Don't bury Mexico's biodiversity capacity

In a world where biodiversity is on the line on many fronts-from armed conflict to pandemics to climate change-defending institutions that have effectively managed it is paramount. In the global effort to protect biodiversity, Mexico has been at the forefront. In particular, for more than 30 years, Mexico's National Commission for the Knowledge and Use of Biodiversity (CONABIO) has promoted research, compiled information on the biodiversity of Mexico and elsewhere, and connected academia, government, and society to guide decision-making. Unfortunately, the demise of CONABIO, which began in 2018 under the current administration, may be fully realized soon. Last month, the Mexican government announced its intent to reduce CONABIO from a multi-ministry federal government agency to a branch within the environment ministry. This will strip CONABIO of its independent voice, credibility, and influence on national and international policy. As this decision is open for public comment, it is important for the scientific community to speak out strongly against this change.

Robust evidence for bats as reservoir hosts is lacking in most African virus studies: a review and call to optimize sampling and conserve bats

Africa experiences frequent emerging disease outbreaks among humans, with bats often proposed as zoonotic pathogen hosts. We comprehensively reviewed virus-bat findings from papers published between 1978 and 2020 to evaluate the evidence that African bats are reservoir and/or bridging hosts for viruses that cause human disease. We present data from 162 papers (of 1322) with original findings on (1) numbers and species of bats sampled across bat families and the continent, (2) how bats were selected for study inclusion, (3) if bats were terminally sampled, (4) what types of ecological data, if any, were recorded and (5) which viruses were detected and with what methodology. We propose a scheme for evaluating presumed virus-host relationships by evidence type and quality, using the contrasting available evidence for Orthoebolavirus versus Orthomarburgvirus as an example. We review the wording in abstracts and discussions of all 162 papers, identifying key framing terms, how these refer to findings, and how they might contribute to people's beliefs about bats. We discuss the impact of scientific research communication on public perception and emphasize the need for strategies that minimize human-bat conflict and support bat conservation. Finally, we make recommendations for best practices that will improve virological study metadata.

Our good neighbors: Understanding ecosystem services provided by insectivorous bats in Rwanda

Bats are prodigious consumers of agricultural and forest pests, and are, therefore, a natural asset for agricultural productivity, suppressing populations of such pests. This study provides baseline information of diet of 143 bats belonging to eight insectivorous bat species from agricultural areas of Rwanda while evaluating the effectiveness of bats as pest suppressors. Using DNA metabarcoding to analyze bat fecal pellets, 85 different insect species were detected, with 60% (n = 65), 64% (n = 11) and 78% (n = 9) found to be agricultural pests from eastern, northern and western regions, respectively. Given the high percentages of agricultural pests detected, we submit that Rwandan insectivorous bats have the capacity for biocontrol of agricultural pests. Rwandan bat populations should be protected and promoted since they may foster higher crop yields and sustainable livelihoods.

Scientists warning on the ecological effects of radioactive leaks on ecosystems

A nuclear leakage or tactical nuclear weapon use in a limited war could cause immense and long-lasting ecological consequences beyond the direct site of exposure. We call upon all scientists to communicate the importance of the environmental impacts of such an event to all life forms on Earth, including humankind. Changes to ecosystem structure and functioning and species extinctions would alter the biosphere for an unknown time frame. Radiation could trigger cascade effects in marine, atmospheric and terrestrial ecosystems of a magnitude far beyond human capabilities for mitigation or adaptation. Even a “tactical nuclear war” could alter planet Earth’s living boundaries, ending the current Anthropocene era.

Uses, Knowledge and Extinction Risk Faced by Agave Species in Mexico

We compiled an updated database of all Agave species found in Mexico and analyzed it with specific criteria according to their biological parameters to evaluate the conservation and knowledge status of each species. Analyzing the present status of all Agave species not only provides crucial information for each species, but also helps determine which ones require special protection, especially those which are heavily used or cultivated for the production of distilled beverages. We conducted an extensive literature review search and compiled the conservation status of each species using mainstream criteria by IUCN. The information gaps in the database indicate a lack of knowledge and research regarding specific Agave species and it validates the need to conduct more studies on this genus. In total, 168 Agave species were included in our study, from which 89 are in the subgenus Agave and 79 in the subgenus Littaea. Agave lurida and A. nizandensis, in the subgenus Agave and Littaea, respectively, are severely endangered, due to their endemism, lack of knowledge about pollinators and floral visitors, and their endangered status according to the IUCN Red List. Some species are at risk due to the loss of genetic diversity resulting from production practices (i.e., Agave tequilana), and others because of excessive and unchecked overharvesting of wild plants, such as A. guadalajarana, A. victoriae-reginae, A. kristenii, and others. Given the huge economic and ecological importance of plants in the genus Agave, our review will be a milestone to ensure their future and continued provision of ecosystem services for humans, as well as encouraging further research in Agave species in an effort to enhance awareness of their conservation needs and sustainable use, and the implementation of eco-friendly practices in the species management.

Conservation genomics of Agave tequilana Weber var. azul: low genetic differentiation and heterozygote excess in the tequila agave from Jalisco, Mexico

Background

Genetic diversity is fundamental for the survival of species. In particular, in a climate change scenario, it is crucial that populations maintain genetic diversity so they can adapt to novel environmental conditions. Genetic diversity in wild agaves is usually high, with low genetic differentiation among populations, in part maintained by the agave pollinators such as the nectarivorous bats. In cultivated agaves, patterns of genetic diversity vary according to the intensity of use, management, and domestication stage. In Agave tequilana Weber var. azul (A. tequilana thereafter), the plant used for tequila production, clonal propagation has been strongly encouraged. These practices may lead to a reduction in genetic diversity.

Methods

We studied the diversity patterns with genome-wide SNPs, using restriction site associated DNA sequencing in cultivated samples of A. tequilana from three sites of Jalisco, Mexico. For one locality, seeds were collected and germinated in a greenhouse. We compared the genomic diversity, levels of inbreeding, genetic differentiation, and connectivity among studied sites and between adults and juvenile plants.

Results

Agave tequilana presented a genomic diversity of H_T = 0.12. The observed heterozygosity was higher than the expected heterozygosity. Adults were more heterozygous than juveniles. This could be a consequence of heterosis or hybrid vigor. We found a shallow genetic structure (average paired F_ST = 0.0044). In the analysis of recent gene flow, we estimated an average migration rate among the different populations of m = 0.25. In particular, we found a population that was the primary source of gene flow and had greater genomic diversity (H_E and H_O ), so we propose that this population should continue to be monitored as a potential genetic reservoir.

Discussion

Our results may be the consequence of more traditional management in the studied specific region of Jalisco. Also, the exchange of seeds or propagules by producers and the existence of gene flow due to occasional sexual reproduction may play an important role in maintaining diversity in A. tequilana. For populations to resist pests, to continue evolving and reduce their risk of extinction under a climate change scenario, it is necessary to maintain genetic diversity. Under this premise we encourage to continue acting in conservation programs for this species and its pollinators.

Environmental and anthropogenic factors synergistically affect space use of jaguars

Large terrestrial carnivores have undergone some of the largest population declines and range reductions of any species, which is of concern as they can have large effects on ecosystem dynamics and function.^1-4 The jaguar (Panthera onca) is the apex predator throughout the majority of the Neotropics; however, its distribution has been reduced by >50% and it survives in increasingly isolated populations.⁵ Consequently, the range-wide management of the jaguar depends upon maintaining core populations connected through multi-national, transboundary cooperation, which requires understanding the movement ecology and space use of jaguars throughout their range.^6-8 Using GPS telemetry data for 111 jaguars from 13 ecoregions within the four biomes that constitute the majority of jaguar habitat, we examined the landscape-level environmental and anthropogenic factors related to jaguar home range size and movement parameters. Home range size decreased with increasing net productivity and forest cover and increased with increasing road density. Speed decreased with increasing forest cover with no sexual differences, while males had more directional movements, but tortuosity in movements was not related to any landscape factors. We demonstrated a synergistic relationship between landscape-scale environmental and anthropogenic factors and jaguars' spatial needs, which has applications to the conservation strategy for the species throughout the Neotropics. Using large-scale collaboration, we overcame limitations from small sample sizes typical in large carnivore research to provide a mechanism to evaluate habitat quality for jaguars and an inferential modeling framework adaptable to the conservation of other large terrestrial carnivores.

Sometimes I see spots: patterns of abundance and distribution of the bobcat (Lynx rufus) in different regions of México

Bobcats (Lynx rufus) are distributed throughout North America, but bobcat densities have been well-documented primarily only for the United States.  The highest known density of this species is in the southern United States, and from there their density decreases northward to southern Canada.  Despite the fact thatMéxico contains about 35 % of the species range, there are no data on their abundance or density in México. The objectives of this study were to document the density of bobcats from northwestern to southern México and to understand the abundance patterns of this species.  Camera traps were used in combination with capture-recapture models to estimate densities.  Using the MaxEnt ecological niche model, the potential distribution of the bobcat was obtained.  With an effort of 2,070 camera trap days, we obtained 41 bobcat photographs in five localities from 2005 to 2007.  Our estimated bobcat densities varied from 0.05 to 0.53 bobcat/km2.  Using MaxEnt, we estimated the available habitat in each site and extrapolated the density data to obtain a range of bobcat population estimates per site.  The areas estimated were between 1,861 to 16,663 km2, with a population from 592 to 2,161 bobcats.  Bobcat density in México is highest in the north and decreases to the south of its range.  Probably the optimal habitat for this species is found in the southern United States and northern México where the highest densities of its entire distribution occur. 

Cuba in Mexico: first record of Phyllops falcatus (Gray, 1839) (Chiroptera, Phyllostomidae) for Mexico and other new records of bats from Cozumel, Quintana Roo

The first record of Phyllopsfalcatus (Gray, 1839) in Mexico is documented from the island of Cozumel, Quintana Roo. This species is present in the Antilles, distributed in all the Cuban archipelago, Cayman Islands, and Hispaniola. It is likely that a hurricane moved these bats from Cuba to Cozumel. The Cozumel record extends the distribution more than 200 km west. Two new records from Cozumel of the bats Lasiurusega and Molossusalvarezi are also provided.

Ornithodoros dyeri (Parasitiformes: Ixodida: Argasidae) parasitizing Leptonycteris yerbabuenae (Chiroptera: Phyllostomidae) in Mexico

Parasites are a selective force that shape communities and ecosystems. Hosts represent a food source, habitat, and a way to disperse. In recent years, investigations dealing with bats and their role as hosts to numerous parasitic organisms, including metazoan ectoparasites and endoparasites have increased, and soft ticks (Parasitiformes: Ixodida: Argasidae) are among the best known. In Mexico, 16 species of soft ticks associated with bats have been reported up to now, but there are no specific records of soft ticks parasitizing Leptonycteris yerbabuenae in the country. Herein, we record for the first time the presence of Ornithodoros dyeri parasitizing L. yerbabuenae and report an extension of its geographic distribution. The same tick species was also recorded from the California leaf-nosed bat (Macrotus californicus). Data on prevalence, mean intensity, mean abundance, tick identification, and possible scenarios of life cycle associations for O. dyeri and one of its hosts, L. yerbabuenae, are discussed.

Population genetic structure and habitat connectivity for jaguar (Panthera onca) conservation in Central Belize

BACKGROUND

Connectivity among jaguar (Panthera onca) populations will ensure natural gene flow and the long-term survival of the species throughout its range. Jaguar conservation efforts have focused primarily on connecting suitable habitat in a broad-scale. Accelerated habitat reduction, human-wildlife conflict, limited funding, and the complexity of jaguar behaviour have proven challenging to maintain connectivity between populations effectively. Here, we used non-invasive genetic sampling and individual-based conservation genetic analyses to assess genetic diversity and levels of genetic connectivity between individuals in the Cockscomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuary and the Maya Forest Corridor. We used expert knowledge and scientific literature to develop models of landscape permeability based on circuit theory with fine-scale landscape features as ecosystem types, distance to human settlements and roads to predict the most probable jaguar movement across central Belize.

RESULTS

We used 12 highly polymorphic microsatellite loci to identify 50 individual jaguars. We detected high levels of genetic diversity across loci (HE = 0.61, HO = 0.55, and NA = 9.33). Using Bayesian clustering and multivariate models to assess gene flow and genetic structure, we identified one single group of jaguars (K = 1). We identified critical areas for jaguar movement that fall outside the boundaries of current protected areas in central Belize. We detected two main areas of high landscape permeability in a stretch of approximately 18 km between Sittee River Forest Reserve and Manatee Forest Reserve that may increase functional connectivity and facilitate jaguar dispersal from and to Cockscomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuary. Our analysis provides important insights on fine-scale genetic and landscape connectivity of jaguars in central Belize, an area of conservation concern.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of our study demonstrate high levels of relatively recent gene flow for jaguars between two study sites in central Belize. Our landscape analysis detected corridors of expected jaguar movement between the Cockscomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuary and the Maya Forest Corridor. We highlight the importance of maintaining already established corridors and consolidating new areas that further promote jaguar movement across suitable habitat beyond the boundaries of currently protected areas. Continued conservation efforts within identified corridors will further maintain and increase genetic connectivity in central Belize.

Resource Ephemerality Drives Social Foraging in Bats

Observations of animals feeding in aggregations are often interpreted as events of social foraging, but it can be difficult to determine whether the animals arrived at the foraging sites after collective search [1-4] or whether they found the sites by following a leader [5, 6] or even independently, aggregating as an artifact of food availability [7, 8]. Distinguishing between these explanations is important, because functionally, they might have very different consequences. In the first case, the animals could benefit from the presence of conspecifics, whereas in the second and third, they often suffer from increased competition [3, 9-13]. Using novel miniature sensors, we recorded GPS tracks and audio of five species of bats, monitoring their movement and interactions with conspecifics, which could be inferred from the audio recordings. We examined the hypothesis that food distribution plays a key role in determining social foraging patterns [14-16]. Specifically, this hypothesis predicts that searching for an ephemeral resource (whose distribution in time or space is hard to predict) is more likely to favor social foraging [10, 13-15] than searching for a predictable resource. The movement and social interactions differed between bats foraging on ephemeral versus predictable resources. Ephemeral species changed foraging sites and showed large temporal variation nightly. They aggregated with conspecifics as was supported by playback experiments and computer simulations. In contrast, predictable species were never observed near conspecifics and showed high spatial fidelity to the same foraging sites over multiple nights. Our results suggest that resource (un)predictability influences the costs and benefits of social foraging.

Willingness to Pay for Conservation of Transborder Migratory Species: A Case Study of the Mexican Free-Tailed Bat in the United States and Mexico

We estimated U.S. and Mexican citizens' willingness to pay (WTP) for protecting habitat for a transborder migratory species, the Mexican free-tailed bat (Tadarida brasiliensis mexicana), using the contingent valuation method. Few contingent valuation surveys have evaluated whether households in one country would pay to protect habitat in another country. This study addresses that gap. In our study, Mexican respondents were asked about their WTP for conservation of Mexican free-tailed bat habitat in Mexico and in the United States. Similarly, U.S. respondents were asked about their WTP for conservation in the United States and in Mexico. U.S. households would pay $30 annually to protect habitat in the United States and $24 annually to protect habitat in Mexico. Mexican households would pay $8 annually to protect habitat in Mexico and $5 annually to protect habitat in the United States. In both countries, these WTP amounts rose significantly for increasing the size of the bat population rather than simply stabilizing the current bat population. The ratio of Mexican household WTP relative to U.S. household WTP is nearly identical to that of Mexican household income relative to U.S. household income. This suggests that the perceived economic benefits received from the bats is similar in Mexico and the United States, and that scaling WTP by relative income in international benefit transfer may be plausible.

Optimism and challenge for science-based conservation of migratory species in and out of U.S. National Parks

Public agencies sometimes seek outside guidance when capacity to achieve their mission is limited. Through a cooperative agreement and collaborations with the U.S. National Park Service (NPS), we developed recommendations for a conservation program for migratory species. Although NPS manages ∼ 36 million hectares of land and water in 401 units, there is no centralized program to conserve wild animals reliant on NPS units that also migrate hundreds to thousands of kilometers beyond parks. Migrations are imperiled by habitat destruction, unsustainable harvest, climate change, and other impediments. A successful program to counter these challenges requires public support, national and international outreach, and flourishing migrant populations. We recommended two initial steps. First, in the short term, launch or build on a suite of projects for high-profile migratory species that can serve as proof to demonstrate the centrality of NPS units to conservation at different scales. Second, over the longer term, build new capacity to conserve migratory species. Capacity building will entail increasing the limited knowledge among park staff about how and where species or populations migrate, conditions that enable migration, and identifying species' needs and resolving them both within and beyond parks. Building capacity will also require ensuring that park superintendents and staff at all levels support conservation beyond statutory borders. Until additional diverse stakeholders and a broader American public realize what can be lost and do more to protect it and engage more with land management agencies to implement actions that facilitate conservation, long distance migrations are increasingly likely to become phenomena of the past.

Adult vampire bats produce contact calls when isolated: acoustic variation by species, population, colony, and individual

BACKGROUND

Bat pups produce individually distinct isolation calls to facilitate maternal recognition. Increasing evidence suggests that, in group-living bat species, adults often use similar calls to maintain contact. We investigated if isolated adults from all three species of the highly cooperative vampire bats (Phyllostomidae: Desmodontinae) would produce vocally distinct contact calls when physically isolated.

METHODS/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

We assessed variation in contact calls recorded from isolated captive and wild-caught adult common vampire bats (Desmodus rotundus), white-winged vampire bats (Diaemus youngi) and hairy-legged vampire bats (Diphylla ecaudata). We compared species-typical contact call structure, and used information theory and permuted discriminate function analyses to examine call structure variation, and to determine if the individuality of contact calls is encoded by different call features across species and populations. We found that isolated adult vampire bats produce contact calls that vary by species, population, colony, and individual. However, much variation occurred within a single context and individual. We estimated signature information for captive Diaemus (same colony), captive Desmodus (same colony), and wild Desmodus (different colonies) at 3.21, 3.26, and 3.88 bits, respectively. Contact calls from a captive colony of Desmodus were less individually distinct than calls from wild-caught Desmodus from different colonies. Both the degree of individuality and parameters encoding individuality differed between the bats from a single captive colony and the wild-caught individuals from different groups. This result is consistent with, but not sufficient evidence of, vocal convergence in groups.

CONCLUSION

Our results show that adult vampire bats of all three species produce highly variable contact calls when isolated. Contact calls contain sufficient information for vocal discrimination, but also possess more intra-individual variation than is required for the sole purpose of identifying individuals.

Morphological specialization influences nectar extraction efficiency of sympatric nectar-feeding bats

Mammals frequently use nectar as a supplementary food, while a predominantly nectarivorous lifestyle with morphological specializations for this feeding mode is rare within the class. However, Neotropical flower-visiting bats largely depend on nectar resources and show distinct adaptations to a nectar diet. Glossophagine bats form local guilds of 2-6 species that may differ distinctly in skull morphology. It is still unknown how and to what extent this morphological diversity influences the efficiency of nectar extraction and hence also resource partitioning within the local bat guild. As foraging behaviour is a key factor for niche partitioning of coexisting species, we compared nectar extraction behaviour and efficiency at different flower depths among sympatric bat species with different degrees of morphological specialization (Glossophaga soricina, Leptonycteris yerbabuenae, Musonycteris harrisoni). In flight cage experiments with artificial flowers all species showed at deeper nectar levels a decrease in the amount extracted per visit and an increase in time spent hovering at the flower, indicating increased energetic cost when foraging on longer-tubed flowers. The lowest nectar extraction efficiency (g/s) was found in the small G. soricina and the highest in the largest species L. yerbabuenae. However, when considering also the different energy requirements of the different-sized bat species, the morphologically most specialized Musonycteris harrisoni showed consistently the highest foraging efficiency. Our data suggest that the long rostrum and tongue of the extremely specialized M. harrisoni are probably not evolved for monopolization of coevolved deep flowers, but allow efficient access to the broadest range of the local chiropterophilous flower community.

Predicting population survival under future climate change: density dependence, drought and extraction in an insular bighorn sheep

1. Our understanding of the interplay between density dependence, climatic perturbations, and conservation practices on the dynamics of small populations is still limited. This can result in uninformed strategies that put endangered populations at risk. Moreover, the data available for a large number of populations in such circumstances are sparse and mined with missing data. Under the current climate change scenarios, it is essential to develop appropriate inferential methods that can make use of such data sets. 2. We studied a population of desert bighorn sheep introduced to Tiburon Island, Mexico in 1975 and subjected to irregular extractions for the last 10 years. The unique attributes of this population are absence of predation and disease, thereby permitting us to explore the combined effect of density dependence, environmental variability and extraction in a 'controlled setting.' Using a combination of nonlinear discrete models with long-term field data, we constructed three basic Bayesian state space models with increasing density dependence (DD), and the same three models with the addition of summer drought effects. 3. We subsequently used Monte Carlo simulations to evaluate the combined effect of drought, DD, and increasing extractions on the probability of population survival under two climate change scenarios (based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change predictions): (i) increase in drought variability; and (ii) increase in mean drought severity. 4. The population grew from 16 individuals introduced in 1975 to close to 700 by 1993. Our results show that the population's growth was dominated by DD, with drought having a secondary but still relevant effect on its dynamics. 5. Our predictions suggest that under climate change scenario (i), extraction dominates the fate of the population, while for scenario (ii), an increase in mean drought affects the population's probability of survival in an equivalent magnitude as extractions. Thus, for the long-term survival of the population, our results stress that a more variable environment is less threatening than one in which the mean conditions become harsher. Current climate change scenarios and their underlying uncertainty make studies such as this one crucial for understanding the dynamics of ungulate populations and their conservation.

Brazilian free-tailed bats as insect pest regulators in transgenic and conventional cotton crops

During the past 12000 years agricultural systems have transitioned from natural habitats to conventional agricultural regions and recently to large areas of genetically engineered (GE) croplands. This GE revolution occurred for cotton in a span of slightly more than a decade during which a switch occurred in major cotton production areas from growing 100% conventional cotton to an environment in which 95% transgenics are grown. Ecological interactions between GE targeted insects and other insectivorous insects have been investigated. However, the relationships between ecological functions (such as herbivory and ecosystem transport) and agronomic benefits of avian or mammalian insectivores in the transgenic environment generally remain unclear, although the importance of some agricultural pest management services provided by insectivorous species such as the Brazilian free-tailed bat, Tadarida brasiliensis, have been recognized. We developed a dynamic model to predict regional-scale ecological functions in agricultural food webs by using the indicators of insect pest herbivory measured by cotton boll damage and insect emigration from cotton. In the south-central Texas Winter Garden agricultural region we find that the process of insectivory by bats has a considerable impact on both the ecology and valuation of harvest in Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) transgenic and nontransgenic cotton crops. Predation on agricultural pests by insectivorous bats may enhance the economic value of agricultural systems by reducing the frequency of required spraying and delaying the ultimate need for new pesticides. In the Winter Garden region, the presence of large numbers of insectivorous bats yields a regional summer dispersion of adult pest insects from Bt cotton that is considerably reduced from the moth emigration when bats are absent in either transgenic or non-transgenic crops. This regional decrease of pest numbers impacts insect herbivory on a transcontinental scale. With a few exceptions, we find that the agronomics of both Bt and conventional cotton production is more profitable when large numbers of insectivorous bats are present.

Planning to Save a Species: the Jaguar as a Model

International conservation planning at the end of the twentieth century is dominated by coarse-filter, supra-organismal approaches to conservation that may be insufficient to conserve certain species such as the jaguar (   Panthera onca). If we are to retain broadly distributed species into the next century, we need to plan explicitly for their survival across their entire geographic range and through political boundaries while recognizing the variety of ecological roles the species plays in different habitats. In March 1999 the Wildlife Conservation Society sponsored a priority-setting and planning exercise for the jaguar across its range, from northern Mexico to northern Argentina. Field scientists from 18 countries reached consensus on four types of information: (1) the spatial extent of their jaguar knowledge, (2) the known, currently occupied range of jaguars, (3) areas with substantial jaguar populations, adequate habitat, and a stable and diverse prey base, and (4) point localities where jaguars have been observed during the last 10 years. During the exercise, these experts also conducted a range-wide assessment of the long-term survival prospects of the jaguar and developed an algorithm for prioritizing jaguar conservation units occurring in major habitat types. From this work, we learned that the known, occupied range of the jaguar has contracted to approximately 46% of estimates of its 1900 range. Jaguar status and distribution is unknown in another 12% of the jaguar's former range, including large areas in Mexico, Colombia, and Brazil. But over 70% of the area where jaguars are thought to still occur was rated as having a high probability of supporting their long-term survival. Fifty-one jaguar conservation units representing 30 different jaguar geographic regions were prioritized as the basis for a comprehensive jaguar conservation program.