Nitrate enrichment does not affect enteropathogenic Escherichia coli in aquatic microcosms but may affect other strains present in aquatic habitats

Eutrophication of the planet's aquatic systems is increasing at an unprecedented rate. In freshwater systems, nitrate-one of the nutrients responsible for eutrophication-is linked to biodiversity losses and ecosystem degradation. One of the main sources of freshwater nitrate pollution in New Zealand is agriculture. New Zealand's pastoral farming system relies heavily on the application of chemical fertilisers. These fertilisers in combination with animal urine, also high in nitrogen, result in high rates of nitrogen leaching into adjacent aquatic systems. In addition to nitrogen, livestock waste commonly carries human and animal enteropathogenic bacteria, many of which can survive in freshwater environments. Two strains of enteropathogenic bacteria found in New Zealand cattle, are K99 and Shiga-toxin producing Escherichia coli (STEC). To better understand the effects of ambient nitrate concentrations in the water column on environmental enteropathogenic bacteria survival, a microcosm experiment with three nitrate-nitrogen concentrations (0, 1, and 3 mg NO₃-N /L), two enteropathogenic bacterial strains (STEC O26-human, and K99-animal), and two water types (sterile and containing natural microbiota) was run. Both STEC O26 and K99 reached 500 CFU/10 ml in both water types at all three nitrate concentrations within 24 hours and remained at those levels for the full 91 days of the experiment. Although enteropathogenic strains showed no response to water column nitrate concentrations, the survival of background Escherichia coli, imported as part of the in-stream microbiota did, surviving longer in 1 and 3 mg NO₃-N/Lconcentrations (P < 0.001). While further work is needed to fully understand how nitrate enrichment and in-stream microbiota may affect the viability of human and animal pathogens in freshwater systems, it is clear that these two New Zealand strains of STEC O26 and K99 can persist in river water for extended periods alongside some natural microbiota.

Does land use affect pathogen presence in New Zealand drinking water supplies?

Four microbes (Campylobacter spp., Escherichia coli, Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia spp.) were monitored in 16 waterways that supply public drinking water for 13 New Zealand towns and cities. Over 500 samples were collected from the abstraction point at each study site every three months between 2009 and 2019. The waterways represent a range from small to large, free flowing to reservoir impoundments, draining catchments of entirely native vegetation to those dominated by pastoral agriculture. We used machine learning algorithms to explore the relative contribution of land use, catchment geology, vegetation, topography, and water quality characteristics of the catchment to determining the abundance and/or presence of each microbe. Sites on rivers draining predominantly agricultural catchments, the Waikato River, Oroua River and Waiorohi Stream had all four microbes present, often in high numbers, throughout the sampling interval. Other sites, such as the Hutt River and Big Huia Creek in Wellington which drain catchments of native vegetation, never had pathogenic microbes detected, or unsafe levels of E. coli. Boosted Regression Tree models could predict abundances and presence/absence of all four microbes with good precision using a wide range of potential environmental predictors covering land use, geology, vegetation, topography, and nutrient concentrations. Models were more accurate for protozoa than bacteria but did not differ markedly in their ability to predict abundance or presence/absence. Environmental drivers of microbe abundance or presence/absence also differed depending on whether the microbe was protozoan or bacterial. Protozoa were more prevalent in waterways with lower water quality, higher numbers of ruminants in the catchment, and in September and December. Bacteria were more abundant with higher rainfall, saturated soils, and catchments with greater than 35% of the land in agriculture. Although modern water treatment protocols will usually remove many pathogens from drinking water, several recent outbreaks of waterborne disease due to treatment failures, have highlighted the need to manage water supplies on multiple fronts. This research has identified potential catchment level variables, and thresholds, that could be better managed to reduce the potential for pathogens to enter drinking water supplies.

Role of Shp2 in forebrain neurons in regulating metabolic and cardiovascular functions and responses to leptin

Objective

We examined whether deficiency of Shp2 signaling in forebrain neurons alters metabolic and cardiovascular regulation under various conditions and if it attenuates the anorexic and cardiovascular effects of leptin. We also tested whether forebrain Shp2 deficiency alters blood pressure (BP) and heart rate (HR) responses to acute stress.

Design

Forebrain Shp2^-/- mice were generated by crossing Shp2^flox/flox mice with CamKIIα-cre mice. At 22 to 24 weeks of age, mice were instrumented for telemetry for measurement of BP, HR and body temperature (BT). Oxygen consumption (VO2), energy expenditure and motor activity were monitored by indirect calorimetry.

Results

Shp2/CamKIIα-cre mice were heavier (46±3 vs 32±1 g), hyperglycemic, hyperleptinemic, hyperinsulinemic, and hyperphagic compared to Shp2^flox/flox control mice. Shp2/CamKIIα-cre mice exhibited reduced food intake responses to fasting/refeeding and impaired regulation of BT when exposed to 15°C and 30°C ambient temperatures. Despite being obese and having many features of metabolic syndrome, Shp2/CamKIIα-cre mice had similar daily average BP and HR compared to Shp2^flox/flox mice (112±2 vs 113±1 mmHg and 595±34 vs 650±40 bpm), but exhibited increased BP and HR responses to cold exposure and acute air-jet stress test. Leptin's ability to reduce food intake and to raise BP were markedly attenuated in Shp2/CamKIIα-cre mice.

Conclusion

These results suggest that forebrain Shp2 signaling regulates food intake, appetite responses to caloric deprivation, and thermogenic control of body temperature during variations in ambient temperature. Deficiency of Shp2 signaling in the forebrain is associated with augmented cardiovascular responses to cold and acute stress but attenuated BP responses to leptin.

Does the serum peptidome reveal hemostatic dysregulation?

There is a significant need for markers that are diagnostic of disease, particularly cancer. For these biomarkers to be useful they would need to be able to detect disease early in its progression with high sensitivity and specificity. Many approaches are being undertaken to attempt to find such biomarkers using the tools of systems biology, i.e., parallel measurement techniques including proteomics (parallel protein measurements). Often the premise behind such an approach was to cast a wide net and then design an assay for specific elements that were found to be diagnostic. One such approach has utilized matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-mass spectrometry to interrogate the low-molecular-weight component of serum (the fluid component of blood following clotting), the serum peptidome. This approach has the appealing characteristic of speed of analysis but has a number of shortcomings mostly due to signal:noise and mass resolution in some instruments, making peak analysis difficult. Of course, experimental design and statistical analysis have to be conducted with the system limitations in mind. These points have been addressed by others, but few have focused on a potentially larger issue with serum peptidome analysis - are the signals being measured informing us about the disease state directly or indirectly through measurement of another physiological process such as hemostatic dysregulation? This article will present evidence that points to careful measures of the serum peptidome revealing differences in clotting time in disease states and not direct measures of tumor proteolytic activity on blood proteins.

Automated LC-LC-MS-MS platform using binary ion-exchange and gradient reversed-phase chromatography for improved proteomic analyses

A simple multidimensional liquid chromatography system utilizing an isocratic pump and a HPLC system is described for the comprehensive proteomic analysis of complex peptide digest mixtures by coupled LC-LC-MS-MS techniques. A binary ion-exchange separation was achieved through the use of a strong cation-exchange column followed by a reversed-phase column for data-dependent LC-MS-MS analysis of the unbound analytes, and following salt elution (and concomitant column reequilibration), the bound analytes. Off-line validation of the platform showed near quantitative recovery of fractionated peptides and essentially complete ion-exchange partitioning. In comparative analyses of a highly complex peptide digest mixture a >40% increase in the number of peptide and protein identifications was achieved using this multidimensional platform compared to an unfractionated control.

Towards defining the urinary proteome using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. I. Profiling an unfractionated tryptic digest

The proteome of normal male urine from a commercial pooled source has been examined using direct liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The entire urinary protein mixture was denatured, reduced and enzymatically digested prior to LC-MS/MS analysis using a hybrid-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometer (Q-TOF) to perform data-dependent ion selection and fragmentation. To fragment as many peptides as possible, the mixture was analyzed four separate times, with the mass spectrometer selecting ions for fragmentation from a subset of the entire mass range for each run. This approach requires only an autosampler on the HPLC for automation (i.e, unattended operation). Across these four analyses, 1.450 peptide MS/MS spectra were matched to 751 sequences to identify 124 gene products (proteins and translations of expressed sequence tags). Interestingly, the experimental time for these analyses was less than that required to run a single two-dimensional gel.

Identification of incompletely processed potential carboxypeptidase E substrates from CpEfat/CpEfat mice

In an attempt to identify peptides that may be involved in the obese phenotype observed in CpEfat/CpEfat mice (deficient in Carboxypeptidase E, CpE) samples from fourteen neuroendocrine tissues in wild-type and CpEfat/CpEfat mice were obtained. Peptides were purified from these tissues and potential CpE substrate peptides were enriched using an anhydrotrypsin column that captures peptides with basic C-termini. Bound peptides were subjected to tryptic digestion and followed by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis. The relative levels of CpEfat/CpEfat versus wild-type peptides were determined by comparison of the ion intensities. Peptide ions elevated in the CpEfat/CpEfat samples were identified by targeted liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. From those ions, 27 peptides derived from known neuropeptides (including CpE substrates) were identified, together with another 25 peptides from proteins not known to be components of the neuropeptide processing pathway. The known CpE substrates identified included the recently discovered proSAAS, granin-like neuroendocrine peptide precursor that inhibits prohormone processing. The approach demonstrated the feasibility of using an affinity-based method for identifying differences in specific classes of peptides between normal and mutant mice.

Towards defining the urinary proteome using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. II. Limitations of complex mixture analyses

With an emphasis on obtaining a multitude of high quality tandem mass spectrometry spectra for protein identification, instrumental parameters are described for the liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis of trypsin digested unfractionated urine using a hybrid quadrupole-time-of-flight (Q-TOF) mass spectrometer. Precursor acquisition rates of up to 20 distinct precursors/minute in a single analysis were obtained through the use of parallel precursor selection (four precursors/survey period) and variable collision induced dissociation integration time (1 to 6 periods summed). Maximal exploitation of the gas phase fractionated ions was obtained through the use of narrow survey scans and iterative data-dependent analyses incorporating dynamic exclusion. The impact on data fidelity as a product of data-dependent selection of precursor ions from a dynamically excluded field is discussed with regards to sample complexity, precursor selection rates, survey scan range and facile chemical modifications. Operational and post-analysis strategies are presented to restore data confidence and reconcile the greatest number of matched spectra.

A simplified device for protein identification by microcapillary gradient liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry

A simplified device and procedure have been developed for microcapillary gradient liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). This procedure has proved useful in identifying low level quantities of proteins from sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) gel bands. Microelectrospray needles are packed with reversed-phase resin and function both as a high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) column and a nanospray mass spectrometer tip when interfaced between an HPLC and ion trap mass spectrometer. Variable submicroliter flow rates are generated by flow splitting between the microelectrospray capillary and an HPLC system. A manual injector is used to inject a protein digest mixture that binds to the column and is then washed at a high flow rate (2 microL/min post split). Gradient elution of bound peptides was initiated by the injection of a filled loop of 70% v/v methanol (5 microL) concomitant with a reduction of flow rate (0.1 microL/min post split). This forms a diffusion-dependent gradient of variable length (typically 15-30 min in length) depending upon the final flow rate. Chromatographic separations of a standard solution digest demonstrate that this diffusion-dependent gradient provides reasonable separations such that multiple peptide identifications by MS/MS can be obtained. Application of this methodology to the analysis of several in-gel-digested gel-separated proteins is presented to demonstrate its utility.

Hepatitis A virus capsid protein VP1 has a heterogeneous C terminus

Hepatitis A virus (HAV) encodes a single polyprotein which is posttranslationally processed into the functional structural and nonstructural proteins. Only one protease, viral protease 3C, has been implicated in the nine protein scissions. Processing of the capsid protein precursor region generates a unique intermediate, PX (VP1-2A), which accumulates in infected cells and is assumed to serve as precursor to VP1 found in virions, although the details of this reaction have not been determined. Coexpression in transfected cells of a variety of P1 precursor proteins with viral protease 3C demonstrated efficient production of PX, as well as VP0 and VP3; however, no mature VP1 protein was detected. To identify the C-terminal amino acid residue of HAV VP1, we performed peptide sequence analysis by protease-catalyzed [18O]H2O incorporation followed by liquid chromatography ion-trap microspray tandem mass spectrometry of HAV VP1 isolated from purified virions. Two different cell culture-adapted isolates of HAV, strains HM175pE and HM175p35, were used for these analyses. VP1 preparations from both virus isolates contained heterogeneous C termini. The predominant C-terminal amino acid in both virus preparations was VP1-Ser274, which is located N terminal to a methionine residue in VP1-2A. In addition, the analysis of HM175pE recovered smaller amounts of amino acids VP1-Glu273 and VP1-Thr272. In the case of HM175p35, which contains valine at amino acid position VP1-273, VP1-Thr272 was found in addition to VP1-Ser274. The data suggest that HAV 3C is not the protease responsible for generation of the VP1 C terminus. We propose the involvement of host cell protease(s) in the production of HAV VP1.

Liquid chromatography/microspray mass spectrometry for bacterial investigations

Cellular proteins (biomarkers) specific to any individual microorganism, determined by the direct mass spectral analysis of the corresponding intact cellular suspension, can be applied for the rapid and specific identification of the organisms present in unknown samples. The components of the bacterial suspensions, after a rapid separation over a C18 reversed-phase microcapillary column, were directly subjected to on-line electrospray ionization followed by analysis using an ion trap tandem mass spectrometer. This approach is equally effective for gram-positive as well as gram-negative bacteria but has a distinct advantage over our earlier reported method involving matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOFMS). During electrospray ionitation mass spectrometry (ESI-MS), liquid samples can be directly analyzed and there is the potential for developing tandem mass spectral methods for more specific identification of the individual organisms present in crude bacterial mixtures. The total analysis time leading to unambiguous bacterial identification in samples was less than 10 minutes and the results were quite reproducible. Miniaturization of the instrumentation along with total automation of this simple process could have immense impact on field operations. Routine, rapid, cost-effective field monitoring of environmental samples, agricultural products, samples from food processing, industrial sites and health institutions for suspected bacterial contamination could be a reality in the near future. Potential utility in biological, medical, bioprocessing, pharmaceutical, and other industrial research is also enormous.

The identification of peptide modifications derived from gel-separated proteins using electrospray triple quadrupole and ion trap analyses

Microspray tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) in combination with database search routines has become a powerful tool for the identification of proteins from femtomole amounts of material following gel electrophoresis and in-gel digestion procedures. However, artifactual modification of susceptible residues can arise during gel electrophoresis, leading to unexpected peptide mass shifts during mass analysis. Consequently, collision-induced dissociation (CID) spectra generated from these derivatized peptides can defy direct interpretation by automated database search routines and remain unidentified. Here, we evaluate the MS/MS spectra of peptides carrying oxidized derivatives of tryptophane and methionine residues, and various modifications of cysteine. We demonstrate that certain of these modifications generate characteristic fragmentation patterns or "fingerprints", during CID analysis, the knowledge of which can facilitate the interpretation of the spectra. We will show that these signature fragment ions are predominantly produced during the CID analysis of singly charged ions although they can be observed in the MS/MS spectra of the doubly charged species as well. In other cases, the CID spectrum lacks a characteristic fingerprint and the modification remains silent. However, CID spectra of related peptides, differing only by their modifications, are similar and all or part of the fragment ion spectra will have shifted by a discreet mass, which facilitates the identification of the modified residue. At the same time, the comparison of related spectra can prevent misinterpretations such as the assignment of a residue mass to the wrong amino acid or a neutral loss fragment ion to a gamma- or b-ion.

Rapid protein identification using a microscale electrospray LC/MS system on an ion trap mass spectrometer

A methodology has been developed for the rapid identification of gel separated proteins. Following in gel protein digestion with trypsin, the resulting peptide mixture is analyzed by on-line liquid chromatography, electrospray mass spectrometry (LC/MS). The mass spectral data containing either accurate mass values or sequence specific fragment ion information is then matched to a database of known protein sequences. Key features of the LC/MS system are the use of a novel integrated, microscale LC column-electrospray interface and variable flow solvent delivery to optimize the efficiency of sample loading and gradient elution. With these enhancements, only 10 min is required to analyze each sample. The method is routine for sample amounts ranging from 50 to 500 fmol. The analysis parameters for the ion trap mass spectrometer have to be carefully adjusted in order to keep pace with the rapidly eluting LC peaks. Although designed for rapid LC separations, the integrated column-electrospray interface is also able to provide extended analyses of selected components using a technique known as "peak parking".

Hereditary geniospasm: linkage to chromosome 9q13-q21 and evidence for genetic heterogeneity

Hereditary geniospasm is an unusual movement disorder causing episodes of involuntary tremor of the chin and the lower lip. Episodes typically start in early childhood and may be precipitated by stress, concentration, and emotion. Hereditary geniospasm is inherited as an autosomal dominant trait, and its cause is not known. We report the results of a genomewide genetic linkage study in a four-generation British family with hereditary geniospasm. Positive two-point LOD scores were obtained for 15 microsatellite markers on the peri-centromeric region of chromosome 9. A maximum two-point LOD score of 5.24 at theta = .00 was obtained for the marker D9S1837. Construction of haplotypes defined an interval of 2.1 cM between the flanking markers D9S1806 and D9S175, thus assigning one locus for hereditary geniospasm to the proximal long arm of chromosome 9q13-q21. Hereditary geniospasm in a second British family is not linked to this region, indicating genetic heterogeneity. These findings may have implications for other inherited focal movement disorders that as yet remain unmapped.

Neuropeptide Y 3-36 is an endogenous ligand selective for Y2 receptors

Neuropeptide Y (NPY 1-36) binds to Y1 and Y2 receptors with similar affinity. No endogenous molecular form of NPY with selectivity for Y1 or Y2 receptors has been described so far. We report the presence of an endogenous fragment of NPY in porcine brain, NPY 3-36, which lacks the amino-terminal dipeptide Tyr-Pro of NPY 1-36. NPY 3-36 accounts for 35% of NPY-like immunoreactivity in porcine brain. We have compared binding of NPY 3-36 and NPY 1-36 in model systems of Y1-like (SK-N-MC cells) and Y2-like receptors (CHP234 cells). NPY 3-36 and NPY 1-36 had similarly high affinity for Y2-like receptors on CHP234 cells, but NPY 3-36 had a 1000-fold lower affinity than NPY 1-36 for Y1-like receptors on SK-N-MC cells. Thus amino-terminal cleavage of NPY 1-36 generating NPY 3-36 converts an unselective Y1/Y2 receptor ligand into a highly Y2 selective ligand. This may be a means of fine tuning NPY biological actions.

Data-controlled automation of liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry analysis of peptide mixtures

The structural characterization of proteins and peptides isolated in minute quantities requires the most efficient use of available sample. A mass spectrometer data system was programmed to continuously evaluate incoming liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry data against a user-defined array of information. The resulting conclusions were used to automatically set and modify acquisition parameters in real time to collect collision-induced dissociation spectra for selected ions (tandem mass spectrometry). This approach has provided a mechanism to target specific subsets of masses in a complex mixture and/or to discriminate selectively against masses that are known or not of interest. Masses of contaminants or peptide masses derived from known proteins can be automatically recorded and removed from further consideration for collision-induced dissociation analysis. Once recorded, these "libraries" of masses can be used across multiple analyses. This technique directs the mass spectrometer data system to focus on the analysis of masses significant to the user, even if their signal intensities are well below the intensities of contaminating masses. When combined with a database search program to correlate tandem mass spectra to known protein sequences, the identity of the protein can be established unequivocally by using less than 100 fmol of sample.

Evidence that CCK-58 has structure that influences its biological activity

Many biologically active peptides exist in multiple molecular forms, but the functional significance of regions outside the region of bioactivity is unknown. The biological and immunological data presented in this study indicate that cholecystokinin-58 (CCK-58), unlike other forms of cholecystokinin, has structure that influences its bioactivity. CCK-58 was purified from acid extracts of canine intestinal mucosa until a single absorbance peak was obtained during reverse-phase chromatography. Amino acid analysis precisely determined the peptide concentrations of purified CCK-58 and synthetic CCK-8. Our hypothesis was that if the amino terminus of CCK-58 influences its bioactivity then its activity would be modified when this region was removed from the peptide. To evaluate the importance of the amino terminus of CCK-58 to influence its biological activity, the abilities of CCK-58 and CCK-8 to release amylase from pancreatic acini were compared before and after tryptic digestion. Tryptic digestion of CCK-58 decreased the half-maximal stimulation (EC50) for amylase release from 96 to 28 pM. The EC50 for digested CCK-58 was similar to that for CCK-8 (17 pM). These results suggest that CCK-58 has a structure that shields its bioactive carboxyl terminus. This is further supported by the finding that carboxyl fragments generated from CCK-58 by trypsin or by partial acid hydrolysis were greater than twofold more immunoreactive than the intact CCK-58. The diminished activity of CCK-58 SK shields the carboxyl terminus, which is important to its biological and immunological activities.

A microscale electrospray interface for on-line, capillary liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry of complex peptide mixtures

A microcapillary liquid chromatography (HPLC) system designed for the gradient elution of peptide and protein samples at flow rates < 1 microL/min has been coupled to a triple-sector quadrupole mass spectrometer via a simple sheathless electrospray interface (microspray). The microspray interface used a flame-drawn, uncoated, fused silica needle with tip outer diameters in the range of 15-20 microm and an opening less than 5 microm in diameter. Online sample filtration to prevent clogging of the drawn needle was accomplished by using a hydrophilic PVDF membrane filter integrated into the needle assembly. The spray potential (0.5-1 kV) was applied directly to the sample stream through the capillary union. Stable electrospray conditions were obtained over the full range of the gradient (0-90% acetonitrile in water) and was generally independent of flow rate. Both off-line and online analyses of proteins and peptide digest mixtures were performed at sample levels less than 10 fmol. HPLC parameters could be optimized for either rapid LC/MS analysis or enhanced performance in LC/MS/MS experiments by modulation of the eluting peak widths. Additionally, flow could be greatly reduced as selected components pass through the interface to prolong the time available to collect mass spectral data. The reduced spectral background and peak width manipulation facilitated the acquisition of peptide production spectra (MS/MS) using real-time, automated instrument control procedures.

Low flow high-performance liquid chromatography solvent delivery system designed for tandem capillary liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry

A solvent delivery system is described that is designed to increase the efficiency of liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC/MS) analyses. Gradients formed by using two low pressure syringe pumps are stored in a length of narrow bore tubing (gradient loop) mounted on a standard high pressure switching valve. The preformed gradient is pushed through the column by using a high pressure syringe pump. The system is fully automated and can be controlled with either a personal computer or the mass spectrometer data system. Advantages include gradient operation without the use of split flows, pressure programed flow control for rapid sample loading and recycling to initial conditions, and a flow rate range of 0.1-20 μL/min, which is suitable for packed capillary columns 50-500 μm in diameter. The system has been used extensively for rapid molecular weight determinations of intact protein samples, as well as LC/MS and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analyses of complex peptide mixtures.

Microscale immobilized protease reactor columns for peptide mapping by liquid chromatography/mass spectral analyses

Methods and procedures for the construction and operation of a microscale immobilized protease (trypsin) reactor are described. Optimization of reactor efficiency with regard to reactor flowrate, length, and temperature as well as sample concentration has been examined, and a novel system for sample preconcentration is presented. The structural analysis of a standard protein (cytochrome c) by a combination of trypsin microreactor digestion followed by off-line electrospray ionization MS analysis is demonstrated at the 10-pmol level. The application of these techniques for the rapid confirmation (1-2 h) of a genetic variant (hemoglobin E) including MS/MS analysis of the variant peptide is included.

Purification and sequence of rat oxyntomodulin

Structural information about rat enteroglucagon, intestinal peptides containing the pancreatic glucagon sequence, has been based previously on cDNA, immunologic, and chromatographic data. Our interests in testing the physiological actions of synthetic enteroglucagon peptides in rats required that we identify precisely the forms present in vivo. From knowledge of the proglucagon gene sequence, we synthesized an enteroglucagon C-terminal octapeptide common to both proposed enteroglucagon forms, glicentin and oxyntomodulin, but sharing no sequence overlap with glucagon. We then developed a radioimmunoassay using antibodies raised against the octapeptide that was specific for enteroglucagon peptides without cross-reacting with glucagon. Rat intestine was extracted, and one presumptive enteroglucagon form was purified by following the enteroglucagon C-terminal octapeptide-like immunoreactivity through several HPLC purification steps. Structural characterization of the material by amino acid composition, microsequence, and mass spectral analyses identified the peptide as rat oxyntomodulin. The 37-residue peptide consists of pancreatic glucagon plus the C-terminal extension, Lys-Arg-Asn-Arg-Asn-Asn-Ile-Ala. This now permits synthesis of an unambiguous duplicate of endogenous rat oxyntomodulin for physiological studies.

Degradation of vasoactive intestinal polypeptide by rabbit gastric smooth muscle membranes

Crude membrane fractions prepared from rabbit gastric fundic muscle degraded vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP) with an average specific activity of 0.96 nmol/min/mg protein at 37 degrees C, pH 7.5, and at [S]o = 0.05 mM. The relative activities towards [Leu5]enkephalin, substance P, VIP, and neurotensin were approximately 7.7, 2.0, 1.0, and 0.54, respectively. The VIP degradation was inhibited by metal chelators EDTA and o-phenanthroline. CaCl2 at 0.3-1.0 mM enhanced VIP degradation up to twofold. Phosphoramidon, captopril, and bestatin, the specific inhibitors for endopeptidase-24.11, angiotensin-converting enzyme, and aminopeptidase M, respectively, did not affect VIP degradation significantly. However, the complex mixtures of VIP fragments generated implicates action of multiple peptidases including the aforementioned three peptidases and other unidentified peptidase(s).

A hypothalamic activator of calmodulin-dependent enzymes is thymosin beta 4 (1-39)

A new class of stimulators of basal activity of a number of calmodulin-dependent enzymes have been previously isolated from bovine hypothalamus. One of these stimulators, denoted as C3, has been purified to homogeneity by reverse phase HPLC and tentatively identified as thymosin beta 4 (1-39) by mass spectrometry and Edman microsequence analysis. The stimulating effect of C3 on rabbit skeletal muscle MLCK basal activity was compared with that of thymosin alpha 1 and thymosin beta 4 (16-38). Evidence is presented that all the indicated compounds are Ca(2+)-independent high-affinity MLCK stimulators. The potency of the stimulators in activating the enzyme was: C3 greater than beta 4 greater than (CaM+Ca2+) greater than alpha 1.

Analysis of peptide mixtures by capillary high performance liquid chromatography: a practical guide to small-scale separations

Capillary HPLC is a very effective means of separating small amounts of peptides and proteins. Capillary columns ranging from 0.01 mm to 0.5 mm in diameter can be constructed using recycled supports and inexpensive fused silica capillary tubing. Commercial pumping systems and UV detectors can be readily converted for operation in the flow rate range of 0.5-50 microL/min. Detailed procedures are given for the construction of columns and UV detector flow cells. A mixture of peptides derived from the endo Lys C digest of horse heart cytochrome c was used to illustrate various aspects of capillary chromatography of peptides and compares the performance of various-sized capillary columns and UV detector flow cell types.

Patterns of prohormone processing. Order revealed by a new procholecystokinin-derived peptide

An 83-amino acid cholecystokinin peptide with a sulfated tyrosine and an amidated carboxyl terminus (CCK-83) was purified from human intestinal mucosa. The purified peptide was chemically characterized, and its bioactivity was compared to CCK-8. Several post-translational processing steps such as cleavage at basic residues, sulfation, and amidation are necessary to form biologically active cholecystokinin from its nascent prepropeptide. The discovery of CCK-83 gives new insight into the order of preprohormone processing. The processing of prepro-CCK appears to be in the order of: 1) signal peptidase cleavage, 2) tyrosine sulfation, 3) cleavage after a carboxyl-terminal pair of basic residues, 4) carboxypeptidase B-like cleavage of these basic residues, 5) amidation (which results in the formation of CCK-83), and 6) cleavage at monobasic residues by endopeptidases (which results in the smaller molecular forms of cholecystokinin). The characterization of biologically active CCK-83 with a sulfated tyrosine and an amidated carboxyl terminus establishes the site of signal peptidase action and suggests an order of post-translational modifications that give rise to the various molecular forms of cholecystokinin.

Molecular cloning of the pheromone biosynthesis-activating neuropeptide in Helicoverpa zea

Pheromone biosynthesis-activating neuropeptide (PBAN) regulates sex pheromone biosynthesis in female Helicoverpa (Heliothis) zea. Two oligonucleotide probes representing two overlapping amino acid regions of PBAN were used to screen 2.5 x 10(5) recombinant plaques, and a positive recombinant clone was isolated. Sequence analysis of the isolated clone showed that the PBAN gene is interrupted after the codon encoding amino acid 14 by a 0.63-kilobase (kb) intron. Preceding the PBAN amino acid sequence is a 10-amino acid sequence containing a pentapeptide Phe-Thr-Pro-Arg-Leu, which is followed by a Gly-Arg-Arg processing site. Immediately after the PBAN amino acid sequence is a Gly-Arg processing site and a short stretch of 10 amino acids. This 10-amino acid sequence contains a repeat of the PBAN C-terminal pentapeptide Phe-Ser-Pro-Arg-Leu and is terminated by another Gly-Arg processing site. It is suggested that the PBAN gene in H. zea might carry, besides PBAN, a 7- and an 8-residue amidated peptide, which share with PBAN the core C-terminal pentapeptide Phe-(Ser or Thr)-Pro-Arg-Leu-NH2. The C-terminal pentapeptide sequence of PBAN represents the minimum sequence required for pheromonotropic activity in H. zea and also bears a high degree of homology to the pyrokinin family of insect peptides with myotropic activity. It is possible that the putative heptapeptide and octapeptide might be new members of the pyrokinin family, with pheromonotropic and/or myotropic activities. Thus, the PBAN gene products, besides affecting sexual behavior, might have broad influence on many biological processes in H. zea.

Structural characterization of calcitonin gene-related peptide purified from rabbit intestine

Calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) immunoreactive material has been found in extracts of the intestine, however, the structure of intestinal CGRP is not known. Analytical reverse phase HPLC and ion-exchange FPLC revealed one predominant immunoreactive CGRP peak in rabbit intestinal extracts. This material was purified from rabbit intestine by sequential steps of reverse phase HPLC and ion-exchange FPLC. Microsequence and mass spectral analysis of the purified peptide and its chymotryptic fragments were consistent with the structure: GCNTATCVTHRLAGLLSRSGGMVKSNFVPTNVGSEAF-amide. Rabbit intestinal CGRP is identical to human CGRP-II in 35 of 37 amino acid residues. Two amino acid differences were detected at position 1, with Gly in rabbit CGRP instead of Ala in human CGRP-II, and at position 35, with Glu instead of Lys, respectively. Rabbit CGRP differed from human CGRP-I by three additional amino acids at positions 3, 22, and 25. This report shows that a CGRP form which closely resembles human CGRP-II, by means of chemical characterization, is the predominant form in rabbit intestine. Rabbit CGRP is the only CGRP form which has Gly as the amino terminal amino acid. Since the amino terminus of CGRP seems to be important for expression of bioactivity, the biological activity of rabbit CGRP may differ from human, rat and porcine CGRP.

Characterization of the carboxyl terminal flanking peptide of rat progastrin

A peptide identical in structure to the carboxyl-terminal flanking nonapeptide of rat progastrin, predicted by cDNA sequence, was synthesized. The synthetic peptide was used for production of a rabbit antiserum. This antiserum was used to develop a radioimmunoassay specific for rat carboxyl terminal flanking peptide. This assay was used to monitor the purification of immunoreactivity from rat antral extracts. Gel permeation, anion exchange and reverse phase chromatography steps resulted in a single absorbance peak associated with the carboxyl terminal flanking peptide immunoreactivity. The purified peptide eluted in the same position as the synthetic peptide during all three types of chromatography. This material was shown to be identical in mass to Ser-Ala-Glu-Glu-Glu-Asp-Gln-Tyr-Asn, the predicted sequence of the carboxyl terminal nonapeptide of rat progastrin.

A conjugate of alpha-amanitin and monoclonal immunoglobulin G to Thy 1.2 antigen is selectively toxic to T lymphoma cells

A covalent conjugate of an alpha-amanitin azo derivative and a monoclonal immunoglobulin G to the Thy 1.2 antigen on murine T lymphocytes was synthesized. The conjugate was 375- to 750-fold more inhibitory to murine T lymphoma S49.1 cells than the unconjugated derivative. At 0.7 X 10(-7) to 1.5 X 10(-7) M and at 4 X 10(-7) M amanitin equivalents, the conjugate inhibited protein synthesis in S49.1 cells by 50 percent and 80 to 96 percent, respectively. At these concentrations, mutant Thy l-deficient S49 cells and other murine lymphoma lacking Thy l altogether or carrying Thy 1.1 antigens were unaffected. This result demonstrated the potential for targeting amanitin to specific cell types.

Incorporation of deoxycytidine into deoxyribonucleic acid deoxycytidylate in Lactobacillus acidophilus R-26

Lactobacillus acidophilus R-26 a strain deficient in ribonucleotide reductase, was grown with [G-14C]deoxycytidine as the only source of deoxyribose in the medium. Of the radioactivity incorporated into deoxyribonucleic acid, a fifth moved directly into deoxyribonucleic acid deoxycytidylate, without deamination. Furthermore, deoxycytidine and thymidine nucleotides had similar sugar/base ratios, suggesting a direct conversion of deoxycytidine nucleotides to thymidine nucleotides through deamination, without further dilution by glycosyl transfer. Although radioactivity was incorporated into both the sugar and base moieties of deoxyribonucleic acid pyrimidine deoxyribonucleotides, only the sugar moiety of purine deoxyribonucleotides was labeled. Purine deoxyribonucleotides probably were synthesized by glycosyl transfer from [G-14C]deoxycytidine to unlabeled purines, followed by phosphorylation of the deoxynucleotides.