity of food consumed by the various children, average lead intake per 500 kilocalories consumed and per 500 g of food consumed was calculated. When these standardization procedures were followed, an equalization in the average daily dietary lead intake values was observed among the various aged children.

Household size and the cost of nutritionally equivalent diets

Economy of scale factors were developed in 1975 and have since been utilized as household size adjustment factors in estimating household costs of US Department of Agriculture (USDA) food plans. As such, these adjustment factors have a direct impact on the Food Stamp Program coupon allotments. In the present study, the stability of these factors over time was assessed, and the impact of diet quality measures in determining the adjustment factors was investigated. The reported household scale factors, estimated using regression analyses and the Nationwide Food Consumption Survey, Survey of Food Consumption in Low-Income Households, 1977-78, varied somewhat from former estimates and were found to be highly dependent on the diet quality measures incorporated in the analysis. Incorporation of several diet quality variables as well as partition specific means are recommended for determining household size adjustment factors to be used in estimating household costs of USDA food plans.

Amount and dietary sources of caffeine and saccharin intake by individuals ages 5 to 18 years

A nationwide, 7-day food consumption survey was utilized to assess average daily consumption of saccharin and caffeine by individuals 5 to 18 years old. The total sample's average daily saccharin and caffeine intakes were 4.1 and 37.4 mg, respectively. Only 14% of the individuals consumed saccharin while 98% consumed caffeine. On days when these dietary components were consumed, average saccharin intake was 87.4 mg and average caffeine intake was 47.9 mg. In general, intake levels of both dietary components increased with increasing age. However, on a body weight basis (mg/kg) caffeine intakes did not increase with increasing age. When expressed as milligrams of caffeine intake per kilogram body weight per day, children 5 to 6 years old had significantly higher intakes (1.1 mg/kg/day) than 7 to 8 years olds. No other age differences were noted. Artificially sweetened carbonated beverages contributed the greatest number of milligrams of saccharin to total intake while tea, followed by carbonated beverages, made the most significant impact on caffeine consumption. Considerable variation was found for both saccharin and caffeine consumption levels among the sample members as well as for each individual during the 7 days surveyed.

The role of breakfast in nutrient intake of 5- to 12-year-old children

From 7-day food diaries of a cross-sectional sample of American children (n = 657), breakfast consumption patterns were assessed and related to average daily nutrient intake patterns. Results indicated that few of the children skipped breakfast and that breakfast consumption made a significant contribution to the average child's daily nutrient intake. Further, children who had ready-to-eat cereals at breakfast three or more times during the 1-wk period were found to have consumed significantly less (p less than 0.001) fat and cholesterol and significantly more (p less than 0.001) fiber, thiamin, niacin, riboflavin, iron, folacin, pyridoxine, and vitamins B12, A and D than those who had no ready-to-eat cereal at breakfast. Average total daily intakes of the same groups had fewer significant differences. Comparison of the average nutrient composition of the three types of consumed breakfasts revealed that the average breakfast containing presweetened or nonsweetened ready-to-eat cereal had a higher content of sixteen nutrients and a lower content of five nutrients than did the average breakfast including no ready-to-eat cereal.

Amount and food sources of total sugar intake by children ages 5 to 12 years

Average daily consumption of sugars by children 5 to 12 yr was investigated by analyses of 7-day food diaries of a cross-sectional sample of American children. The average daily total sugar consumption for the total sample was 134.3 g with the food group of milk contributing, on the average, the greatest number of grams of sugars. Other food groups making significant contributions to the children's total sugar consumption were cakes, cookies, pies, and other desserts; sweetened beverages; fruits; and fruit juices. Spline distributions of total sugar intake revealed a few children were consuming over 280 g of sugars per average day while some consumed less than 44 g of sugars. Spline distributions, also indicated that the food groups most likely to be consumed at levels resulting in excessive amounts of sugars intake by particular children were sweetened beverages; cakes, cookies, pies, and other desserts; and fruit juices.

Effect of solubilisation on the antibacterial activity of hexachlorophane

The solubilisation of hexachlorophane by various non-ionic agents has been studied at pH 2·5 and 8·0. The interaction of the phenol with these agents in unsaturated systems at pH 8·0 has been determined by a dialysis technique using rubber latex membranes. The bactericidal activity is shown to depend on the concentration of unbound hexachlorophane, but this is not simply related to the degree of saturation of the total system. The results of agar-plate diffusion tests cannot be correlated with either the concentration of unbound hexachlorophane or the total concentration.