Inherited metabolic disorders in Cyprus

Selective screening for inherited metabolic disorders (IMD) began in Cyprus in 1990. Over the last thirty-three years 7388 patients were investigated for IMD and 200 diagnoses were made (diagnostic yield 2.7%). The existence of a single laboratory of Biochemical Genetics for the whole island facilitated the creation of a national registry for IMD. The minimal prevalence of IMD in Cyprus is 53.3 cases per 100,000 live births. The most common group are disorders of amino acid metabolism (41.0%), followed by disorders of carbohydrate metabolism (16.5%), disorders of complex molecule degradation (16.5%), mitochondrial disorders (10.5%) and disorders of vitamin and co-factor metabolism (5.5%). Hyperphenylalaninaemia is the most common IMD (14.0%) followed by galactosaemia (7.0%), glutaric aciduria type I (5.5%) and MSUD (4.0%). Some disorders were found to have a relatively high incidence in specific communities, for example Sandhoff disease among the Cypriot Maronites and GM1 gangliosidosis in one particular area of the island. Other disorders were found to have a relatively higher overall incidence, compared to other Caucasian populations, for example galactosaemia, glutaric aciduria type I and MSUD, while fatty acid oxidation defects, Gaucher disease and classic PKU were found to have a relatively lower incidence. Molecular characterization of selected disorders revealed many novel genetic variants, specific to the Cypriot population.

Obesogens in Adolescence: Challenging Aspects and Prevention Strategies

Childhood obesity has become a global epidemic, with significant increases in prevalence over recent decades. While excessive calorie consumption and physical inactivity are known factors, emerging research highlights the role of endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs), particularly obesogens, in obesity's pathogenesis. This review explores the historical context of the environmental obesogens hypothesis, their sources, mechanism of action, impact on prenatal and postnatal development, and epigenetics. Additionally, it discusses the long-term consequences of childhood obesity and proposes prevention strategies that will mitigate negative health effects. Obesogens were found to disrupt hormonal balance and metabolic processes through various mechanisms such as altering gene expression, hormonal interference, and inflammation. Especially significant was exposure during critical windows of development, which correlates with an increased risk of obesity in childhood or adolescence. Long-term effects of childhood obesity include chronic health conditions and psychosocial issues. A comprehensive approach is necessary to address childhood obesity encompassing genetic, environmental, and lifestyle factors. Prevention strategies should focus on reducing obesogen exposure, promoting healthy lifestyles, and implementing regulatory policies. Future research should investigate obesogens-diet interactions, microbiome impacts, and combined obesogens effects. Long-term human studies are also crucial for validating findings from animal models and allowing for informed decision-making to combat the obesity pandemic.

Genetic diagnosis of endocrine disorders in Cyprus through the Cyprus Institute of Neurology and Genetics: an ENDO-ERN Reference Center

The report covers the current and past activities of the department Molecular Genetics-Function and Therapy (MGFT) at the Cyprus Institute of Neurology and Genetics (CING), an affiliated Reference Center for the European Reference Network on Rare Endocrine Conditions (Endo-ERN).The presented data is the outcome of > 15 years long standing collaboration between MGFT and endocrine specialists from the local government hospitals and the private sector. Up-to-date > 2000 genetic tests have been performed for the diagnosis of inherited rare endocrine disorders. The major clinical entities included Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH) due to pathogenic variants in CYP21A2 gene and Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia (MEN) type 2 due to pathogenic variants in the RET proto-oncogene. Other rare and novel pathogenic variants in ANOS1, WDR11, FGFR1, RNF216, and CHD7 genes were also found in patients with Congenital Hypogonadotropic Hypogonadism. Interestingly, a few patients with Disorders of Sexual Differentiation (DSD) shared rare pathogenic variants in the SRD5A2, HSD17B3 and HSD3B2 while patients with Glucose and Insulin Homeostasis carried theirs in GCK and HNF1A genes. Lastly, MGFT over the last few years has established an esteemed diagnostic and research program on premature puberty with emphasis on the implication of MKRN3 gene on the onset of the disease and the identification of other prognosis biomarkers.As an Endo-ERN member MGFT department belongs to this large European network and holds the same humanistic ideals which aim toward the improvements of health care for patients with rare endocrine conditions in respect to improved and faster diagnosis.

Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone Receptor (GnRHR) and Hypogonadotropic Hypogonadism

Human sexual and reproductive development is regulated by the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis, which is primarily controlled by the gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) acting on its receptor (GnRHR). Dysregulation of the axis leads to conditions such as congenital hypogonadotropic hypogonadism (CHH) and delayed puberty. The pathophysiology of GnRHR makes it a potential target for treatments in several reproductive diseases and in congenital adrenal hyperplasia. GnRHR belongs to the G protein-coupled receptor family and its GnRH ligand, when bound, activates several complex and tissue-specific signaling pathways. In the pituitary gonadotrope cells, it triggers the G protein subunit dissociation and initiates a cascade of events that lead to the production and secretion of the luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) accompanied with the phospholipase C, inositol phosphate production, and protein kinase C activation. Pharmacologically, GnRHR can be modulated by synthetic analogues. Such analogues include the agonists, antagonists, and the pharmacoperones. The agonists stimulate the gonadotropin release and lead to receptor desensitization with prolonged use while the antagonists directly block the GnRHR and rapidly reduce the sex hormone production. Pharmacoperones include the most recent GnRHR therapeutic approaches that directly correct the misfolded GnRHRs, which are caused by genetic mutations and hold serious promise for CHH treatment. Understanding of the GnRHR's genomic and protein structure is crucial for the most appropriate assessing of the mutation impact. Such mutations in the GNRHR are linked to normosmic hypogonadotropic hypogonadism and lead to various clinical symptoms, including delayed puberty, infertility, and impaired sexual development. These mutations vary regarding their mode of inheritance and can be found in the homozygous, compound heterozygous, or in the digenic state. GnRHR expression extends beyond the pituitary gland, and is found in reproductive tissues such as ovaries, uterus, and prostate and non-reproductive tissues such as heart, muscles, liver and melanoma cells. This comprehensive review explores GnRHR's multifaceted role in human reproduction and its clinical implications for reproductive disorders.

RET Proto-Oncogene Variants in Patients with Medullary Thyroid Carcinoma from the Mediterranean Basin: A Brief Report

Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2 (MEN2) is an autosomal dominant (AD) condition with very high penetrance and expressivity. It is characterized into three clinical entities recognized as MEN2A, MEN2B, and familial medullary thyroid carcinoma (FMTC). In both MEN2A and MEN2B, there is a manifestation of multicentric tumor formation in the major organs such as the thyroid, parathyroid, and adrenal glands where the RET proto-oncogene is expressed. The FMTC form differs from MEN2A and MEN2B, since medullary thyroid carcinoma (MTC) is the only feature observed. In this present brief report, we demonstrate a collection of RET proto-oncogene genotype data from countries around the Mediterranean Basin with variable characteristics. As expected, a great extent of the Mediterranean RET proto-oncogene genotype data resemble the data reported globally. Most interestingly, higher frequencies are observed in the Mediterranean region for specific pathogenic RET variants as a result of local prevalence. The latter can be explained by founder effect phenomena. The Mediterranean epidemiological data that are presented herein are very important for domestic patients, their family members' evaluation, and ultimately their treatment.

The pathogenic p.Gln319Ter variant is not causing congenital adrenal hyperplasia when inherited in one of the duplicated CYP21A2 genes

Objective

The study aimed to identify the pathogenic status of p.Gln319Ter (NM_000500.7: c.955C>T) variant when inherited in a single CYP21A2 gene (bimodular RCCX haplotype) and to discriminate between a non-causing congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) allele when inherited in a duplicated and functional CYP21A2 gene context (trimodular RCCX haplotype).

Methods

38 females and 8 males with hyperandrogenemia, previously screened by sequencing and identified as carriers for the pathogenic p.Gln319Ter, were herein tested by multiplex ligation-dependent probe amplification (MLPA) and a real-time PCR Copy number Variation (CNV) assay.

Results

Both MLPA and real-time PCR CNV analyses confirmed a bimodular and pathogenic RCCX haplotype with a single CYP21A2 in 19/46 (41.30%) p.Gln319Ter carriers and who in parallel all shared elevated 17-OHP levels. The remaining 27 individuals that also carried the p.Gln319Ter exhibited low 17-OHP levels as a result of their carriership of a duplicated CYP21A2 with a trimodular RCCX haplotype. Interestingly, all of these individuals also carried in linkage disequilibrium with p.Gln319Ter two single nucleotide polymorphisms, the c.293-79G>A (rs114414746) in intron 2 and the c.*12C>T (rs150697472) in the 3'-UTR. Therefore, these variants can be used to distinguish between pathogenic and non-pathogenic genomic contexts of the c.955T (p.Gln319) in the genetic diagnosis of congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH).

Conclusion

The employed methodologies identified a considerable number of individuals with non-pathogenic p.Gln319Ter from the individuals that typically carry the pathogenic p.Gln319Ter in a single CYP21A2. Therefore, it is extremely important the detection of such haplotypes for the prenatal diagnosis, treatment and genetic counseling in patients with CAH.

Seminoma in 46, XY Gonadal Dysgenesis: Rare Presentation and Review of the Literature

Swyer syndrome is a rare congenital condition that serves as a risk factor for developing germ cell tumors. The condition belongs to the group of 46, XY Disorders of Sexual Development (DSD) is characterized by complete gonadal dysgenesis and is mostly manifested as delayed puberty and primary amenorrhea during adolescence. Individuals with Swyer syndrome are known to be phenotypically female with normal internal and external female genitalia at birth. 46, XY gonadal dysgenesis involves a high risk of gonadoblastoma development with malignant potential such that the onset is greatest at or after the event of puberty. This report of a 12-year-old phenotypic female with 46, XY gonadal dysgenesis, who developed an advanced metastatic seminoma, aims to emphasize the rarity of the development of a seminoma in the context of 46, XY CGD.

Stress and Growth in Children and Adolescents

The infantile, childhood, and adolescent periods of growth and development also represent times of increased vulnerability to stressors. Growth velocity in each period is dependent on the interplay of genetic, environmental, dietary, socioeconomic, developmental, behavioral, nutritional, metabolic, biochemical, and hormonal factors. A stressor may impact growth directly through modulation of the growth hormone axis or indirectly through other factors. The adaptive response to stressors culminates in behavioral, physiological, and biochemical responses which together support survival and conservation of energy. The immediate response involves activation of the sympathetic nervous system and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. The time-limited stress response is at once antigrowth, antireproductive, and catabolic with no lasting adverse consequences. However, chronic activation of the stress system and hypercortisolism have consequential negative impacts on growth, thyroid function, reproduction-puberty, and metabolism. High cortisol suppresses growth hormone-insulin-like growth factor 1, hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal, and thyroid axes and has been reported to be responsible for an increase in visceral adiposity, a decrease in lean mass, suppression of osteoblastic activity with risk of osteoporosis, and induction of insulin resistance. Early-life adversities, emotional or physical, have been associated with long-term negative physical and mental health outcomes. Existing models of chronic stress corroborate that early-life adversities can affect growth and have consequences in other aspects of well-being throughout the lifespan. Targeted interventions to reduce stress during infancy, childhood, and adolescence can have far-reaching benefits to long-term health as well as attaining adequate growth. In this review, we describe the neuroendocrinology of the stress response, the factors influencing growth, and the impact of chronic stress on growth during critical periods of infancy, childhood, and puberty with particular reference to growth, thyroid, and gonadal axis.

Salt-wasting congenital adrenal hyperplasia phenotype as a result of the TNXA/TNXB chimera 1 (CAH-X CH-1) and the pathogenic IVS2-13A/C > G in CYP21A2 gene

BACKGROUND

Genetic diversity of mutations in the CYP21A2 gene is the main cause of the monogenic congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) disorder. On chromosome 6p21.3, the CYP21A2 gene is partially overlapped by the TNXB gene, the two residing in tandem with their highly homologous corresponding pseudogenes (CYP21A1P and TNXA), which leads to recurrent homologous recombination.

METHODS AND RESULTS

In the present study, the genetic status of an ethnic Greek-Cypriot family, with a female neonate that was originally classified as male and manifested the salt-wasting (SW) form, is presented. Genetic defects in the CYP21A2 and TNXB genes were investigated by Sanger sequencing multiplex ligation-dependent probe amplification (MLPA) and a real-time PCR assay. The neonate carried in compound heterozygosity the TNXA/TNXB chimeric gene complex (termed CAH-X CH-1) that results in a contiguous CYP21A2 and TNXB deletion and in her second allele the pathogenic IVS2-13A/C > G (c.655A/C > G) in CYP21A2.

CONCLUSIONS

The classic SW-CAH due to 21-hydroxylase (21-OH) deficiency may result from various complex etiological mechanisms and, as such, can involve the formation of monoallelic TNXA/TNXB chimeras found in trans with other CYP21A2 pathogenic variants. This is a rare case of CAH due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency, which elucidates the role of the complex RCCX CNV structure in the development of the disease. Identification of the correct CAH genotypes for a given phenotype is of considerable value in assisting clinicians in prenatal diagnosis, appropriate treatment, and genetic counseling.

Methylation status of hypothalamic Mkrn3 promoter across puberty

Makorin RING finger protein 3 (MKRN3) is an important factor located on chromosome 15 in the imprinting region associated with Prader-Willi syndrome. Imprinted MKRN3 is expressed in hypothalamic regions essential for the onset of puberty and mutations in the gene have been found in patients with central precocious puberty. The pubertal process is largely controlled by epigenetic mechanisms that include, among other things, DNA methylation at CpG dinucleotides of puberty-related genes. In the present study, we investigated the methylation status of the Mkrn3 promoter in the hypothalamus of the female mouse before, during and after puberty. Initially, we mapped the 32 CpG dinucleotides in the promoter, the 5'UTR and the first 50 nucleotides of the coding region of the Mkrn3 gene. Moreover, we identified a short CpG island region (CpG islet) located within the promoter. Methylation analysis using bisulfite sequencing revealed that CpG dinucleotides were methylated regardless of developmental stage, with the lowest levels of methylation being found within the CpG islet region. In addition, the CpG islet region showed significantly lower methylation levels at the pre-pubertal stage when compared with the pubertal or post-pubertal stage. Finally, in silico analysis of transcription factor binding sites on the Mkrn3 CpG islet identified the recruitment of 29 transcriptional regulators of which 14 were transcriptional repressors. Our findings demonstrate the characterization and differential methylation of the CpG dinucleotides located in the Mkrn3 promoter that could influence the transcriptional activity in pre-pubertal compared to pubertal or post-pubertal period. Further studies are needed to clarify the possible mechanisms and effects of differential methylation of the Mkrn3 promoter.

Molecular modelling of novel ADCY3 variant predicts a molecular target for tackling obesity

Severe early-onset obesity is mainly attributed to single gene variations of the hypothalamic leptin-melanocortin system, which is critical for controlling the balance between appetite and energy expenditure. Adenylate cyclase 3 (ADCY3), a transmembrane enzyme localized in primary neuronal cilia, is a key genetic candidate, which appears to have an essential role in regulating body weight. The present study aimed to identify ADCY3 genetic variants in severely obese young patients of Greek-Cypriot origin by genomic sequencing. Apart from previously reported variants, the novel and probably pathogenic variant c.349T>A, causing a p.Leu117Met substitution within one of the two pseudo-symmetric halves of the transmembrane part of the protein, was reported. Molecular modelling analysis used to delineate bonding interactions within the mutated protein structure strongly suggested a change in interactive forces and energy levels affecting the pseudo-twofold symmetry of the transmembrane domain of the protein and probably its catalytic function. These results support the involvement of ADCY3 in the pathology of the disease and point towards the requirement of defining protein function and evaluating the clinical significance of the detected variants.

Pathogenic and Low-Frequency Variants in Children With Central Precocious Puberty

Background

Central precocious puberty (CPP) due to premature activation of GnRH secretion results in early epiphyseal fusion and to a significant compromise in the achieved final adult height. Currently, few genetic determinants of children with CPP have been described. In this translational study, rare sequence variants in MKRN3, DLK1, KISS1, and KISS1R genes were investigated in patients with CPP.

Methods

Fifty-four index girls and two index boys with CPP were first tested by Sanger sequencing for the MKRN3 gene. All children found negative (n = 44) for the MKRN3 gene were further investigated by whole exome sequencing (WES). In the latter analysis, the status of variants in genes known to be related with pubertal timing was compared with an in-house Cypriot control cohort (n = 43). The identified rare variants were initially examined by in silico computational algorithms and confirmed by Sanger sequencing. Additionally, a genetic network for the MKRN3 gene, mimicking a holistic regulatory depiction of the crosstalk between MKRN3 and other genes was designed.

Results

Three previously described pathogenic MKRN3 variants located in the coding region of the gene were identified in 12 index girls with CPP. The most prevalent pathogenic MKRN3 variant p.Gly312Asp was exclusively found among the Cypriot CPP cohort, indicating a founder effect phenomenon. Seven other CPP girls harbored rare likely pathogenic upstream variants in the MKRN3. Among the 44 CPP patients submitted to WES, nine rare DLK1 variants were identified in 11 girls, two rare KISS1 variants in six girls, and two rare MAGEL2 variants in five girls. Interestingly, the frequent variant rs10407968 (p.Gly8Ter) of the KISS1R gene appeared to be less frequent in the cohort of patients with CPP.

Conclusion

The results of the present study confirm the importance of the MKRN3-imprinted gene in genetics of CPP and its key role in pubertal timing. Overall, the results of the present study have emphasized the importance of an approach that aligns genetics and clinical aspects, which is necessary for the management and treatment of CPP.

Late diagnosis of 3β-Hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase deficiency: the pivotal role of gas chromatography-mass spectrometry urinary steroid metabolome analysis and a novel homozygous nonsense mutation in the HSD3B2 gene

OBJECTIVES

3β-Hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (3β-HSD) deficiency is a rare type of congenital adrenal hyperplasia caused by recessive loss-of-function mutations in HSD3B2 gene.

CASE PRESENTATION

We report an 8.5-year-old, 46XY, Roma boy with advanced adrenarche signs born to consanguineous parents. He was born at term with ambiguous genitalia. At 15 days of age, he underwent replacement therapy with hydrocortisone and fludrocortisone due to a salt wasting (SW) crisis and adrenal insufficiency. At 3.5 years, he was admitted again with SW crisis attributed to the low - unadjusted to body surface area - hydrocortisone dose and presented with bilateral gynecomastia and adrenarche. At 8.5 years, his bone age was four years more advanced than his chronological age and he was prepubertal, with very high testosterone levels. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) urinary steroid metabolome analysis revealed the typical steroid metabolic fingerprint of 3β-HSD deficiency. Sequencing of the HSD3B2 gene identified in homozygosity the novel p.Lys36Ter nonsense mutation. Furthermore, this patient was found to be heterozygous for p.Val281Leu in the CYP21A2 gene. Both parents were identified as carriers of the p.Lys36Ter in HSD3B2.

CONCLUSIONS

A novel nonsense p.Lys36Ter mutation in HSD3B2 was identified in a male patient with hypospadias. 3β-HSD deficiency due to mutations in the HSD3B2 gene is extremely rare and the finding of a patient with this rare type of disorders of sex development (DSD) is one of the very few reported to date. The complexity of such diseases requires a multidisciplinary team approach regarding the diagnosis and follow-up.

Polycystic ovarian syndrome in adolescents: From diagnostic criteria to therapeutic management

Polycystic ovarian syndrome is a common endocrinologic condition diagnosed in women of childbearing age. It is primarily associated with androgen excess and ovarian dysfunction, which contribute to menstrual irregularity, oligo-anovulation, infertility, hirsutism and acne. It is associated with several systemic conditions, including type 2 diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular disease, obesity and neuropsychological disorders. The exact pathophysiology and clinical features are highly variable and, thus, there is still controversy in defining the diagnostic criteria. In this review, we outline the main diagnostic criteria, discuss the mechanisms involved in the complex pathogenesis, and present the associated clinical manifestations and therapeutic management of the syndrome in adolescents.

Gender dysphoria in children and adolescents: an overview

Over the last decade, we have witnessed considerable progress in gender dysphoria (GD) terminology in an attempt to better describe the condition based on certain criteria. The ever-increasing social acceptance and destigmatization of children and adolescents with GD have resulted in an increased number of transgender individuals seeking endocrine care. In addition to terminology and diagnostic criteria, the tremendous progress of genetics and neuroimaging has enabled us to have a deeper understanding of the complex pathogenesis of GD. Although helpful guidelines for treatment with GnRH analogs and gender-affirming hormones have been proposed, several challenges and controversies still exist. In this article, the current knowledge about GD in adolescents is reviewed, with particular emphasis on terminology, clinical manifestations, and epidemiologic data. The neurobiological basis of the condition is presented, and both hormonal treatment and mental issues of transgender individuals are discussed. Undoubtedly, further research will optimize the diagnostic and therapeutic approach of children and adolescents with GD.

Current approach to the clinical care of adolescents with gender dysphoria

Over the last decade, we have witnessed a significant rise in the number of transgender young people seeking endocrine treatment, of which clinical service and gender dysphoria terminology have attempted to keep pace both in matching demand and better describing the condition. Although helpful guidelines for pubertal suppression and gender affirming hormones have been developed, uncertainties remain regarding treatment and monitoring during treatment, often because the clinical needs of the transgender population have outpaced medical expertise and training. Recently, multidisciplinary team work has evolved due to the increasing complexity of diagnostic and treatment decision-making and has been instrumental in creating a unique service with input from a range of specialists. In this article, the current approach in clinical management of adolescents with gender dysphoria is reviewed, with focus on the endocrine aspect of care in children and adolescents. Questions on what defines optimal clinical care of children and adolescents with gender dysphoria remain and should be the focus of future research. (www.actabiomedica.it)

GnRH Deficient Patients With Congenital Hypogonadotropic Hypogonadism: Novel Genetic Findings in ANOS1, RNF216, WDR11, FGFR1, CHD7, and POLR3A Genes in a Case Series and Review of the Literature

Background: Congenital hypogonadotropic hypogonadism (CHH) is a rare genetic disease caused by Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH) deficiency. So far a limited number of variants in several genes have been associated with the pathogenesis of the disease. In this original research and review manuscript the retrospective analysis of known variants in ANOS1 (KAL1), RNF216, WDR11, FGFR1, CHD7, and POLR3A genes is described, along with novel variants identified in patients with CHH by the present study. Methods: Seven GnRH deficient unrelated Cypriot patients underwent whole exome sequencing (WES) by Next Generation Sequencing (NGS). The identified novel variants were initially examined by in silico computational algorithms and structural analysis of their predicted pathogenicity at the protein level was confirmed. Results: In four non-related GnRH males, a novel X-linked pathogenic variant in ANOS1 gene, two novel autosomal dominant (AD) probably pathogenic variants in WDR11 and FGFR1 genes and one rare AD probably pathogenic variant in CHD7 gene were identified. A rare autosomal recessive (AR) variant in the SRA1 gene was identified in homozygosity in a female patient, whilst two other male patients were also, respectively, found to carry novel or previously reported rare pathogenic variants in more than one genes; FGFR1/POLR3A and SRA1/RNF216. Conclusion: This report embraces the description of novel and previously reported rare pathogenic variants in a series of genes known to be implicated in the biological development of CHH. Notably, patients with CHH can harbor pathogenic rare variants in more than one gene which raises the hypothesis of locus-locus interactions providing evidence for digenic inheritance. The identification of such aberrations by NGS can be very informative for the management and future planning of these patients.

46,XY complete gonadal dysgenesis in a familial case with a rare mutation in the desert hedgehog (DHH) gene

PURPOSE

Disorders of sex development (DSD) have been linked to gene defects that lead to gonadal dysgenesis. Herein, we aimed to identify the genetic cause of gonadal dysgenesis in a patient with primary amenorrhoea tracing it to a phenotypic female carrying a 46,XY karyotype of a consanguineous family.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Whole exome sequencing (WES) was performed and revealed in homozygosity the rare and only once reported p.Arg164Pro missense mutation in exon 2 of the desert hedgehog (DHH) gene. Sanger sequencing was used to validate this candidate variant both in the patient, the parents, and two siblings. Both brother and sister of the index patient were found negative for the p.Arg164Pro mutation, while the consanguineous parents were found to carry the mutation in the heterozygous state. Neither the parents nor the unaffected siblings showed any reproductive malformations.

CONCLUSIONS

Defects in the DHH gene have been reported as a very rare cause of DSD, and this report increases the number of 46,XY gonadal dysgenesis cases. Additionally, the present study highlights the importance of genetic validation of patients with DSD, since this is likely to alleviate the considerable psychological distress experienced by both the patient and the parents.

The Spectrum of Genetic Defects in Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia in the Population of Cyprus: A Retrospective Analysis

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency (21-OHD) is caused by mutations in the CYP21A2 gene. The study refers to CAH patients of Greek-Cypriot ancestry between years 2007 and 2018. One hundred and twenty patients with various degrees of CAH were categorized and genotyped. The patients were categorized in 4 mutation groups based on their clinical and biochemical findings. The majority of patients (85.0%) belonged to the non-classic (NC)-CAH form and the disorder was more often diagnosed in females (71.7%). The most severe classic salt-wasting (SW) form was identified in 11 neonates (9.2%). Seven (5.8%) children were also identified with the simple virilizing (SV) form and a median presentation age of 5 years [interquartile range (IQR) 3.2-6.5]. In the 240 nonrelated alleles, the most frequent mutation was p.Val281Leu (60.0%) followed by c.655 A/C>G (IVS2-13A/C>G) (8.8%), p.Pro453Ser (5.8%), DelEx1-3 (4.6%), p.Val304Met (4.6%), and p.Gln318stop (4.2%). Other less frequent mutations including rare deletions were also identified. Following our recent report that the true carrier frequency of CYP21A2 in Greek-Cypriots is 1:10, this study reports that the CAH prevalence is predicted around 1.7 cases per 10 000 people. Therefore, the up-to-date 120 CAH patients identified by our group make only the 6.9% of the ones estimated (approximately 1750) to exist in the Greek Cypriot population. The compiled data from a coherent population such as the Greek-Cypriot could be valuable for the antenatal diagnosis, management and genetic counselling of the existing and prospect families with CAH.

ESPE and PES International Survey of Centers and Clinicians Delivering Specialist Care for Children and Adolescents with Gender Dysphoria

BACKGROUND/AIMS

Increasing numbers of children and adolescents seek medical care because they experience incongruence between their physical sex and their gender identity.

METHODS

The ESPE working group on gender dysphoria (GD) undertook a survey to investigate the structure and the type of medical care in centers that offer specialist care for transgender adolescents.

RESULTS

The personnel of each center varied from country to country, and a nationally organized network or plan for managing GD did not exist in all centers. The majority of young people were transitioning from female to male, and the number of new referrals increased remarkably during the past 3 years. Almost all centers follow the guidelines issued by the Endocrine Society and World Professional Association for Transgender Health. GnRH analogues were used as the initial treatment in the majority of the centers. The age from which adolescents are treated with gender-affirming hormones varied between centers. Several legal restrictions that concern or influence the treatment of children and adolescents with GD were finally addressed.

CONCLUSION

This first international survey examining the variations in availability and provisions of services for children and adolescents with GD serves as a starting block for further dialogue and future studies.

Central Precocious Puberty Caused by Novel Mutations in the Promoter and 5'-UTR Region of the Imprinted MKRN3 Gene

Background: Central Precocious Puberty (CPP) is clinically defined by the development of secondary sexual characteristics before the age of 8 years in girls and 9 years in boys. To date, mutations in the coding region of KISS1, KISS1R, PROKR2, DLK1, and MKRN3 genes have been reported as causative for CPP. This study investigated the presence of causative mutations in both the promoter and the 5'-UTR regions of the MKRN3 gene. Methods: Sanger DNA sequencing was used for screening the proximal promoter and 5'-UTR region of the MKRN3 gene in a group of 73 index girls with CPP. Mutations identified were cloned in luciferase reporter gene vectors and transiently transfected in GN11 cells in order to check for changes in the activity of the MKRN3 promoter. GN11 cells were previously checked for Mkrn3 expression using lentivirus mediated knock-down. In silico analysis was implemented for the detection of changes in the mRNA secondary structure of the mutated MKRN3 5'-UTR. Results: Three novel heterozygous mutations (-166, -865, -886 nt upstream to the transcription start site) located in the proximal promoter region of the MKRN3 gene were identified in six non-related girls with CPP. Four of these girls shared the -865 mutation, one the -166, and another one the -886. A 5'-UTR (+13 nt downstream to the transcription start site) novel mutation was also identified in a girl with similar clinical phenotype. Gene reporter assay evaluated the identified promoter mutations and demonstrated a significant reduction of MKRN3 promoter activity in transfected GN11 cells. In silico analysis for the mutated 5'-UTR predicted a significant change of the mRNA secondary structure. The minimum free energy (MFE) of the mutated 5'-UTR was higher when compared to the corresponding wild-type indicating less stable RNA secondary structure. Conclusion: Our findings demonstrated novel genetic alterations in the promoter and 5'-UTR regulatory regions of the MKRN3 gene. These changes add to another region to check for the etiology of CPP.

Position effect, cryptic complexity, and direct gene disruption as disease mechanisms in de novo apparently balanced translocation cases

The majority of apparently balanced translocation (ABT) carriers are phenotypically normal. However, several mechanisms were proposed to underlie phenotypes in affected ABT cases. In the current study, whole-genome mate-pair sequencing (WG-MPS) followed by Sanger sequencing was applied to further characterize de novo ABTs in three affected individuals. WG-MPS precisely mapped all ABT breakpoints and revealed three possible underlying molecular mechanisms. Firstly, in a t(X;1) carrier with hearing loss, a highly skewed X-inactivation pattern was observed and the der(X) breakpoint mapped ~87kb upstream an X-linked deafness gene namely POU3F4, thus suggesting an underlying long-range position effect mechanism. Secondly, cryptic complexity and a chromothripsis rearrangement was identified in a t(6;7;8;12) carrier with intellectual disability. Two translocations and a heterozygous deletion disrupted SOX5; a dominant nervous system development gene previously reported in similar patients. Finally, a direct gene disruption mechanism was proposed in a t(4;9) carrier with dysmorphic facial features and speech delay. In this case, the der(9) breakpoint directly disrupted NFIB, a gene involved in lung maturation and development of the pons with important functions in main speech processes. To conclude, in contrast to familial ABT cases with identical rearrangements and discordant phenotypes, where translocations are considered coincidental, translocations seem to be associated with phenotype presentation in affected de novo ABT cases. In addition, this study highlights the importance of investigating both coding and non-coding regions to decipher the underlying pathogenic mechanisms in these patients, and supports the potential introduction of low coverage WG-MPS in the clinical investigation of de novo ABTs.

Multiple endocrine neoplasia 2 in Cyprus: evidence for a founder effect

PURPOSE

Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2 (MEN2) affects patients with RET proto-oncogene mutations. This cohort study refers to patients who were diagnosed with familial medullary thyroid carcinoma (MTC) and underwent RET genetic testing in Cyprus between years 2002 and 2017.

METHODS AND PATIENTS

Forty patients underwent RET testing by Sanger sequencing of exons 10-11 and 13-16. Genotyping with STR genetic markers flanking the RET gene along with Y-chromosome genotyping and haplogroup assignment was also performed.

RESULTS

RET mutations were identified in 40 patients from 11 apparently unrelated Cypriot families and two non-familial sporadic cases. Nine probands (69.2%) were heterozygous for p.Cys618Arg, one (7.7%) for p.Cys634Phe, one (7.7%) for the somatic delE632-L633 and two (15.4%) for p.Met918Thr mutations. The mean age at MTC diagnosis of patients carrying p.Cys618Arg was 36.8 ± 14.2 years. The age of pheo diagnosis ranged from 26 to 43 years and appeared simultaneously with MTC in 5/36 (13.9%) cases. The high frequency of the p.Cys618Arg mutation suggested a possible ancestral mutational event. Haplotype analysis was performed in families with and without p.Cys618Arg. Six microsatellite markers covering the RET gene and neighboring regions identified one core haplotype associated with all patients carrying p.Cys618Arg mutation.

CONCLUSIONS

The mutation p.Cys618Arg is by far the most prevalent mutation in Cyprus followed by other reported mutations of variable clinical significance. The provided molecular evidence speculates p.Cys618Arg mutation as an ancestral mutation that has spread in Cyprus due to a possible founder effect.

Combined effect of glutamine at position 70 of HLA-DRB1 and alanine at position 57 of HLA-DQB1 in type 1 diabetes: An epitope analysis

The contribution of specific HLA Class II alleles in type 1 diabetes is determined by polymorphic amino acid epitopes that direct antigen binding therefore, along with conventional allele frequency analysis, epitope analysis can provide important insights into disease susceptibility. We analyzed the highly heterogeneous Cypriot population for the HLA class II loci of T1DM patients and controls and we report for the first time their allele frequencies. Within our patient cohort we identified a subgroup that did not carry the DRB1*03:01-DQA1*05:01-DQB1*02:01 and DRB1*04:xx-DQA1*03:01-DQB1*03:02 risk haplotypes but a novel recombinant one, DRB1*04:XX-DQA1*03:01-DQB1*02:01 designated DR4-DQ2.3. Through epitope analysis we identified established susceptibility (DQB1 A⁵⁷, DRB1 H¹³) and resistance (DQB1 D⁵⁷) residues as well as other novel susceptibility residues DRB1 Q⁷⁰, DQB1 L²⁶ and resistance residues DRB1 D⁷⁰, R⁷⁰ and DQB1 Y⁴⁷. Prevalence of susceptibility epitopes was higher in patients and was not exclusively a result of linkage disequilibrium. Residues DRB1 Q⁷⁰, DQB1 L²⁶ and A⁵⁷ and a 10 amino acid epitope of DQA1 were the most significant in discriminating risk alleles. An extended haplotype containing these epitopes was carried by 92% of our patient cohort. Sharing of susceptibility epitopes could also explain the absence of risk haplotypes in patients. Finally, many significantly associated epitopes were non-pocket residues suggesting that critical immune functions may exist spanning further from the binding pockets.

46,XY Disorder of Sex Development due to 17-Beta Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenase Type 3 Deficiency in an Infant of Greek Origin

17-beta hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 (17βHSD-3) enzyme catalyzes the conversion of androstenedione (Δ4) to testosterone (T) in the testes of the developing fetus, thus playing a crucial role in the differentiation of the gonads and in establishing the male sex phenotype. Any mutation in the encoding gene (HSD17B3) can lead to varying degrees of undervirilization of the affected male, ranging from completely undervirilized external female genitalia to predominantly male with micropenis and hypospadias. We present here an infant who was referred to our clinic because of ambiguous genitalia at birth. Gonads were palpable in the inguinal canal bilaterally and no Müllerian structures were identified on pelvic ultrasound. Because of a low T/Δ4 ratio after a human chorionic gonadotropin stimulation test, a tentative diagnosis of 17βHSD-3 deficiency was made which was confirmed after genetic analysis of the HSD17B3 gene of the patient. The molecular analysis identified compound heterozygosity of two previously described mutations and could offer some further validation for the idea of a founder effect for 655-1;G→A mutation in the Greek population.

An ICET- A survey on Hypoparathyroidism in Patients with Thalassaemia Major and Intermedia: A preliminary report

Hypoparathyroidism (HPT) is a rare disease with leading symptoms of hypocalcemia, associated with high serum phosphorus levels and absent or inappropriately low levels of parathyroid hormone (PTH). In patients with thalassemias it is mainly attributed to transfusional iron overload, and suboptimal iron chelation therapy. The main objectives of this survey were to provide data on the prevalence, demographic and clinical features of HPT in thalassemia major (TM) and intermedia (TI) patients living in different countries, and to assess its impact in clinical medical practice. A questionnaire was sent to all Thalassemia Centres participating to the International Network of Clinicians for Endocrinopathies in Thalassemia and Adolescence Medicine (ICET-A) Network.Seventeen centers, treating a total of 3023 TM and 739 TI patients, participated to the study. HPT was reported in 206 (6.8%) TM patients and 33 (4.4%) TI patients. In general, ages ranged from 10.5 to 57 years for the TM group and from 20 to 54 years for the TI group. Of the 206 TM patients and 33 TI patients with HPT, 117 (48.9%) had a serum ferritin level >2.500 ng/ml (54.3% TM and 15.1% TI patients) at the last observation. Hypocalcemia varied in its clinical presentation from an asymptomatic biochemical abnormality to a life-threatening condition, requiring hospitalization. Calcium and vitamin D metabolites are currently the cornerstone of therapy in HPT. In TM patients, HPT was preceded or followed by other endocrine and non-endocrine complications. Growth retardation and hypogonadism were the most common complications (53.3% and 67.4%, respectively). Although endocrine complications were more common in patients with TM, non-transfused or infrequently transfused patients with TI suffered a similar spectrum of complications but at a lower rate than their regularly transfused counterparts.In conclusion, although a large international registry would help to better define the prevalence, comorbidities and best treatment of HPT, through the result of this survey we hope to give a clearer understanding of the burden of this disease and its unmet needs. HPT requires lifelong therapy with vitamin D or metabolites and is often associated with complications and comorbidities.Therefore, it is important for endocrinologists and other physicians, who care for these patients, to be aware of recent advances of this disorder.

Genotype Is Associated to the Degree of Virilization in Patients With Classic Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia

Background: Molecular defects of CYP21A2 consistently decrease 21-hydroxylase activity and result in a variable expression of disease severity in patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH). Aim: The genotype and biochemical findings were examined in an attempt to reveal any association to the degree of virilization in classic CAH patients. Methods: The study included 18 CAH patients with complete characterization of CYP21A2 mutations and were sorted based on the severity of the inherited mutations and the expected percentage of 21-hydroxylase enzyme activity. Results: Eleven out of the 18 patients manifested the SW form with the remaining seven exhibiting the SV form. The most frequent genetic defect in the classic salt-wasting (SW) and simple virilising (SV) forms was the IVS2-13A/C>G (36.1%) mutation, followed by delEX1-3 (19.4%) and p.Ile172Asn (19.4%). Four patients, who shared a combination of two mutations belonging to the most severe type, manifested only the SW form. Four out of five patients who shared homozygosity in the IVS2-13A/C>G mutation, demonstrated the SW form and only one demonstrated the SV form. All four patients who shared the p.Ile172Asn mutation, either in the homozygous or compound heterozygous state, manifested the SV form. Interestingly, a female neonate with SW, bearing the IVS2-13A/C>G/Large del, exhibited complete male virilisation (Prader 5). The remaining four affected female new-borns also exhibited the SW form, with two of them virilised as Prader 3 and the other two as Prader 4. Virilisation with clitoromegaly was also observed in one female, who presented premature adrenarche and carried the least severe p.Pro30Leu mutation. Conclusion: The frequency of the underlying mutations in our patients, with the classic form of CAH, varies but were quite similar to the ones reported in the Mediterranean region. Therefore, the identification of severe CYP21A2 defects in Cypriot patients and their comparison with the incidence and severity in different populations, will create a valuable diagnostic tool for genetic counseling in the classic form of CAH.

GnRH-dependent precocious puberty manifested at the age of 14 months in a girl with 47,XXX karyotype

This case report describes a 47,XXX girl who presented very early, at the age of 14 months, with signs of sexual precocity (breast and pubic hair development, menarche) and was finally diagnosed with GnRH dependent precocious puberty with no evidence of underlying central nervous system pathology. Molecular testing did not identify any genetic defect in any of the genes tested (KISS1, KISS1R, DLK1 and the intronless MKRN3). Though previous studies have shown a link between karyotype 47,XXX and precocious puberty, this is the youngest patient reported so far. Treatment with GnRH analog was commenced and proved to be effective, indicating a successful suppression of the hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian axis.

Identification of a novel 15.5 kb SHOX deletion associated with marked intrafamilial phenotypic variability and analysis of its molecular origin

Haploinsufficiency of the short stature homeobox contaning SHOX gene has been shown to result in a spectrum of phenotypes ranging from Leri-Weill dyschondrosteosis (LWD) at the more severe end to SHOX-related short stature at the milder end of the spectrum. Most alterations are whole gene deletions, point mutations within the coding region, or microdeletions in its flanking sequences. Here, we present the clinical and molecular data as well as the potential molecular mechanism underlying a novel microdeletion, causing a variable SHOX-related haploinsufficiency disorder in a three-generation family. The phenotype resembles that of LWD in females, in males, however, the phenotypic expression is milder. The 15523-bp SHOX intragenic deletion, encompassing exons 3-6, was initially detected by array-CGH, followed by MLPA analysis. Sequencing of the breakpoints indicated an Alu recombination-mediated deletion (ARMD) as the potential causative mechanism.

Developing and evaluating rare disease educational materials co-created by expert clinicians and patients: the paradigm of congenital hypogonadotropic hypogonadism

Background

Patients with rare diseases face health disparities and are often challenged to find accurate information about their condition. We aimed to use the best available evidence and community partnerships to produce patient education materials for congenital hypogonadotropic hypogonadism (CHH) and the olfacto-genital (Kallmann) syndrome (i.e., CHH and defective sense of smell), and to evaluate end-user acceptability. Expert clinicians, researchers and patients co-created the materials in a multi-step process. Six validated algorithms were used to assess reading level of the final product. Comprehensibility and actionability were measured using the Patient Education Materials Assessment Tool via web-based data collection. Descriptive statistics were employed to summarize data and thematic analysis for analyzing open-ended responses. Subsequently, translation and cultural adaption were conducted by clinicians and patients who are native speakers.

Results

Co-created patient education materials reached the target 6^th grade reading level according to 2/6 (33%) algorithms (range: grade 5.9–9.7). The online survey received 164 hits in 2 months and 63/159 (40%) of eligible patients completed the evaluation. Patients ranged in age from 18 to 66 years (median 36, mean 39 ± 11) and 52/63 (83%), had adequate health literacy. Patients scored understandability at 94.2% and actionability at 90.5%. The patient education materials were culturally adapted and translated into 20 languages (available in Additional file 1).

Conclusions

Partnering with patients enabled us to create patient education materials that met patient- identified needs as evidenced by high end-user acceptability, understandability and actionability. The web-based evaluation was effective for reaching dispersed rare disease patients. Combining dissemination via traditional healthcare professional platforms as well as patient-centric sites can facilitate broad uptake of culturally adapted translations. This process may serve as a roadmap for creating patient education materials for other rare diseases.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13023-017-0608-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Variations in the 3'UTR of the CYP21A2 Gene in Heterozygous Females with Hyperandrogenaemia

Heterozygosity for CYP21A2 mutations in females is possibly related to increased risk of developing clinical hyperandrogenism. The present study was designed to seek evidence on the phenotype-genotype correlation in female children, adolescents, and women with CYP21A2 mutations and variants in the 3'UTR region of the gene. Sixty-six patients out of the 169 were identified as carriers of CYP21A2 mutations. Higher values of stimulated 17 hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) levels were found in the carriers of the p.Val281Leu mutation compared to the carriers of other mutations (mean: 24.7 nmol/l versus 15.6 nmol/l). The haplotype of the ^∗52C>T, ^∗440C>T, and ^∗443T>C in the 3'UTR was identical in all heterozygous patients with p.Val281Leu and the haplotype of the ^∗12C>T and ^∗52C>T was identical in all heterozygous patients with the p.Gln318^∗. In conclusion, hyperandrogenaemic females are likely to bear heterozygous CYP21A2 mutations. Carriers of the mild p.Val281Leu mutation are at higher risk of developing hyperandrogenism than the carriers of more severe mutations. The identification of variants in the 3'UTR of CYP21A2 in combination with the heterozygous mutation may be associated with the mild form of nonclassic congenital adrenal hyperplasia and reveal the importance of analyzing the CYP21A2 untranslated regions for the appropriate management of this category of patients.

The ICET-A Recommendations for the Diagnosis and Management of Disturbances of Glucose Homeostasis in Thalassemia Major Patients

Iron overload in patients with thalassemia major (TM) affects glucose regulation and is mediated by several mechanisms. The pathogenesis of glycaemic abnormalities in TM is complex and multifactorial. It has been predominantly attributed to a combination of reduced insulin secretory capacity and insulin resistance. The exact mechanisms responsible for progression from norm glycaemia to overt diabetes in these patients are still poorly understood but are attributed mainly to insulin deficiency resulting from the toxic effects of iron deposited in the pancreas and insulin resistance. A group of endocrinologists, haematologists and paediatricians, members of the International Network of Clinicians for Endocrinopathies in Thalassemia and Adolescence Medicine (ICET-A) convened to formulate recommendations for the diagnosis and management of abnormalities of glucose homeostasis in thalassemia major patients on the basis of available evidence from clinical and laboratory data and consensus practice. The results of their work and discussions are described in this article.

A novel MC4R deletion coexisting with FTO and MC1R gene variants, causes severe early onset obesity

OBJECTIVE

Heterozygous mutations on the melanocortin-4-receptor gene (MC4R) are the most frequent cause of monogenic obesity. We describe a novel MC4R deletion in a girl with severe early onset obesity, tall stature, pale skin and red hair.

CASE REPORT

Clinical and hormonal parameters were evaluated in a girl born full-term by non-consanguineous parents. Her body mass index (BMI) at presentation (3 years) was 30 kg/m² (z-score: +4.5SDS). By the age of 5.2 years, she exhibited extreme linear growth acceleration and developed hyperinsulinemia.

METHODS

Direct sequencing of the MC4R, MC1Rand for the knownFTOsingle nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) rs9939609was performed for the patient and her family.

RESULTS

A novel heterozygous MC4R p.Met215del (c.643_645delATG) deletion was identified in the patient, her father and her brother, both of whom exhibited a milder phenotype. 3D structural dynamic simulation studies investigated the conformational changes induced by the p.Met215del. The patient and her mother were also found to be carriers of the obesity risk associated FTOrs9939609SNP. Finally, the identification of the known p.Arg160Trp MC1Rvariant in the patient accounts for the red hair and pale skin phenotypic features.

CONCLUSION

The p.Met215del causes global conformational and functional changes as it is localized at the alpha-helical transmembrane regions and the membrane spanning regions of the beta-barrel. This novel mutation produces a severe overgrowth phenotype that is apparent as from infancy and is progressive in childhood. The additional negative effect of environmental and unhealthy lifestyle habits as well as a possible co-interaction of FTOrs9939609 SNP may worsen the phenotype.

HLA-G 14-bp polymorphism affects the age of onset in Type I Diabetes Mellitus

Type I diabetes mellitus (T1DM) is an organ-specific autoimmune disorder affecting the insulin-producing pancreatic cells. T1DM genetic association studies have so far revealed the involvement of more than 40 loci, with particularly strong associations for the human leucocyte antigens (HLA). Further to the well-established HLA class II associations, the immunomodulatory elements in the telomeric major histocompatibility complex locus, specifically nonclassical HLA class I, were also associated with T1DM, either in conferring susceptibility or by contributing to the overall pathogenesis. This study investigates the involvement of a 14-bp deletion polymorphism (rs371194629) at the 3' untranslated region of HLA-G in the context of T1DM and age of onset. The frequency of the polymorphism was determined in unrelated T1DM Cypriot patients and findings that emerge from this study show a strong association between the HLA-G 14-bp polymorphism and T1DM with respect to the age of onset. Specifically, the deletion/deletion (DEL/DEL) genotype was found to be associated with an early age of onset (P = 0.001), while the presence of the insertion allele (INS) was associated to a later age of onset (P = 0.0001), portraying a possible dominant effect over the deletion allele, a role in delaying disease onset and an overall involvement of HLA-G in the pathogenesis of type I diabetes mellitus.

Genetic screening of non-classic CAH females with hyperandrogenemia identifies a novel CYP11B1 gene mutation

OBJECTIVE

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) is an endocrine autosomal recessive disorder with various symptoms of diverse severity. Mild hyperandrogenemia is the most commonclinical feature in non-classic CAH patients and 95% of the cases are identified by mutations in the CYP21A2 gene. In the present study, the second most common cause for non-classic CAH (NC-CAH), 11β-hydroxylase deficiency due to mutations in the CYP11B1 gene, is investigated.

DESIGN

Screening of the CYP21A2 and CYP11B1 genes by direct sequencing was carried out for the detection of possible genetic defects in patients with suspected CAH.

RES ULTS

It wasobserved that CYP11B1 variants co-exist only in rare cases along with mutations in CYP21A2 in patients clinically diagnosed with CAH. A total of 23 NC-CAH female patients out of 75 were identified with only one mutation in the CYP21A2 gene. The novel CYP11B1 gene mutation, p.Val484Asp, was identified in a patient with CAH in the heterozygous state. The structural characterization of the novel p.Val484Asp was found to likely cause distortion of the surrounding beta sheet and indirect destabilization of the cavity that occurs on the opposite face of the structural elements, leading to partial impairment of the enzymatic activity.

CONCLUSIONS

CYP21A2 gene mutations are the most frequent genetic defects in cases of NC-CAH even when these patients are in the heterozygous state. These mutations have a diverse phenotype giving rise to a variable extent of cortisol synthesis impairment; it is also clear that CYP11B1 mutants are a rare type of defects causing CAH.

In silico analysis of a novel MKRN3 missense mutation in familial central precocious puberty

BACKGROUND

The onset of puberty is influenced by the interplay of stimulating and restraining factors, many of which have a genetic origin. Premature activation of the GnRH secretion in central precocious puberty (CPP) may arise either from gain-of-function mutations of the KISS1 and KISS1R genes or from loss-of-function manner mutations of the MKRN3 gene leading to MKRN3 deficiency.

OBJECTIVE

To explore the genetic causes responsible for CPP and the potential role of the RING finger protein 3 (MKRN3) gene.

DESIGN AND PATIENTS

We investigated potential sequence variations in the intronless MKRN3 gene by Sanger sequencing of the entire 507 amino acid coding region of exon 1 in a family with two affected girls presented with CPP at the age of 6 and 5·7 years, respectively.

RESULTS

A novel heterozygous g.Gly312Asp missense mutation in the MKRN3 gene was identified in these siblings. The imprinted MKRN3 missense mutation was also identified as expected in the unaffected father and followed as expected an imprinted mode of inheritance. In silico analysis of the altered missense variant using the computational algorithms Polyphen2, SIFT and Mutation Taster predicted a damage and pathogenic alteration causing CPP. The pathogenicity of the alteration at the protein level via an in silico structural model is also explored.

CONCLUSION

A novel mutation in the MKRN3 gene in two sisters with CPP was identified, supporting the fundamental role of this gene in the suppression of the hypothalamic GnRH neurons.

Identification of an AVP-NPII mutation within the AVP moiety in a family with neurohypophyseal diabetes insipidus: review of the literature

Familial neurohypophyseal diabetes insipidus (FNDI) is a disorder characterized by excess excretion of diluted urine (polyuria) and increased uptake of fluids (polydipsia). The disorder is caused by mutations affecting the AVP-NPII gene, resulting in absent or deficient secretion of the antidiuretic hormone arginine vasopressin (AVP) by the neurohypophysis. In this study we examined a three-generation Cypriot kindred suspected to have FNDI. Direct sequencing analysis of AVP-NPII identified a missense mutation (NM_000490.4:c.61T>C; p.Tyr21His; rs121964893) within the AVP moiety on exon 1 of the gene in all affected family members. So far, only three studies have reported mutations within the AVP moiety of AVP-NPIIas being associated with FNDI, with the vast majority of identified FNDI mutations being located within the signalling peptide or the neurophysis II (NPII) moiety of the gene. The mutation within the AVP moiety identified here had been reported previously in a Turkish kindred with FNDI. Consequently, the findings of this study confirm the causal role of mutations within the AVP moiety in FNDI. Herein we review reported mutations within the AVP moiety of AVP-NPII and their contribution to FNDI.

Genetic defects of the CYP21A2 gene in girls with premature adrenarche

OBJECTIVES

To seek evidence on the prevalence of CYP21A2 genetic defects and consequences in girls with premature adrenarche (PA).

METHODS

The study included 59 girls diagnosed with PA. Direct DNA sequencing and MLPA analysis were performed to identify mutations in CYP21A2 gene.

RESULTS

Twelve girls were diagnosed with non-classic congenital adrenal hyperplasia (NC-CAH) based on stimulated 17-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) levels and the presence of two mutations in CYP21A2, 19 were heterozygotes. The most frequent mutations detected were the mild p.Val281Leu and p.Pro453Ser. Higher levels of mean stimulated 17-OHP were found in the carriers of the p.Val281Leu mutation. The detection rate for two CYP21A2 mutations was higher in girls with PA than in adult females with hyperandrogenemia in our studied population. A notable increased allelic frequency for the known p.Asn493Ser polymorphism was observed in the pool of the 28 girls with PA in whom no mutation was identified.

CONCLUSIONS

In girls with PA, the frequency of the underlying CYP21A2 genetic defects is similar to that observed in other populations. The carrier status is likely a contributing factor in the genotype-phenotype correlation in NC-CAH. However, polymorphisms and other genes may be implicated in the clinical manifestation of the disease.

Endocrine check-up in adolescents and indications for referral: A guide for health care providers

The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends that young people between the ages of 11 and 21 years should be seen annually by their pediatricians, since annual checkups can be an important opportunity for health evaluation and anticipatory guidance. Parents of infants and young children are accustomed to regularly visiting a pediatrician for their child's checkups. Unfortunately, when children reach the teen years, these annual checkups may decrease in frequency. In routine check-ups and medical office visits, particular attention should be paid to the possibility of a developmental or endocrine disorder. Early diagnosis and treatment may prevent medical complications in adulthood and foster age-appropriate development. Our purpose is to acquaint readers with the concept, based on current scientific understanding, that some endocrine disorders may be associated with a wide range of deleterious health consequences including an increased risk of hypertension and hyperlipidemia, increased risk of coronary artery disease, type 2 diabetes, significant anxiety and lack of self-esteem. Understanding the milestones and developmental stages of adolescence is essential for pediatricians and all other health providers who care for adolescents. Treating adolescents involves knowledge of a variety of medical, social and legal information; in addition, close working relationships must be established within the adolescent's network to create an effective care system. In summary, we underline the importance of a periodic endocrine checkup in adolescents in order to identify endocrine problems early and develop an approach to treatment for those patients who need help during this time. Indications for endocrine referral for professional and other healthcare providers are also included. These lists are clearly not intended to be comprehensive, but will hopefully serve as a guide for specific clinical circumstances.

Phenotypic variability of hyperandrogenemia in females heterozygous for CYP21A2 mutations

OBJECTIVES

The objective was to seek evidence on the prevalence and consequences of heterozygous CYP21A2 mutations in girls, adolescent, and adult females with clinical manifestation of androgen excess.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

The study included 64 girls diagnosed with premature adrenarche (PA) in childhood and 141 females with clinical hyperandrogenemia manifested in adolescence or adulthood. Direct DNA sequencing and multiplex ligation-dependent probe amplification analysis were used to identify mutations in the CYP21A2 gene.

RESULTS

(1) Thirty-four patients were diagnosed with nonclassical-congenital adrenal hyperplasia (NC-CAH) based on the 17-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) levels and the presence of two mutations in CYP21A2 and therefore were excluded from the study, 66 were found to be heterozygotes and finally 105 had no identifiable mutations. The most frequent mutations among the carriers were the mild p.Val281 Leu and p.Qln318stop. Higher levels of mean stimulated 17-OHP were found in the carriers of the p.Val281 Leu. (2) A notable increased allelic frequency for the known p.Asn493 Ser polymorphism was observed in the pool of females with hyperandrogenemia in whom no mutation was identified. (3) In girls, who presented early with PA, 26.6% were diagnosed with NC-CAH and carried two mutations, 28.7% were identified as heterozygotes 43.7% had no identifiable genetic defect in the translated region of the CYP21A2 gene. On the contrary, in the group of 141 females with late onset hyperandrogenemia, the presence of 2 mutations was detected in 12%, 1 mutation in 33.4% and no mutation in 54.6%.

CONCLUSIONS

The carrier status for 21-OHD, may be an important factor in the variable phenotype of hyperandrogenism and may be a contributing factor for the early manifestation of the disease.

Expensive therapies in children: benefit versus cost of combined treatment of recombinant human growth hormone and gonadotropin-releasing hormone analogue in girls with poor height potential

OBJECTIVE

The combination therapy of gonadotropin-releasing hormone analogues (GnRHa) and recombinant human growth hormone (rhGH) has been used to increase growth in children with premature sexual maturation and attenuated growth. The aim of this report was to study the benefit over cost of combined treatment in girls with central precocious puberty (CPP) and poor height prognosis and in girls with idiopathic short stature (ISS) and early puberty. Should this expensive treatment be given to such patients?

SUBJECTS AND METHODS

Two patient groups were included: five girls with central precocious puberty (CPP) who reached final height (FH) at 16.3±1.2 years and eight girls with ISS who reached FH at 14.7±0.8 years. Patients were treated for 3.5±0.6 years.

RESULTS

In both groups, FH improved significantly; in CPP from -1.3 to -0.5 standard deviation score (SDS) (p=0.030) and in ISS from -2.6 to -1.7 SDS (p=0.012). Only girls with CPP reached their target height (-0.5 vs. -0.6 SDS) (p=0.500).

CONCLUSIONS

Both groups had a total height gain of 5 cm. Each centimetre cost about €2700 per patient. This treatment should be considered only in patients with extremely low height prediction and very early pubertal onset.

Osteoporosis in thalassemia major: an update and the I-CET 2013 recommendations for surveillance and treatment

In recent years, the issue of osteopenia/osteoporosis in children, adolescents and young adults with thalassaemia major (TM) has attracted much attention because it is a prominent cause of morbidity despite adequate transfusion and iron chelation therapy. The reported frequency of osteoporosis, even in well treated TM patients varies from 13.6% to 50% with an additional 45% affected by osteopenia. The pathogenesis of TM-induced osteoporosis is multifactorial. Genetic and acquired factors play role in demineralization of bones in thalassemia. Osteoporosis is characterized by low bone mass and disruption of bone architecture, resulting in reduced bone strength and increased risk of fractures. The significant predictors of fracture prevalence include male gender, hypothyroidism, age, lack of spontaneous puberty in females, active hepatitis, heart disease and diabetes. The early identification of osteopenia and osteoporosis is of paramount importance. This is because delayed diagnosis and inadequate treatment have led to severe osteoporosis, skeletal abnormalities, fractures, spinal deformities, nerve compression and growth failure. dequate hormonal replacement, has been posponed, Effective iron chelation adequate hormonal replacement, improvement of hemoglobin levels, calcium and vitamin D administration and physical activity are currently the main measures for the management of the disease. The use of bisphosphonates in TM patients with osteoporosis is increasing and their positive effect in improving bone mineral density is encouraging. The recommendations of the International Network on Growth Disorders and Endocrine Complications in Thalassaemia (I-CET) for diagnosis and management of osteoporosis in TM are also briefly included in this review.

A report of 2 new cases of MODY2 and review of the literature: implications in the search for type 2 diabetes drugs

Glucokinase (GCK) acts as a glucose sensor and stimulates the release of insulin from pancreatic β-cells and any GCK gene mutations can lead to different forms of diabetes, such as GCK-monogenic diabetes of the young type 2 (MODY2), permanent neonatal diabetes and congenital hyperinsulinism. Many MODY2 causing mutations display a variation in the degree of severity, ranging from mild dietary-restricted forms to more detrimental presentation requiring insulin replacement. The present study reviews known and two novel GCK mutations in terms of molecular perturbation of the GCK atomic structure but also emphasizes the inactivating and activating properties of the GCK as treatment for T2DM. In silico analysis demonstrated that the newly discovered mutation p.Arg447Pro causes structural conformational changes that lead to the destabilization of the functional properties of the protein resulting in the reduction of glucose and MgATP2- affinity. The novel p.Glu440Stop nonsense mutation on the other hand inactivates the cytoplasmic enzymatic activity of the protein as it is responsible for the loss of the C-terminal end of the polypeptide that includes vital glucose-releasing residues. Based on the in silico models of existing structural data we identified several classes of GCK mutations and discuss their relation to disease outcome. GCK has a central role in controlling body glucose homeostasis and therefore is considered an outstanding drug target for developing new antidiabetic therapies using small molecular activators (GKAs). This study emphasizes the importance in understanding how inactivating and activating GCK mutations affect the mechanistic properties of this glucose sensor. Such information can become the basis for drug discovery of therapeutic compounds and the treatment of T2DM by targeting the GCK allosteric activator site.

Growth hormone deficiency in adults with thalassemia: an overview and the I-CET recommendations

This review paper provides a summary of the current state of knowledge regarding GHD provides recommendations for the diagnosis and treatment of GHD in adult patients with thalassaemia major (TM). The reported prevalence of adult GHD and /or IGF-I deficiency in TM patients varies from 8% to 44 % in different centers. Because GH treatment requires analysis of many factors, including the effect of treatment on cardiac functions, metabolic parameters and psychosocial functioning, along with safety, ethical considerations, financial cost and other burdens of therapy, stringent diagnostic criteria are needed. The authors report the diagnostic recommendations of the International Study Group of Endocrine Complications in Thalassemia (I-CET) for adult TM patients.The pros and cons of GH treatment must be discussed with each patient, after which GH doses should be individualized and titrated to maximum efficacy with minimal side effects. Prospective studies to monitor potential benefits versus possible side-effects will enable endocrinologists to define recommendations on dosage and the long term effects, particularly on cardiovascular and bone status of GH therapy in adult TM patients.

High carrier frequency of 21-hydroxylase deficiency in Cyprus

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency (21-OHD) is a common autosomal recessive disorder caused by mutations in the CYP21A2 gene. The carrier frequency of CYP21A2 mutations has been estimated to be 1:25 to 1:10 on the basis of newborn screening. The main objective of this study was to determine the carrier frequency in the Cypriot population of mutations in the CYP21A2 gene. Three hundred unrelated subjects (150 males and 150 females) from the general population of Cyprus were screened for mutations in the CYP21A2 gene and its promoter. The CYP21A2 genotype analysis identified six different mutants and revealed a carrier frequency of 9.83% with the mild p.Val281Leu being the most frequent (4.3%), followed by p.Qln318stop (2.5%), p.Pro453Ser (1.33%), p.Val304Met (0.83%), p.Pro482Ser (0.67%) and p.Met283Val (0.17%). The notable high CYP21A2 carrier frequency of the Cypriot population is one of the highest reported so far by genotype analysis. Knowledge of the mutational spectrum of CYP21A2 will enable to optimize mutation detection strategy for genetic diagnosis of 21-OHD not only in Cyprus, but also the greater Mediterranean region.

Gonadal Function and Fertility Issues in Thalassaemia

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A family with Camurati-Engelman disease: the role of the missense p.R218C mutation in TGFbeta1 in bones and endocrine glands

OBJECTIVES

Camurati-Engelmann disease (CED) is a rare form of progressive diaphyseal dysplasia as a result of mutations in the transforming growth factor gene TGFbeta1 on chromosome 19q13.1-q13.3. Endocrine complications such as osteoporosis, vitamin D deficiency, delayed puberty, and hypogonadotrophic hypogonadism may be present.

METHODS

Genetic analysis of the TGFbeta1 gene revealed a heterozygous missense mutation p.R218C in exon 4 of chromosome 19q13.1-q13.3 in a 14-year-old girl who presented with typical symptoms of CED, hyperprolactinaemia, and menstrual irregularity.

RESULTS

The patient responded well to prednisone 5 mg/kg/day, as well as calcium and vitamin D supplements.

CONCLUSIONS

The role of p.R218C in TGFbeta1 on the mechanism of the disease, and the complications of it in bones and endocrine glands, remains unclear. Early recognition as well as a detailed understanding of the pathogenesis of the disease are important for future treatment options and a better quality of life of such patients.

Growth and endocrine disorders in thalassemia: The international network on endocrine complications in thalassemia (I-CET) position statement and guidelines

The current management of thalassemia includes regular transfusion programs and chelation therapy. It is important that physicians be aware that endocrine abnormalities frequently develop mainly in those patients with significant iron overload due to poor compliance to treatment, particularly after the age of 10 years. Since the quality of life of thalassemia patients is a fundamental aim, it is vital to monitor carefully their growth and pubertal development in order to detect abnormalities and to initiate appropriate and early treatment. Abnormalities should be identified and treatment initiated in consultation with a pediatric or an adult endocrinologist and managed accordingly. Appropriate management shall put in consideration many factors such as age, severity of iron overload, presence of chronic liver disease, thrombophilia status, and the presence of psychological problems. All these issues must be discussed by the physician in charge of the patient's care, the endocrinologist and the patient himself. Because any progress in research in the field of early diagnosis and management of growth disorders and endocrine complications in thalassemia should be passed on to and applied adequately to all those suffering from the disease, on the 8 May 2009 in Ferrara, the International Network on Endocrine Complications in Thalassemia (I-CET) was founded in order to transmit the latest information on these disorders to the treating physicians. The I-CET position statement outlined in this document applies to patients with transfusion-dependent thalassemia major to help physicians to anticipate, diagnose, and manage these complications properly.