Up-regulation of type II collagen gene by 17β-estradiol in articular chondrocytes involves Sp1/3, Sox-9, and estrogen receptor α

The existence of a link between estrogen deprivation and osteoarthritis (OA) in postmenopausal women suggests that 17β-estradiol (17β-E2) may be a modulator of cartilage homeostasis. Here, we demonstrate that 17β-E2 stimulates, via its receptor human estrogen receptor α 66 (hERα66), type II collagen expression in differentiated and dedifferentiated (reflecting the OA phenotype) articular chondrocytes. Transactivation of type II collagen gene (COL2A1) by ligand-independent transactivation domain (AF-1) of hERα66 was mediated by "GC" binding sites of the -266/-63-bp promoter, through physical interactions between ERα, Sp1/Sp3, Sox9, and p300, as demonstrated in chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) and Re-Chromatin Immuno-Precipitation (Re-ChIP) assays in primary and dedifferentiated cells. 17β-E2 and hERα66 increased the DNA-binding activities of Sp1/Sp3 and Sox-9 to both COL2A1 promoter and enhancer regions. Besides, Sp1, Sp3, and Sox-9 small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) prevented hERα66-induced transactivation of COL2A1, suggesting that these factors and their respective cis-regions are required for hERα66-mediated COL2A1 up-regulation. Our results highlight the genomic pathway by which 17β-E2 and hERα66 modulate Sp1/Sp3 heteromer binding activity and simultaneously participate in the recruitment of the essential factors Sox-9 and p300 involved respectively in the chondrocyte-differentiated status and COL2A1 transcriptional activation. These novel findings could therefore be attractive for tissue engineering of cartilage in OA, by the fact that 17β-E2 could promote chondrocyte redifferentiation.

KEY MESSAGES

17β-E2 up-regulates type II collagen gene expression in articular chondrocytes. An ERα66/Sp1/Sp3/Sox-9/p300 protein complex mediates this stimulatory effect. This heteromeric complex interacts and binds to Col2a1 promoter and enhancer in vivo. Our findings highlight a new regulatory mechanism for 17β-E2 action in chondrocytes. 17β-E2 might be an attractive candidate for cartilage engineering applications.

Synthesis and biological evaluation of bile carboxamide derivatives with pro-apoptotic effect on human colon adenocarcinoma cell lines

We previously reported that the cinnamylpiperazinyl group in the side chain of the chenodeoxycholic acid showed apoptosis-inducing activity on multiple myeloma cancer cell line KMS-11. In the present study, we synthesized and tested the pro-apoptotic potency of fifteen new piperazinyl bile carboxamide derived from cholic, ursodeoxycholic, chenodeoxycholic, deoxycholic and lithocholic acids on human colon adenocarcinoma cell lines DLD-1, HCT-116, and HT-29. Cell viability was first measured using XTT assay. The most of the synthetic bile carboxamide derivatives decreased significantly cell viability in a dose-dependent manner. HCT-116 and DLD-1 cell lines were more sensitive than HT-29 to tested compounds. 9c, 9d showed the best in vitro results in term of solubility and dose-response effect on the three colon adenocarcinoma cell lines. Additionally, flow cytometric and Western-blotting analysis showed that 9c induced pro-apoptosis in DLD-1 and HCT-116 whereas 9d did not. We conclude that the benzyl group improved anti-proliferative activity and that the α-hydroxyl group was found to be more beneficial at the 7-position in steroid skeleton.

Initial presentation of acute lymphoblastic leukemia with osteoporosis and multiple spontaneous bone fractures

Acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) is the most common childhood malignancy. Skeletal abnormalities have been described in association with ALL including osteoprosis and bone fractures. Different factors including the disease itself or soluble products of malignant cells and treatment agents like cytotoxic drugs, methotroxate, corticosteroids and radiotherapy may be responsible for defective bone homeostasis in these patients. Orthopedic conditions and pain may be the first manifestation of acute leukemia and it is important for physicians to recognize the skeletal manifestation of acute childhood leukemia because of a delay in diagnosis has adverse effect on survival. We present a child with ALL that refer with multi bone fractures as a first manifestation of the disease.

Synthesis and Evaluation of Benzoxazolinonic Imidazoles and Derivatives as Non-steroidal Aromatase Inhibitors

New compounds were tested in vitro on aromatase activity in human placental and equine testicular microsomes. Equine aromatase, very well characterized biochemically, is used as a comparative model to understand the mechanism of aromatase inhibition. Among 15 molecules screened, 5 of them (11-15) strongly inhibit human and equine aromatases with IC50 values ranging from 13-85nM and from 23-103nM respectively. These results were corroborated by Ki/Km values. Moreover, spectral studies showed a type II spectrum with both enzymes, which is characteristic of an interaction between the nitrogen atom of the molecule and the heme of the cytochrome P450. Compound 12, which has the lowest IC50 and Ki/Km ratio, inactivates aromatase in a dose and time-dependent manner. This might be very important for the treatment of estrogen-dependent diseases such as breast cancer. Finally, MTT assays on E293 cells revealed that the molecules were not cytotoxic.

Evaluation of ursolic acid isolated from Ilex paraguariensis and derivatives on aromatase inhibition

The inhibitory potency of ursolic acid extracted from Ilex paraguariensis, a plant used in South American population for a tea preparation known as maté, and its derivatives to inhibit aromatase activity was assessed and compared to a phytoestrogen apigenin and a steroidal aromatase inhibitor 4-hyroxyandrostenedione (4-OHA). Among all compounds tested only ursolic acid 1 showed an efficient and dose-dependent aromatase inhibition with IC50 value of 32 microM as did apigenin (IC50=10 microM), whereas IC50 value of 4-OHA was 0.8 microM. Our results show that the incorporation of a metallocene moiety into the ursolic acid derivatives decreases the aromatase inhibition. Moreover, comparison of the structure/inhibitory potency relationship of compounds indicates that the presence of cycle A and the configuration of C3-OH and C17-COOH seems to be more favourable to recognize the active site of aromatase and to block its activity.

17Beta-oestradiol up-regulates the expression of a functional UDP-glucose dehydrogenase in articular chondrocytes: comparison with effects of cytokines and growth factors

OBJECTIVES

To investigate the mechanisms by which cytokines and 17beta-oestradiol (17beta-E2) modulate gene expression and activity of uridine diphosphoglucose dehydrogenase (UGDH), a key enzyme of GAG synthesis in articular chondrocytes.

METHODS

Rabbit articular chondrocytes (RAC) from 3-week-old animals were incubated for 24 h with TGF-beta, insulin like growth factor-I (IGF-I), IL-1beta, IL-6 and 17beta-E2. GAG synthesis was measured by [35S]-sulphate labelling and the expression of the UGDH gene was estimated by both real-time polymerase chain reaction and western blotting, whereas the enzyme activity was assayed by a spectrophotometric procedure. In addition, the transcriptional activity of several UGDH gene promoter constructs was determined in RAC transiently transfected with wild-type or deleted human oestrogen receptor-alpha gene (hER alpha66 or hER alpha46, respectively).

RESULTS

17Beta-E2 and its receptor hER alpha66 enhanced GAG neosynthesis in rabbit articular chondrocytes, as did TGF-beta1 whereas IL-1beta decreased this synthesis. 17Beta-E2 was found to exert positive regulatory effects at mRNA, protein and UGDH activity levels. In addition, the receptor hER alpha66, but not hER alpha46, increased the transcriptional activity of the UGDH gene. In contrast, no clear correlation between transcription, translation and activity of the UGDH was found under the effects of the cytokines studied. However, TGF-beta enhanced the enzyme activity, whereas IL-1beta, IL-6 and IGF-I were without significant effect.

CONCLUSIONS

17Beta-E2 enhanced GAG synthesis in chondrocytes via up-regulation of the UGDH gene expression and enzyme activity. These data provide insights into the molecular mechanisms involved in the regulation of the UGDH gene and offer new approaches to investigate its potential alteration in joint diseases.

Cytotoxic effects and aromatase inhibition by xenobiotic endocrine disrupters alone and in combination☆

Xenobiotics may cause long-term adverse effects in humans, especially at the embryonic level, raising questions about their levels of exposure, combined effects, and crucial endpoints. We are interested in the possible interactions between xenobiotic endocrine disrupters, cellular viability and androgen metabolism. Accordingly, we tested aroclor 1254 (A1254), atrazine (AZ), o,p'-DDT, vinclozolin (VZ), p,p'-DDE, bisphenol A (BPA), chlordecone (CD), nonylphenol (NP), tributylin oxide (TBTO), and diethylstilbestrol (DES) for cellular toxicity against human embryonic 293 cells, and activity against cellular aromatase, but also on placental microsomes and on the purified equine enzyme. Cellular viability was affected in 24 h by all the xenobiotics with a threshold at 50 microM (except for TBTO and DES, 10 microM threshold), and aromatase was inhibited at non-toxic doses. In combination synergism was observed reducing the threshold values of toxicity to 4-10 microM, and aromatase activity by 50% in some cases. In placental microsomes the most active xenobiotics rapidly inhibited microsomal aromatase in a manner independent of NADPH metabolism. Prolonged exposures to low doses in cells generally amplified by 50 times aromatase inhibition. These xenobiotics may act by inhibition of the active site or by allosteric effects on the enzyme. Bioaccumulation is a feature of some xenobiotics, especially chlordecone, DDT and DDE, and low level chronic exposures can also affect cell signaling mechanisms. This new information about the mechanism of action of these xenobiotics will assist in improved molecular design with a view to providing safer compounds for use in the (human) environment.

Time- and dose-dependent effects of roundup on human embryonic and placental cells

Roundup is the major herbicide used worldwide, in particular on genetically modified plants that have been designed to tolerate it. We have tested the toxicity and endocrine disruption potential of Roundup (Bioforce on human embryonic 293 and placental-derived JEG3 cells, but also on normal human placenta and equine testis. The cell lines have proven to be suitable to estimate hormonal activity and toxicity of pollutants. The median lethal dose (LD(50)) of Roundup with embryonic cells is 0.3% within 1 h in serum-free medium, and it decreases to reach 0.06% (containing among other compounds 1.27 mM glyphosate) after 72 h in the presence of serum. In these conditions, the embryonic cells appear to be 2-4 times more sensitive than the placental ones. In all instances, Roundup (generally used in agriculture at 1-2%, i.e., with 21-42 mM glyphosate) is more efficient than its active ingredient, glyphosate, suggesting a synergistic effect provoked by the adjuvants present in Roundup. We demonstrated that serum-free cultures, even on a short-term basis (1 h), reveal the xenobiotic impacts that are visible 1-2 days later in serum. We also document at lower non-overtly toxic doses, from 0.01% (with 210 microM glyphosate) in 24 h, that Roundup is an aromatase disruptor. The direct inhibition is temperature-dependent and is confirmed in different tissues and species (cell lines from placenta or embryonic kidney, equine testicular, or human fresh placental extracts). Furthermore, glyphosate acts directly as a partial inactivator on microsomal aromatase, independently of its acidity, and in a dose-dependent manner. The cytotoxic, and potentially endocrine-disrupting effects of Roundup are thus amplified with time. Taken together, these data suggest that Roundup exposure may affect human reproduction and fetal development in case of contamination. Chemical mixtures in formulations appear to be underestimated regarding their toxic or hormonal impact.

c-Krox down-regulates the expression of UDP–glucose dehydrogenase in chondrocytes

Chondrocyte glycosaminoglycan (GAG) synthesis is regulated by the availability of UDP-glucuronate, the substrate of glucuronosyl transferases which form the GAG chains in proteoglycans and hyaluronan. UDP-glucose dehydrogenase (UDPGD) is therefore a key enzyme in the synthesis of UDP-glucuronate from glucose. However, the mechanisms regulating its expression in chondrocytes are not fully understood. We investigated the effect of c-Krox, a zinc-finger transcription factor previously shown to modulate several matrix genes, on the synthesis of GAG and transcriptional activity of several UDPGD gene promoter constructs, using transient transfection and decoy experiments in rabbit articular chondrocytes (RACs). We show that overexpression of c-Krox inhibits radiosulfate incorporation into neosynthesized GAG and that the effect was mediated by a cis-sequence located between +18 and +39bp of the UDPGD gene. Since that sequence can also bind Sp1/Sp3 factors, it is likely that c-Krox acts in concert with these proteins to modulate the UDPGD gene expression in articular chondrocytes.

Differential effects of glyphosate and roundup on human placental cells and aromatase

Roundup is a glyphosate-based herbicide used worldwide, including on most genetically modified plants that have been designed to tolerate it. Its residues may thus enter the food chain, and glyphosate is found as a contaminant in rivers. Some agricultural workers using glyphosate have pregnancy problems, but its mechanism of action in mammals is questioned. Here we show that glyphosate is toxic to human placental JEG3 cells within 18 hr with concentrations lower than those found with agricultural use, and this effect increases with concentration and time or in the presence of Roundup adjuvants. Surprisingly, Roundup is always more toxic than its active ingredient. We tested the effects of glyphosate and Roundup at lower nontoxic concentrations on aromatase, the enzyme responsible for estrogen synthesis. The glyphosate-based herbicide disrupts aromatase activity and mRNA levels and interacts with the active site of the purified enzyme, but the effects of glyphosate are facilitated by the Roundup formulation in microsomes or in cell culture. We conclude that endocrine and toxic effects of Roundup, not just glyphosate, can be observed in mammals. We suggest that the presence of Roundup adjuvants enhances glyphosate bioavailability and/or bioaccumulation.

Immunolocalization of aromatase in stallion Leydig cells and seminiferous tubules

High levels of plasma estrogens constitute an endocrine peculiarity of the adult stallion. This is mostly due to testicular cytochrome p450 aromatase, the only irreversible enzyme responsible for the bioconversion of androgens into estrogens. To identify more precisely the testicular aromatase synthesis sites in the stallion, testes from nine horses (2-5 years) were obtained during winter or spring. Paraplast-embedded sections were processed using rabbit anti-equine aromatase, followed by biotinylated goat anti-rabbit antibodies, and amplified with a streptavidin-peroxidase complex. Immunoreactivity was detected with diaminobenzidine. Immunofluorescence detection, using fluoroisothiocyanate-conjugated goat anti-rabbit antibodies, was also applied. Specific aromatase immunoreactivity was observed intensely in Leydig cells but also for the first time, to a lesser extent, in the cytoplasm surrounding germ cells at the junction with Sertoli cells. Interestingly, the immunoreactivity in Sertoli cells appears to vary with the spermatogenic stages in the basal compartment (with spermatogonia) as well as in the adluminal one (with spermatids). Relative staining intensity in Leydig and Sertoli cells and testicular microsomal aromatase activity increased with age. The present study in stallions indicates that in addition to Leydig cells, Sertoli cells also appear to participate in estrogen synthesis, and this could play a paracrine role in the regulation of spermatogenesis.

Molecular characterization and expression of equine testicular cytochrome P450 aromatase

We characterized testicular equine aromatase and its expression. A 2707 bp cDNA was isolated, it encoded a polypeptide of 503 residues with a deduced molecular mass of 57.8 kDa. The sequence features were those of a cytochrome P450 aromatase, with a 78% polypeptide identity with the human counterpart. The gene has a minimal length of 74 kb comprising at least 9 exons and expresses a 2.8 kb mRNA in the testis. Transient cDNA transfections in E293 cells and in vitro translations in a reticulocyte lysate system allowed aromatase protein and activity detections. The activity increased with androstenedione as substrate in a dose-dependent manner. The isolation of testicular aromatase by a new immunoaffinity method demonstrated that the protein could exist either glycosylated or not with a 2 kDa difference. All these results taken together allow new structural studies to progress in the understanding of this cytochrome P450.

Free and conjugated estrogens and androgens in stallion semen

The steroid content of semen from a total of 11 mature fertile stallions was studied during two breeding seasons and one winter. The levels of free and conjugated substrates (testosterone and androstenedione), and products (estradiol and estrone), of aromatase were measured by radioimmunoassay with a validated method. The results were seasonally and monthly highly variable with characteristic peaks. The concentrations of free and conjugated estrogens were always higher in the gel-free ejaculate than in the gel except in one subfertile stallion used as comparison. Furthermore, the steroid production and the maximal resulting aromatase activity, estimated by the estrogens/androgens ratio, peaked in April-May and June. The breeding season (spring and summer) presents a clear estrogenic profile with estrogens/androgens ratios higher in contrast to the nonbreeding period (autumn and winter). The involvement of estrogens in the regulation of reproduction and equine spermatogenesis is discussed, and estrogens production and thus equine aromatase is proposed as a strong marker of testicular endocrine function.

Androgen metabolism in oyster Crassostrea gigas: evidence for 17beta-HSD activities and characterization of an aromatase-like activity inhibited by pharmacological compounds and a marine pollutant

The annual reproductive cycle of oyster Crassostrea gigas depends on environmental factors, but its endocrine regulations are still unknown. Sexual steroids play important roles at this level in vertebrates, and some estradiol effects have been described in invertebrates such as bivalve mollusks. To question these roles in invertebrates, we studied androgen metabolism in C. gigas. Incubations of tissue homogenates with 14C-steroids such as androstenedione (A), testosterone (T), estrone (E1) and estradiol (E2), followed by TLC and HPLC, provide evidence for 17beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases (17beta-HSDs, conversions of A into T, T into A, E1 into E2 and E2 into E1) and aromatase-like (A into E1) activities. The latter activity was further characterized by tritiated water release assay; it was time- and temperature-dependent. Furthermore, this oyster aromatase-like activity was inhibited by 4-hydroxyandrostenedione (IC(50) 0.456 microM) and by other pharmacological compounds including specific cytochrome P450 inhibitors (MR20494, miconazole) and a marine pollutant (tributyltin).

Aromatase inhibitors: past, present and future

For the cellular physiology of sex steroid sensitive cells, the androgen/estrogen ratio may be more important than only one hormone action per se, in both sexes. This ratio is controlled in vertebrates by aromatase; its gene expression can be inhibited in different ways, and this is crucial for the treatment of estrogen-dependent diseases such as breast cancer, or gynecomastia in males for instance. To reach this goal, new steroidal and non-steroidal inhibitors are continuously being developed, and some of them are used as first or second line agents. Aromatase inhibition is also an essential tool for studying the role of estrogens in the adult, or during development. Aromatase inhibitors have shown in particular that estrogens are essential also in males for skeletal maturation and bone mineralization, development of masculine dendritic morphology in male brain linked to mating behaviour, and testicular function. Testosterone is often the prohormone converted in situ in active estrogens, at these levels. Several strategies can be used for aromatase inhibition. The first ones employed were blind screening or deductions from in vivo observations, which led for instance to the discovery of the role of aminoglutethimide in aromatase inhibition. Subsequently, in the years 1975-1990, the molecular modeling of compounds to mimic the substrate shape of the enzyme constituted the major idea. Hundreds of chemicals were synthesized by numerous authors, ranging from the well-known and very efficient 4-OHA to complicated imidazole or indane derivatives tested by sophisticated comparative molecular field analyses. Reticulum-bound active aromatase has not as yet been X-ray analyzed. Thus, aromatase inhibitors were also used more recently to probe and understand the active site conformation of the enzyme and its modelization was obtained from comparisons with bacterial-related cytochromes. We developed a mammalian model considerably closer to human aromatase in order to study the active site shape with new potent aromatase non-steroidal inhibitors. This model is equine aromatase. This enzyme was biochemically characterized, purified, and cloned by our group. It allowed testing, by site-directed mutagenesis, predictive hypotheses in human aromatase which contributed to designing of new inhibitors. The understanding of the functioning of an essential member of the cytochrome P450 family, which is necessary for cellular detoxification, was also facilitated. Inhibition of aromatase activity has also been carried out with antibodies directed to the catalytic site and at the gene level by knock-out or by control of factor-specific promoters. This may result in different mRNA synthesized by alternative splicing. We have also obtained specific inhibition of aromatase activity in human cells with antisense stable phosphorothioate oligodeoxynucleotides directed against aromatase mRNA tertiary structures. Besides known steroidal and non-steroidal inhibitors, the antiaromatase effects of compounds found in our daily environment such as dietary flavonoids or xenobiotic pollutants have also been described. Finally, we underline that all these aromatase inhibitors, or methods of aromatase inhibition, can modulate the estrogenic balance essential not only for female, but also for male physiology, including gonadal function.

New aromatase inhibitors. Synthesis and biological activity of aryl-substituted pyrrolizine and indolizine derivatives

We report herein the design and the synthesis of some aryl-substituted pyrrolizine and indolizine derivatives, on the basis of a hypothetical pharmacophore structure designed to fit the catalytic site of the human cytochrome P450 aromatase. The in vitro biological evaluation of these compounds allowed us to point out two new potent non-steroidal aromatase inhibitors, MR 20494 and MR 20492, with IC50 values in the range of 0.1 microM.

MR 20492 and MR 20494: two indolizinone derivatives that strongly inhibit human aromatase

In this study, we describe the synthesis of a new family of indolizinone derivatives designed to fit an extrahydrophobic pocket within the active site of aromatase and to strongly inhibit human aromatase. This could help improve the specificity of the inhibitors. Equine aromatase, very well characterized biochemically, is used as a comparative model. Indeed, in a previous comparison between both human and equine aromatases, we described the importance of the interaction between the inhibitor and this pocket for the indane derivative MR 20814. MR 20492 and MR 20494 are more potent inhibitors of human aromatase (Ki/Km: 1.0+/-0.3 and 0.5+/-0.3, respectively). The Ki/Km for MR 20494 is slightly higher than that obtained for fadrozole (0.1+/-0.0) and Ki/Km for both indolizinone derivatives are lower than those obtained for 4-hydroxyandrostenedione (1.9+/-0.8) and MR 20814 (8.1+/-.7). These new compounds are not enzyme inactivators. Moreover, as indicated by the higher Ki/Km values obtained with equine enzyme (9.0+/-0.6 and 6.1+/-1.6 for MR 20492 and MR 20494, respectively), both human and equine aromatase active sites appear to be structurally different. Difference absorption spectra study (350-500 nm) revealed that MR20492 and MR20494 were characterized by a combination of type-I and -II spectra with both enzymes. This result could be due to the isomerization of the molecule in polar solvent (Z and E forms). The evaluation of these new molecules, as well as 4-hydroxyandrostenedione and fadrozole, on aromatase activity in transfected 293 cell cultures evidenced a strong inhibition (IC50: 0.20+/-0.03 microM, 0.20+/-0.02 microM and 0.50+/-0.40 microM for MR 20494, fadrozole and 4-OHA, respectively) except for MR 20492 (3.9+/-0.9 microM) and MR 20814 (10.5+/-0.6 microM). These results proved that these molecules formed part of a promising family of potent inhibitors and that they penetrate 293 cells, without evidencing any cytotoxicity in Hela cells with MTT assay. This is thus encouraging for the development of new drugs for the treatment of estrogen-dependent cancers, these molecules also constitute new tools for understanding the aromatase active site.

Design and synthesis of a new type of non steroidal human aromatase inhibitors

The structure-activity relationship study of one of recently described aromatase inhibitors, compound 1 (MR20814), allowed us to design some related derivatives as potential new inhibitors. Among those we synthesized, chlorophenylpyridylmethylenetetrahydroindolizinone 5 (MR20492) exhibited in vitro a ten-fold higher inhibition of the enzyme (IC50 = 0.2 +/- 0.0 microM and Ki = 10.3 +/- 3.3 nM).

Inhibition and inactivation of equine aromatase by steroidal and non-steroidal compounds. A comparison with human aromatase inhibition

In order to approach the detailed structure-function relationships of aromatase, we studied the inhibitory and inactivatory potencies of several steroidal androstenedione analogues (1: 4-hydroxyandrostenedione, 2: 4-acetoxyandrostenedione and 3: 7 alpha-(4'-amino)phenylthio-4-androstene-3, 17-dione) and non-steroidal imidazole derivatives (4: ketoconazole, 5: miconazole and 6: fadrozole) on equine aromatase in placental microsomes, a well established mammalian model. Human placental microsomes and the purified enzyme from equine testis were also used to compare inhibition by 1 and 2. In equine microsomes, all compounds tested exhibited a competitive inhibition, with Ki values of 4.1, 26 and 1.8 nM for 1, 2 and 3, and of 2400, 1.4 and 4 nM for 4, 5, and 6, respectively. The Km for androstenedione, the substrate mainly used in these studies, was 1.8 +/- 0.13 nM. The three non-steroidal derivatives did not inactivate equine aromatase, but 1 and 2 acted as comparable inactivators to a much higher degree than 3. Compound 1 inhibited in a similar manner (89-94%) purified or equine and human microsomal aromatases, whereas 2 inhibited microsomal aromatase more efficiently in the horse than in man (92% and 33% inhibition, respectively). There was only a 40% inhibition with 2 on the purified equine enzyme, which is no more in the natural membrane environment. The comparisons between equine and human microsomal aromatases allow precise functional and structural differences to be observed with these enzymes.

Purification and characterization of equine testicular cytochrome P-450 aromatase: comparison with the human enzyme

Cytochrome P-450 aromatase was purified by five chromatographic steps from adult stallion testis. It was first separated from NADPH-cytochrome P-450 reductase (reductase) on omega-aminohexyl-Sepharose 4B then purified to homogeneity on concanavalin A-Sepharose 4B, hydroxyapatite-Sepharose 4B, DEAE-Sepharose CL-6B and on a second hydroxyapatite-Sepharose 4B. On the other hand, purifications of the equine testicular and rat liver reductases, which allowed the reconstitution of aromatase activity in vitro, were achieved for each species in one chromatographic step on an adenosine 2',5'-diphosphate-agarose affinity column. Analysis on SDS/PAGE indicated single bands with apparent molecular masses of 53, 82, and 80 kDa for purified equine testicular cytochrome P-450 aromatase (eAROM), equine testicular reductase and rat liver reductase respectively. eAROM shows a time- and concentration-dependent activity that was stable for at least 2 months when stored at -78 degrees C. It is a highly hydrophobic protein composed from 505 residues and direct sequencing of its N-terminal part showed good homology when compared with human aromatase. When deglycosylated by N-glycosidase-F the apparent molecular mass of eAROM was decreased from 53 to 51 kDa as revealed by electrophoresis, its activity, however, was not impaired. eAROM exhibits much higher affinity for androgens than for 19-norandrogens, Km values were approximately 3, 16 and 170 nM for androstenedione (A), testosterone (T) and 19-nortestosterone (19-NT) respectively. However, it aromatizes 19-norandrostenedione (19-NA) slightly more efficiently than A, the estrone (E1) formed was 4.27 vs 3.54 pmol min-1 micrograms-1 respectively (P < 0.01). After incubation of eAROM with radiolabelled A and separation of steroids on HPLC, E1, 19-hydroxyandrostenedione (19-OHA) and 19-oxoandrostenedione (19-oxoA) were accumulated in the incubation medium in a time-dependent manner. The presence of 4-hydroxyandrostenedione (4-OHA), a suicide inhibitor of aromatase, cause a time-dependent inactivation of the enzyme. Whereas the activity of eAROM was unchanged in the presence of K+ (up to 250 mM), it was increased in the presence of EDTA (up to 50 mM) and decreased in the presence of DTT or Mg2+ (from 25 mM). We conclude that: (a) eAROM is a glycoprotein, however, deglycosylation by N-glycosidase-F does not appear to impair its activity, (b) eAROM aromatizes really both androgens and 19-norandrogens having a higher affinity for androgens, (c) the intermediary compounds of aromatization 19-OHA and 19-oxoA appear to be synthesized by the same active site that synthesizes E1 as the final product, (d) the inhibition of eAROM by increasing concentrations of Mg2+ and the stimulation of its activity by EDTA, taken together, indicate the importance of negatively charged residues in the polypeptide chain of equine aromatase, which play a role in enzymatic activity.

Equine cytochrome P450 aromatase exhibits an estrogen 2-hydroxylase activity in vitro

Aromatase (estrogen synthetase) is a steroidogenic enzyme complex which catalyzes the conversion of androgens to estrogens (termed aromatization). This enzyme was purified from adult equine testis to homogeneity by five chromatographic steps. The ability of purified and reconstituted equine aromatase to exhibit an estrogen 2-hydroxylase activity was tested and compared to testosterone aromatization. Enzymatic activities were assessed by tritiated water release from labelled estradiol and testosterone. Kinetic analysis of estradiol 2-hydroxylation showed an apparent K(m) of 23 microM and a V(max) of 18 nmol/min/mg, whereas the values for testosterone aromatization were a K(m) of 15.7 nM and a V(max) of 34.6 pmol/min/mg. A specific antiserum raised against purified testicular equine P450arom and known to inhibit aromatase activity [1] was also found to inhibit the estrogen hydroxylase activity of equine placental microsomes in a dose-dependent manner with an IC50 value of 15 microl serum: 0.5 ml incubate. The estrogen hydroxylase activity was inhibited in a dose-dependent manner by two classes of aromatase inhibitors, i.e. steroidal-- (4-hydroxyandrostenedione and 7alpha-([4-aminophenyl]thio)-androst-4-ene-3, 17-dione)--and non-steroidal--(fadrozole and miconazole). The IC50 values were approximately 300 and 890 nM for 4-hydroxyandrostenedione and 7alpha-([4-aminophenyl]thio)-androst-4-ene-3, 17-dione, and 92 and 285 nM, for fadrozole and miconazole, respectively. Furthermore, 4-hydroxyandrostenedione caused a time-dependent inactivation of estrogen hydroxylase activity. We conclude that equine aromatase is able to use estradiol as a substrate, and converts it to catechol estradiol in vitro, possibly using the active site of aromatization. This is the first demonstration that equine aromatase functions as an estrogen 2-hydroxylase, in addition to transforming androgens into estrogen.

The synthesis of 19-norandrostenedione from dehydroepiandrosterone in equine placenta is inhibited by aromatase inhibitors 4-hydroxyandrostenedione and fadrozole

19-Norandrostenedione was synthesized in vitro from dehydroepiandrosterone by explants of equine full-term placenta. The synthesis of 19-norandrostenedione was inhibited by two specific aromatase inhibitors, 4-hydroxyandrostenedione and fadrozole.

In vitro 19-norandrogen synthesis by equine placenta requires the participation of aromatase

Explants of equine full-term placenta have been shown to synthesize 19-norandrogens from labelled androgens. Steroid metabolites were purified by silica-gel column chromatography then analysed and quantified by c18-reverse-phase HPLC coupled to a radioactive flow detector. 19-Norandrostenedione was subsequently recrystallized to constant specific activity, providing unequivocal evidence of its synthesis by the equine placenta. 19-Norandrostenedione synthesis appeared to be localized in the microsomal fraction. Regardless of the substrate used, formation of 19-norandrogens was far weaker than that of oestrogens; moreover, the yield of 17-oxosteroids produced was much greater than that of 17 beta-hydroxysteroids, suggesting the presence of a dehydrogenase with predominant oxidative activity. Sulphoconjugated steroids formed were less than 0.5% of total steroids. Although 19-nortestosterone could not be generated by equine purified aromatase incubated with labelled testosterone, the synthesis of 19-norandrogens and oestrogens by equine placental explants was blocked by two specific aromatase inhibitors, 4-hydroxyandrostenedione and fadrozole. Our results provide evidence for a placental origin of at least a part of the 19-norandrogens previously identified in the blood of the pregnant mare. Furthermore, it is suggested that 19-norandrogen biosynthesis would involve the enzymatic metabolism of 19-oxygenated androgens formed by equine aromatase.

Different in vitro metabolism of 7 alpha-methyl-19-nortestosterone by human and equine aromatases

The ability of human and equine placental microsomes to aromatize 7 alpha-methyl-19-nortestosterone (MNT) was studied. Kinetic analysis indicates that MNT shares the androgen-binding site of human and equine placental microsomal aromatases. Human placental microsomal estrogen synthetase had about a 2.5-fold higher relative affinity for MNT than the equine placental enzyme (KiMNT/Km androstenedione of 32 versus 87). However, MNT was not metabolized by human placental microsomes, whereas it was very actively metabolized by equine placental microsomes. Further studies using purified equine cytochrome P-450arom indicated that the presence of a 7 alpha-methyl group and the absence of a C19 methyl group did not impair its conversion by the purified enzyme. The product of this reaction was separated and identified as 7 alpha-methylestradiol by gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry.