The relationship between cardiorespiratory fitness and inhibitory control following acute stress: An ERP study

Although the relationships among acute stress, cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF), and cognitive function have been examined, whether CRF is related to behavioral and neuroelectric indices of inhibitory control following acute stress remains unknown. The purpose of the current study was to investigate the combined influence of acute stress and CRF on inhibitory control. Participants, aged 20-30 years, were stratified into the Higher-Fit (n = 31) and the Lower-Fit (n = 32) groups, and completed a Stroop task following the modified Maastricht Acute Stress Test (MAST) in the stress condition and the sham-MAST in the non-stress condition, during which electroencephalography was recorded. Behavioral (i.e., response time and accuracy) and neuroelectric (N2 and P3b components of the event-related potential) outcomes of inhibitory control were obtained. While the Higher-Fit group demonstrated shorter response times and higher accuracy than the Lower-Fit group following both the MAST and the sham-MAST, they also exhibited selective benefits of acute stress on inhibitory control performance (i.e., decreased response times and diminished interference scores). CRF-dependent alterations in neuroelectric indices were also observed, with the Higher-Fit group displaying smaller N2 and greater P3b amplitudes than the Lower-Fit group following the sham-MAST, and increased N2 and attenuated P3b amplitudes following the MAST. Collectively, these findings not only confirm the positive relationship between CRF and inhibitory control but also provide novel insights into the potential influence of CRF on inhibitory control and associated neuroelectric activity following acute stress.

Effects of aerobic exercise on cognitive function in adults with major depressive disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Background

Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) is a highly prevalent psychiatric disorder that impairs the cognitive function of individuals. Aerobic exercise stands out as a promising non-pharmacological intervention for enhancing cognitive function and promoting brain health.While positive impacts of aerobic exercise on executive function in adults with depression have been documented, a comprehensive understanding of its benefits on overall cognitive function, including memory, attention, and processing speed, along with key moderating factors in adults with MDD, remains unexplored. The purpose of the systematic review and meta-analysis was to investigate the effects of aerobic exercise on overall cognitive function in adults with MDD, and to explore whether cognitive sub-domains, aerobic exercise characteristics, and study and sample variables modify the effects of aerobic exercise on cognition.

Methods

Six English electronic databases (Embase, Cochrane Central, Scopus, APA PsycInfo, PubMed, Web of Science) were searched from inception to 2 April 2023. Randomized trials, including adults aged 18 years or above with a diagnosis of clinical depression, of the effects of aerobic exercise on cognitive function in adults with MDD compared to non-aerobic exercise groups were included. A three-level meta-analysis was conducted utilizing a random-effects model in R. The quality of the studies was evaluated using the Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro) scale. The PROSPERO registration number is CRD42022367350.

Results

Twelve randomized trials including 945 adults with MDD were included. Results indicated that aerobic exercise significantly improved overall cognitive function (g = 0.21; 95 % confidence intervals [CI] = 0.07, 0.34), and the sub-domains of memory (g = 0.25; 95 % CI = 0.06, 0.44) and executive function (g = 0.12; 95 % CI = 0.04, 0.20). Significant benefits in cognitive function were found from moderate-to-vigorous (mixed) intensity (g = 0.19; 95 % CI = 0.02, 0.37), aerobic exercise conducted 3 times per week (g = 0.23; 95 % CI = 0.10, 0.38), in sessions < 45 min (g = 0.59; 95 % CI = 0.28, 0.90), and 45-60 min (g = 0.16; 95 % CI = 0.07, 0.26), in aerobic exercise intervention ≤ 12 weeks (g = 0. 26; 95 % CI = 0.08, 0.44).

Limitations

This review only included peer-reviewed English-language studies, which may lead to a language bias. The results of the Egger's test suggested a potential publication bias.

Conclusions

Aerobic exercise is efficacious in improving overall cognitive function and the sub-domains of memory and executive function in adults with major depressive disorder.

Acute Exercise Effect on Neurocognitive Function Among Cognitively Normal Late-Middle-Aged Adults With/Without Genetic Risk of AD: The Moderating Role of Exercise Volume and APOE Genotype

BACKGROUND

Acute exercise is a behavior that benefits cognitive function; however, its effect on populations with different risks for Alzheimer's disease (AD) and the role of exercise variance and Apolipoprotein E (APOE) genotype on this effect remains unknown. This study explores the acute exercise effect on behavioral and neurocognitive function, and its potential moderation by exercise intensity and duration and APOE genetic risk.

METHODS

Fifty-one cognitively normal adults (~36% APOE ε4 carriers) performed the Stroop task under a rest condition and 3 exercise conditions while electroencephalographic activity was assessed.

RESULTS

Acute exercise improved cognitive performance assessed through both behavioral and neuroelectrical indices. These benefits were observed regardless of adjustments of intensity and duration at a predetermined exercise volume as well as being evident irrespective of APOE ɛ4 carrier status.

CONCLUSIONS

Acute exercise could be proposed as a lifestyle intervention to benefit neurocognitive function in populations with and without genetic risk of AD. Future exploration should further the precise exercise prescription and also the mechanisms underlying the beneficial effects of acute exercise for neurocognitive function.

CLINICAL TRIALS REGISTRATION NUMBER

NCT05591313.

Breaking prolonged sitting increases 24-h physical activity and self-perceived energy levels but does not acutely affect cognition in healthy adults

INTRODUCTION

It is unknown whether predetermined (un)interrupted sitting within a laboratory setting will induce compensatory changes in human behaviours (energy intake and physical activity) once people return to a free-living environment. The effects of breaking up prolonged sitting on cognition are also unclear.

METHODS

Twenty-four (male = 13) healthy participants [age 31 ± 8 y, BMI 22.7 ± 2.3 kg/m2 (mean ± SD)] completed 320 min mixed-feeding trials under prolonged sitting (SIT) or with 2 min walking at 6.4 km/h every 20 min (ACTIVE), in a randomised crossover design. Human behaviours were recorded post-trial under free-living conditions until midnight. Cognitive performance was evaluated before and immediately after SIT and ACTIVE trials. Self-perceived sensations (appetite, energy and mood) and finger prick blood glucose levels were collected at regular intervals throughout the trials.

RESULTS

There were no differences between trials in eating behaviour and spontaneous physical activity (both, p > 0.05) in free-living conditions, resulting in greater overall total step counts [11,680 (10740,12620) versus 6049 (4845,7253) steps] and physical activity energy expenditure (PAEE) over 24-h period in ACTIVE compared to SIT (all, p < 0.05). Greater self-perceived levels of energy and lower blood glucose iAUC were found in ACTIVE trial compared to SIT trial (both, p < 0.05). No differences were found in cognitive performance between trials (all, p > 0.05).

CONCLUSION

Breaking up sitting does not elicit subsequent behavioural compensation, resulting in greater 24-h step counts and PAEE in healthy adults. Breaking up sitting reduces postprandial glucose concentrations and elicits greater self-perceived energy levels, but these positive effects do not acutely translate into improved cognitive function.

Acute high-intensity interval exercise improves food-related cognition in young adults with obesity: An ERP study

Purpose Cognitive function, particularly food-related cognition, is critical for maintaining a healthy weight and preventing the acceleration of obesity. High-Intensity Interval Exercise (HIIE) is an increasingly popular form of exercise and has been shown to improve physical fitness and cognitive function. However, there is limited research on the effects and underlying mechanisms of HIIE on general and food-related cognition among adults with obesity. The aim of the current study was to examine the influence of a single bout of HIIE on food-related cognition among young adults with obesity. Methods Fifteen young men with obesity (BMI = 33.88 ± 4.22, age = 24.60 ± 5.29 years) were recruited. Participants took part in a HIIE condition consisting of 30 minutes of stationary cycle exercise (5-min warm-up, 20-min HIIE and 5-min cool down), and a control session consisting of a time and attention-matched period of sedentary rest in a counterbalanced order. Behavioral (reaction time and accuracy) and event-related potential measures (P3 and the late positive potential, LPP) elicited during a food-related Flanker task were measured after the HIIE and control session. Results Shorter response times were observed following HIIE, regardless of congruency or picture type, with no change in accuracy. Increased P3 and LPP amplitudes were observed following HIIE relative to the control session. Conclusion The findings suggest a single bout of HIIE has a beneficial effect on general and food-related cognition among young adults with obesity, with increased recruitment of cognitive resources to support cognitive control. Future research is warranted to examine the dose-response relationship between acute bouts or longer participation in HIIE on food-related cognition in obesity.

Effect of acute concurrent exercise training and the mediating role of lactate on executive function: An ERP study

Both acute aerobic (AE) and resistance exercise (RE) have been acknowledged to be effective methods in enhancing executive function and brain-related P3 amplitudes. Nevertheless, the effect of acute concurrent exercise training (CET), combining both AE and RE, on executive function remains subject to speculation. Moreover, investigation of the mechanisms that underlie improvements in executive function would facilitate scientific understanding. Notably, lactate has emerged as a candidate among several potential mechanisms. Therefore, the main aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of acute CET on the cognitive flexibility dimension of executive function using behavioural and neuro-electric measures. A secondary aim was to determine the mediating effect of blood lactate in the acute exercise-executive function relationship. Seventy-eight young adults (38 women, 40 men; 22.8 ± 1.8 years) were randomly assigned to one of the following groups: CET, AE, or reading control (RC). Cognitive flexibility was evaluated using the Task-Switching Test and its derived electroencephalography (EEG) was assessed immediately prior to and following each treatment. Fingertip lactate assays were taken prior to, at the midpoint, and after each treatment. Both acute CET and AE shortened response time regardless of test conditions when compared to the RC group. Greater P3 amplitude was observed following CET in the heterogeneous condition and under AE in the switch condition. A significant mediation of blood lactate for response time emerged in both the CET and AE groups for the heterogeneous and switch conditions. The blood lactate mediation was not reflected in P3 amplitude. The present findings suggest that acute CET leads to positive behavioural and neuro-electric alterations of cognitive flexibility, and its effect is similar to AE. Additionally, blood lactate serves as a mediator of the effects of acute exercise on executive function from a behavioural, but not neuro-electric standpoint.

The influence of volume-matched acute aerobic exercise on inhibitory control in late-middle-aged and older adults: A neuroelectric study

Acute aerobic exercise has been shown to benefit inhibitory control; however, less attention has been devoted to the effects of varying intensity and duration with a predetermined exercise volume. The current study assessed the influence of three distinct exercise conditions, each equated with a predesignated exercise volume but varied in terms of exercise durations and intensities, on inhibitory control utilizing both behavioral and neuroelectric measures obtained among late-middle-aged and older adults. Thirty-four adults (61.76 ± 0.80 years) completed three exercise conditions [i.e., a 30-min low-intensity exercise (LIE), a 20-min moderate-intensity exercise (MIE), and a 16-min high-intensity exercise (HIE)] and a non-exercise reading control condition (CON) on separate days. The exercise volumes of LIE and HIE were designed to match the exercise volume of MIE. Following cessation of each condition, the Stroop task was performed while event-related potentials were recorded. Improved behavioral performance (i.e., shorter response time, higher accuracy, and smaller interference scores) was observed after LIE, MIE, and HIE than CON (ps < .005). Additionally, whereas a larger P3b amplitude was only observed following MIE compared to CON (p < .01), larger N2 and smaller N450 amplitudes were observed following all three exercise conditions compared to CON (ps < .005). These findings suggested that while MIE may provide additional benefits for attentional resource allocation, exercise conditions volume matched to MIE resulted in superior inhibitory control, paralleled by modulations of the neural underpinnings of conflict monitoring/detection.

Effects of Exercise Training on Executive Functioning in Adults with Depression: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials

BACKGROUND

Exercise is a promising nonpharmacological intervention to improve executive function (EF). However, results from randomized trials and meta-analyses examining the effects of exercise on working memory in adults with depression are mixed, and the influence of exercise on EF, as well as the key moderators of the relationship, remain inconclusive.

OBJECTIVE

The present systematic review with meta-analysis examined the influence of exercise interventions on EF in adults with depression, and the influence of key moderating variables.

METHODS

Electronic searches were conducted using Embase, Cochrane Central, Scopus, Ovid MEDLINE, PubMed, Web of Science, China National Knowledge Infrastructure, Wanfang Database, and Weipu Database up to 25 June 2022, and updated on 16 January 2023. Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) examining the effects of exercise training on EF in adults with depression were included. A three-level meta-analysis based on a random-effects model was applied in R. Study quality was assessed using the Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro) scale.

RESULTS

A total of 14 RCTs that evaluated 1201 adults with depression were included. The results indicated that exercise significantly improved global EF [g = 0.180; 95% confidence intervals (CI) = 0.038, 0.323], and the subdomains of working memory (g = 0.182; 95% CI = 0.015, 0.350), cognitive flexibility (g = 0.222; 95% CI = 0.048, 0.395), and reasoning/planning (g = 0.889; 95% CI = 0.571, 1.206). In subgroup analyses, significant improvements in EF were only observed for aerobic exercise (g = 0.203; 95% CI = 0.023, 0.382), moderate-to-vigorous intensity exercise (g = 0.200; 95% CI = 0.022, 0.379), exercise performed three or more times per week (g = 0.207; 95% CI = 0.026, 0.388), in sessions ≤ 60 min (g = 0.173; 95% CI = 0.003, 0.343), and in program durations lasting at least 13 weeks (g = 0. 248; 95% CI = 0.034, 0.462).

CONCLUSIONS

This meta-analysis demonstrates the benefits of exercise training for improving EF and the subdomains of working memory, cognitive flexibility, and reasoning/planning in adults with depression. Future randomized clinical trials are warranted to determine the therapeutic effects of exercise training on EF and cognitive symptoms in depressed patients.

Acute effect of combined exercise with aerobic and resistance exercises on executive function

Objective

Recent studies indicate that acute exercise, whether aerobic exercise (AE) or resistance exercise (RE), improves cognitive function. However, the effects on cognitive function of combined exercise (CE), involving both AE and RE in an exercise session, remain unknown. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of acute CE on cognitive function.

Design

Within-subject design with counterbalancing.

Methods

Fifteen healthy men with a sedentary lifestyle in the previous three months were recruited. The participants were assessed for muscular fitness after performing four upper body exercises for a 10-repetition maximum and underwent a submaximal aerobic fitness assessment for V̇O2peak and corresponding workload (watts). They were then assigned to a CE, RE, or sitting control (SC) session in counterbalanced order and were assessed with the Stroop Color and Word Test (SCWT) after each session.

Results

Acute CE led to a significantly shorter response time compared to SC (p < .05) in the SCWT, wherein there were no significant differences between acute CE and RE (p = 1.00). Additionally, no significant differences in the accuracy rate were observed across the different sessions (ps > .05).

Conclusion

A single session of moderate-intensity CE improved response time in the SCWT, comparable to RE. CE shows promise for enhancing cognitive function, warranting further research on its benefits and other exercise modalities.

Effect of brief mindfulness and relaxation inductions on anxiety, affect and brain activation in athletes

The mindfulness-based intervention and psychological skills training are often used for maintaining the mental health or reducing undesirable mental states in athletes. However, their differences in acute effects on mental health and underlying neural mechanism are not well understood. Therefore, the purpose of the current study was to examine the differential effects of brief mindfulness induction (MI) and relaxation induction (RI) on state anxiety, affect and brain activation. Thirty-five track and field athletes were recruited for this study. Using a within-subjects crossover design, participants underwent three conditions that incorporated two 30-min experimental conditions (i.e., MI or RI) and a control condition. State anxiety and affect were assessed before and after intervention, and brain activation (i.e., theta, alpha bands) were recorded by electroencephalography (EEG) during each 30-min condition. Repeated measures analysis of variance revealed that MI and RI similarly reduced state anxiety and negative affect from pre-test to post-test compared to the control condition. In terms of positive affect, there were no significant differences among the three conditions across times. Furthermore, participants exhibited higher frontal theta power during the MI and RI than control condition, whereas no differences in alpha power were observed among conditions. The current study provides initial evidence from an electrophysiological perspective that brief MI and RI both improve the negative psychological states in individual sport athletes through similar neural mechanisms. Nevertheless, the moderating effects of training experiences and long-term interventions on mental state and EEG activity in athletes need further investigation in future studies.

Effects of acute moderate-intensity exercise on executive function in children with preterm birth: A randomized crossover study

BACKGROUND

Acute exercise appears to promote executive function (EF) in children. However, the effect of acute exercise on EF in children with preterm birth (PB) remains unclear.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate whether acute moderate-intensity exercise improves EF in children with PB.

METHODS

Twenty child participants with PB (age = 10.95 ± 1.19 years, birth age = 31.71 ± 3.64 weeks) completed exercise and control sessions in a randomized crossover design. In the exercise session, participants completed a 30-minute period of moderate-intensity aerobic exercise. In the control session, participants watched a video for appropriately 30 min. Following each session immediately, inhibitory control, an aspect of EF, was assessed with the Numerical Stroop task.

RESULTS

Response time (RT) for the Stroop's incongruent condition was shorter after the exercise session than after the control session. However, no differences were observed in RT for the congruent condition. Accuracy rate (ACC) in both congruent and incongruent conditions did not differ between exercise and control session.

CONCLUSION

The findings support the beneficial effect of acute exercise on executive function (EF) in children with PB, particularly in terms of improving inhibitory control.

Effect of mindfulness-based intervention on endurance performance under pressure and performance-relevant mental attributes an interdisciplinary perspective: Protocol for a mindfulness-based peak performance (MBPP) trial

Performance under pressure is one of the primary features of competitive sports. Considering that increased competition levels are typically accompanied by elevated stress and anxiety, athletes' ability to cope with stress has gained even more importance in recent years. Accordingly, the current trial, entitled Mindfulness-based Peak Performance (MBPP), will take an interdisciplinary approach (e.g., sport psychology, sports training, and cognitive neuroscience), to more definitively examine whether a MBPP affects athletic performance under pressure and relevant mental attributes. This study is an 8-week, three-arm, randomized controlled trial (RCT). A total of 90 athletes, aged between 18 and 30 years will be recruited. Eligible participants will be randomly assigned into (1) an MBPP group, (2) a self-talk (ST) group, and (3) a wait-list control (WC) group. The MBPP and ST interventions consist of a 60-min session weekly for 8 weeks. Primary outcomes are endurance performance and performance-relevant mental attributes including behavior (i.e., stress response, emotion regulation, and engagement) and neurocognitive processes (e.g., attention, executive function, brain resting state), which will be assessed at baseline and post-intervention. Dispositional mindfulness and athletic psychological skills will be secondary outcomes, also assessed at baseline and post-intervention. The MBPP and ST are expected to improve performance under pressure, but MBPP is expected to show greater improvement than ST. Additionally, we expect the MBPP will improve the relevant mental attributes. The results from this trial might provide rigorous evidence and insight into MBI application in the sports context. ClinicalTrials.govregistration:NCT05612295.

Effects of cognitive demand during acute exercise on inhibitory control and its electrophysiological indices: A randomized crossover study

The aim of this study was to examine the effects of cognitive demand during acute exercise on the behavioral and electrophysiological correlates of inhibitory control. In a within- participants design, 30 male participants (age range = 18-27 years) performed 20-min sessions of high cognitive-demand exercise (HE), low cognitive-demand exercise (LE), and an active control (AC) on separate days in a randomized order. A moderate-to-vigorous intensity interval step exercise was used as the exercise intervention. During the exercise periods, the participants were instructed to respond to the target among competing stimuli to impose different cognitive demands with their feet. A modified flanker task was administered to assess inhibitory control before and after the interventions, and electroencephalography was used to derive stimulus-elicited N2 and P3 components. Behavioral data showed that the participants performed significantly shorter reaction time (RT), regardless of congruency and a reduced RT flanker effect following HE and LE compared with the AC condition with large (ds = -0.934 to -1.07) and medium effect sizes (ds = -0.502 to -0.507), respectively. Electrophysiological data revealed that compared with the AC condition, acute HE and LE had facilitative effects on stimuli evaluation, as indicated by significantly shorter N2 latency for congruent trials and P3 latency regardless of congruency with medium effect sizes (ds = -0.507 to -0.777). Compared with the AC condition, only acute HE elicited more efficient neural processes in conditions requiring high inhibitory control demand, as indicated by significantly shorter N2 difference latency, with a medium effect size (d = -0.528). Overall, the findings suggest that acute HE and LE facilitate inhibitory control and the electrophysiological substrates of target evaluation. Acute exercise with higher cognitive demand may be associated with more refined neural processing for tasks demanding greater amounts of inhibitory control.

Bright Morning Lighting Enhancing Parasympathetic Activity at Night: A Pilot Study on Elderly Female Patients with Dementia without a Pacemaker

Exposure to bright morning light (BML) entrains the master circadian clock, modulates physiological circadian rhythms, and reduces sleep-wake disturbances. However, its impact on the autonomic nervous system at night remains unclear. Here, we investigated the effects of BML exposure on parasympathetic nervous system (PSNS) and sympathetic nervous system (SNS) activity at night in elderly women. This nonrandomized controlled pilot study included female participants aged ≥ 60 years who were diagnosed with a type of dementia or cognitive disorder, excluding individuals with pacemakers. The treatment group was exposed to 2500 lx of BML, whereas the control group was exposed to 200 lx of general lighting. We measured heart rate variability to quantify ANS activity. The treatment group displayed significant increases in high-frequency (HF) power (Roy's largest root = 1.62; p < 0.001) and nonsignificant decreases in normalized low-frequency (LF%) power. The corresponding nonsignificant decreases in the low-frequency/high-frequency (LF/HF) ratio and cognitive function were correlated with PSNS activity (Roy's largest root = 1.41; p < 0.001), which improved severe dementia. BML exposure reduced SNS activity and enhanced PSNS activity at night in female participants, which improved cognitive function. Thus, BML therapy may be a useful clinical tool for alleviating cognitive decline.

The unique contribution of motor ability to visuospatial working memory in school-age children: Evidence from event-related potentials

This study investigated the unique contribution of motor ability to visuospatial working memory (VSWM) and neuroelectric activity in school-age children. Seventy-six children aged 8.7 ± 1.1 years participated in this cross-sectional study. We assessed aerobic fitness using the 20-m endurance shuttle run test, muscular fitness (endurance, power) using a standard test battery, and motor ability (manual dexterity, ball skills, and static and dynamic balance) using the Movement Assessment Battery for Children. A modified delayed match-to-sample test was used to assess VSWM and the P3 component of event-related potentials. Hierarchical regression analyses indicated that greater aerobic fitness was associated with smaller coefficient of variation of reaction time (p = .008), greater muscular fitness was associated with higher response accuracy (p = .022), greater motor ability was associated with higher response accuracy (p < .001) and increased P3 mean amplitude (p < .001) after controlling for age. Furthermore, the positive associations of motor ability with response accuracy (p = .001) were independent of muscular fitness. The findings from this study provide new insight into the differential associations between health-related fitness domains and VSWM, highlighting the influence of motor ability on brain health and cognitive development during childhood.

Effects of Multi-Component Exercise on Sleep Quality in Middle-Aged Adults

Sleep is a crucial factor in healthy aging. However, most middle-aged adults experience high levels of sleep disorders. While previous findings have suggested exercise training could benefit the quality of sleep, the effects of multi-component exercise on sleep quality are less examined. Accordingly, the current study aimed to assess the effectiveness of a multi-component exercise program on the quality of sleep among middle-aged adults. Twenty-four middle-aged adults were randomly assigned either to a multi-component exercise (MCE) group or a control group. The participants in the MCE group attended a 90-min session per week for 12 weeks. The control group was instructed to maintain their daily routine for 12 weeks. The primary outcome was the sleep quality evaluated by the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI). The secondary outcome was physical fitness, including muscular strength and endurance, balance, and flexibility. Regarding sleep quality, the global mean score (p = 028), sleep disturbances (p = 011), and sleep efficiency (p = 035) of the PSQI scores were significantly reduced in the MCE group after the 12-week intervention. Regarding physical fitness, the flexibility of the MCE group improved significantly after the intervention (p = 028), yet, no significant change was observed in the control group. Additionally, the muscular strength of the control group declined significantly after the 12-week period (p = 034). Our results revealed the effectiveness of the MCE intervention in improving sleep quality and physical fitness in middle-aged adults. Further studies using larger sample sizes, objective measures of sleep quality, different types of exercise training, as well as different populations, are warranted to extend our current findings.

Effects of exercise types on white matter microstructure in late midlife adults: Preliminary results from a diffusion tensor imaging study

Higher aerobic fitness during late midlife is associated with higher white matter (WM) microstructure. Compared with individuals engaged in irregular exercise, those who engage in regular aerobic exercise show higher fractional anisotropy (FA), a diffusion tenor imaging (DTI) measure that provides an index of WM microstructural integrity. However, whether other types of exercise, such as Tai Chi, can also facilitate WM changes in adults during late midlife remains unknown. The present study compares two types of exercise, Tai Chi and walking, with a sedentary control group, in order to examine the effects of exercise on WM microstructure and determine the regional specificity of WM differences. Thirty-six healthy adults between the ages of 55 and 65 years participated in the study. Based on the participants’ exercise habits, they were allocated into three groups: Tai Chi, walking, or sedentary control. All participants were required to complete physical fitness measurements and completed magnetic reasoning imaging (MRI) scans. Our results revealed that the Tai Chi group exhibited a higher FA value in the left cerebral peduncle, compared to the sedentary control group. We also observed that both the Tai Chi and walking groups exhibited higher FA values in the right uncinate fasciculus and the left external capsule, in comparison to the sedentary control group. Increased FA values in these regions was positively correlated with higher levels of physical fitness measurements (i.e., peak oxygen uptake [VO2peak], muscular endurance/number of push-up, agility, power). These findings collectively suggest that regular exercise is associated with improved WM microstructural integrity, regardless of the exercise type, which could guide the development and application of future prevention and intervention strategies designed to address age-related cognitive impairments during late midlife.

The multi-domain exercise intervention for memory and brain function in late middle-aged and older adults at risk for Alzheimer's disease: A protocol for Western-Eastern Brain Fitness Integration Training trial

Background

Aging is associated with cognitive decline, increased risk for dementia, and deterioration of brain function. Modifiable lifestyle factors (e.g., exercise, meditation, and social interaction) have been proposed to benefit memory and brain function. However, previous studies have focused on a single exercise modality or a single lifestyle factor. Consequently, the effect of a more comprehensive exercise program that combines multiple exercise modalities and lifestyle factors, as well as examines potential mediators and moderators, on cognitive function and brain health in late middle-aged and older adults remains understudied. This study's primary aim is to examine the effect of a multi-domain exercise intervention on memory and brain function in cognitively healthy late middle-aged and older adults. In addition, we will examine whether apolipoprotein E (ApoE) genotypes, physical fitness (i.e., cardiovascular fitness, body composition, muscular fitness, flexibility, balance, and power), and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) moderate and mediate the exercise intervention effects on memory and brain function.

Methods

The Western-Eastern Brain Fitness Integration Training (WE-BFit) is a single-blinded, double-arm, 6-month randomized controlled trial. One hundred cognitively healthy adults, aged 45-70 years, with different risks for Alzheimer's disease (i.e., ApoE genotype) will be recruited and randomized into either a multi-domain exercise group or an online educational course control group. The exercise intervention consists of one 90-min on-site and several online sessions up to 60 min per week for 6 months. Working memory, episodic memory, physical fitness, and BDNF will be assessed before and after the 6-month intervention. The effects of the WE-BFit on memory and brain function will be described and analyzed. We will further examine how ApoE genotype and changes in physical fitness and BDNF affect the effects of the intervention.

Discussion

WE-BFit is designed to improve memory and brain function using a multi-domain exercise intervention. The results will provide insight into the implementation of an exercise intervention with multiple domains to preserve memory and brain function in adults with genetic risk levels for Alzheimer's disease.

Clinical trial registration

ClinicalTrials.gov, identifier: NCT05068271.

Effects of technology-supported brain breaks videos on exercise self-efficacy among type 2 diabetes mellitus Malaysians

The technology supported Brain Breaks (BB) videos are a series of structured, web-based physical activity (PA) videos designed to promote learning and health. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of BB videos on exercise self-efficacy (ESE) among type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) patients using the Malay-versioned exercise self-efficacy scale (ESE-M). The study used a double-blind research design and was randomised into two groups: (1) The Technology Supported BB intervention group, and (2) the control group. 70 T2DM patients with a mean age of 57.6 years (SD = 8.5) were recruited from Hospital Universiti Sains Malaysia. For 4 months, participants in the intervention group were required to undertake PA every day using the BB videos (approximately 10 min). Both groups completed the ESE-M at pre-intervention, the end of the first month, the second month, the third month, and post-intervention. For the data analysis, a mixed factorial analysis of variance was used. The results showed that at the end of the intervention, the two groups’ ESE was significantly different (p < 0.001). From pre- to post-intervention, the intervention group’s ESE-M mean scores improved significantly. Technology-supported BB videos may be an effective strategy for improving ESE in T2DM patients.

The Association of Obesity and Cardiorespiratory Fitness in Relation to Cognitive Flexibility: An Event-Related Potential Study

This study investigates an association between obesity and cardiorespiratory fitness concerning their potential effects on cognitive flexibility in young adults from behavioral and neuroelectrical perspectives. Eligible young adults (N = 140, 18–25 years) were assigned into one of four groups, according to their status of obesity (i.e., body mass index) and cardiorespiratory fitness levels (i.e., estimated maximal oxygen uptake), namely, normal weight with high cardiorespiratory fitness (NH), obese with high cardiorespiratory fitness (OH), normal weight with low cardiorespiratory fitness (NL), and obese with low cardiorespiratory fitness (OL). The task-switching test was utilized, and its induced endogenous (P3) and exogenous (N1) event-related potential components were recorded. Concerning behavioral indices, the NH demonstrated superior behavioral performance across global switching and local switching of the task-switching test compared to individuals with lower cardiorespiratory fitness and obesity (i.e., NL, OH, and OL). Additionally, the OH demonstrated better performance than the OL during the heterogeneous condition. For neuroelectrical indices, the NH had larger mean P3 amplitudes during global and local switching than the other three groups. A larger N1 amplitude was also observed in the NH during local switching than in the OH group. The findings suggest that cardiorespiratory fitness has beneficial effects on cognitive flexibility, attentional resource allocation, and sensory evaluation in young adults. Furthermore, our research provided novel evidence showing that cardiorespiratory fitness might potentially alleviate the adverse effects of obesity on cognitive flexibility in young adults.

Cardiorespiratory fitness is associated with sustained neurocognitive function during a prolonged inhibitory control task in young adults: An ERP study

Although beneficial associations between cardiorespiratory fitness and cognitive function have been established, whether cardiorespiratory fitness is related to behavioral and neuroelectric indices of performance during a prolonged inhibitory control task remains unknown. Young adults, categorized into High and Low Fitness groups, completed a 60-min Stroop task, while the N1 and P3 components of event-related potentials were measured. The results showed that the High Fitness group demonstrated shorter response times, regardless of the Stroop task congruency or time-on-task, than Low Fitness group. The High Fitness group also exhibited larger P3 amplitudes than the Low Fitness group, but no differences in N1 amplitudes were observed. These findings suggest that cardiorespiratory fitness during young adulthood has beneficial effects on task performance and attention allocation during an inhibitory control task, and these benefits can be sustained for 60 min.

Structural equation model of psychological constructs of transtheoretical model, motives for physical activity, and amount of physical activity among people with type 2 diabetes mellitus in Malaysia

BACKGROUND

This study aimed determine the structural relationship between psychological constructs of the transtheoretical model (TTM; processes of change, decisional balance, and exercise self-efficacy), motives for physical activity (PA), and amount of PA among Malaysians with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM).

METHOD

All participants were recruited from the Hospital Universiti Sains Malaysia using a cross-sectional study design with purposive) sampling method. A total of 331 participants were recruited for the present study. Before participation in the study, they were informed that participation in the study was totally voluntary. Those who agreed to participate voluntarily were required to complete the self-administered questionnaire set, which included the processes of change, decisional balance, exercise self-efficacy, physical activity and leisure motivation, and international physical activity questionnaires. Data analysis of structural equation modeling was performed using Mplus 8.

RESULTS

From the 331 participants, most of whom were male (52%) and Malay (89.4%), with a mean age of 62.6 years (standard deviation = 10.29). The final structural equation model fit the data well based on several fit indices [Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) = 0.059, Comparative Fit Index (CFI) = 0.953, Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI) = 0.925, Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR) = 0.031]. A total of 16 significant path relationships linked between the TTM, motives for PA, and amount of PA.

CONCLUSION

The pros of decisional balance, others' expectations, and psychological condition were constructs that directly affected PA, whereas the other constructs had a significant indirect relationship with the amount of PA. A positive mindset is crucial in deciding a behavioral change toward an active lifestyle in people with T2DM.

The Effects of Mindfulness-Based Intervention on Shooting Performance and Cognitive Functions in Archers

This study investigated the effects of a mindfulness-based intervention (MBI) called mindfulness-based peak performance (MBPP) on athletic performance and cognitive functions in archers, as well as the role of psychological status and the dose-response relationship of MBPP in archery performance. Twenty-three archers completed a simulated archery competition and the Stroop task prior to and after MBPP training, which consisted of eight sessions over four weeks, while the mindfulness and rumination levels of the archers were assessed at three time points, namely, before, at the mid-point of, and after the MBPP program. The results revealed that the MBPP program significantly improved the shooting performance (p = 0.002, d = 0.27), multiple cognitive functions (ps < 0.001, d = 0.51~0.71), and mindfulness levels of the archers on the post-test, compared to the pre-test (p = 0.032, η_p² = 0.15 for general; p = 0.004, η_p² = 0.22 for athletic). Additionally, negative ruminations level was decreased from the pre-test to the middle-test and post-test (ps < 0.001, η_p² = 0.43). These findings provide preliminary evidence to support the view that MBPP could serve as a promising form of training for fine motor sport performance, cognitive functions, and specific psychological status, such that it warrants further study.

Resting Theta/Beta Ratios Mediate the Relationship Between Motor Competence and Inhibition in Children With Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder

Despite that previous studies have supported relationships between motor ability and inhibitory function, and between resting brain theta/beta power ratios (TBR) and inhibition in children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), little research has examined the mechanism within these relationships. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether TBR would mediate the relationship between motor ability and inhibitory function. A total of 71 children with ADHD were recorded resting electroencephalographic (EEG) data during eyes-open. Motor abilities were evaluated by Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2 (MABC-2) and inhibitory ability were assessed by a modified Eriksen’s flanker task. The results of mediation analyses revealed that TBR could completely mediate the relationship between motor competence and response speed (indirect effect = −0.0004, 95% CI [−0.0010, −0.0001]) and accuracy (indirect effect = 0.0003, 95% CI [0.0000, 0.0010]) in the incongruent condition of the flanker task. This study suggests that TBR may be one of the mechanisms between motor ability and inhibition function in children with ADHD.

Effects of Chinese Mind-Body Exercises on Executive Function in Middle-Aged and Older Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Chinese mind-body exercises (CMBEs) are positively associated with executive function (EF), but their effects on EF, from synthesized evidence using systematic and meta-analytic reviews, have not been conducted. Therefore, the present systematic review with meta-analysis attempted to determine whether CMBEs affect EF and its sub-domains, as well as how exercise, sample, and study characteristics moderate the causal relationship between CMBEs and EF in middle-aged and older adults. Seven electronic databases were searched for relevant studies published from the inception of each database through June 2020 (PubMed, Web of Science, Embase, Cochrane Controlled Trials Register, Wanfang, China National Knowledge Infrastructure, and Weipu). Randomized controlled trials with at least one outcome measure of CMBEs on EF in adults of mean age ≥ 50 years with intact cognition or mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and with or without chronic diseases were included. A total of 29 studies (N = 2,934) ultimately were included in this study. The results indicated that CMBEs improved overall EF (Standardized Mean Differences = 0.28, 95% CI 0.12, 0.44), as well as its sub-domains of working memory and shifting. The beneficial effects of CMBEs on EF occurred regardless of type (Tai Chi, Qigong), frequency of group classes (≤2 time, 3-4 time, ≥5 times), session time (≤45 min, 46-60 min), total training time (≥150 to ≤300 min, >300 min), and length of the CMBEs (4-12 week, 13-26 week, and >26 week), in addition to that more frequent participation in both group classes and home practice sessions (≥5 times per week) resulted in more beneficial effects. The positive effects of CMBEs on EF were also demonstrated, regardless of participants mean age (50-65 years old, >65 years old), sex (only female, both), and cognitive statuses (normal, MCI, not mentioned), health status (with chronic disease, without chronic disease), as well as training mode (group class, group class plus home practice) and study language (English, Chinese). This review thus suggests that CMBEs can be used as an effective method with small to moderate and positive effects in enhancing EF, and that more frequent group classes and home practice sessions may increase these effects. However, certain limitations, including strictly design studies, limited ES (effect size) samples for specific variables, and possible biased publications, required paying particular attention to, for further exploring the effects of CMBEs on EF.

The Effect of Acute High-Intensity Interval Training on Executive Function: A Systematic Review

Acute high-intensity interval training (HIIT) is a time-efficient strategy to improve physical health; however, the effect of acute HIIT on executive function (EF) is unclear. The aim of this study was to systematically review the existing evidence and quantify the effect of acute HIIT on overall EF and the factors affecting the relationship between acute HIIT and EF. Standard databases (i.e., the PubMed, Medline, Scopus, and CENTRAL databases) were searched for studies that examined the effect of acute HIIT on EF and were published up until January 2021. The overall EF and factors grouped by three categories, namely, EF assessment characteristics, exercise intervention characteristics, and sample and study characteristics, were analyzed by percentage of comparison for positive or null/negative effects. Overall, 35 of 57 outcomes (61%) across 24 studies revealed that acute HIIT has a positive effect on overall EF. In terms of factors, the results indicated that among EF assessment characteristics, groups, inhibition, updating, and the assessment occurring within 30 min may moderate the effect of acute HIIT on EF, while among exercise intervention characteristics, total time within 11 to 30 min may moderate the effect. Finally, among sample characteristics, age under 40 years may moderate the effect. Acute HIIT is generally considered a viable alternative for eliciting EF gains, with factors related to EF components, timing of the assessment, exercise total time, and age potentially moderating the effect of HIIT on EF.

The Combined Effects of Obesity and Cardiorespiratory Fitness Are Associated with Response Inhibition: An ERP Study

Obesity and cardiorespiratory fitness exhibit negative and positive impacts, respectively, on executive function. Nevertheless, the combined effects of these two factors on executive function remain unclear. This study investigated the combined effects of obesity and cardiorespiratory fitness on response inhibition of executive function from both behavioral and neuroelectric perspectives. Ninety-six young adults aged between 18 and 25 years were recruited and assigned into four groups: the high cardiorespiratory fitness with normal weight (NH), high cardiorespiratory fitness with obesity (OH), low cardiorespiratory fitness with normal weight (NL), and low cardiorespiratory fitness with obesity (OL) groups. The stop-signal task and its induced P3 component of event-related potentials was utilized to index response inhibition. The participants with higher cardiorespiratory fitness (i.e., the NH and OH groups) demonstrated better behavioral performance (i.e., shorter response times and higher accuracy levels), as well as shorter stop-signal response times and larger P3 amplitudes than their counterparts with low cardiorespiratory fitness (i.e., the NL and OL groups). The study provides first-hand evidence of the substantial effects of cardiorespiratory fitness on the response inhibition, including evidence that the detrimental effects of obesity might be overcome by high cardiorespiratory fitness.

Effects of Exercise Training Interventions on Executive Function in Older Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Background

Chronic exercise training has been shown be to positively associated with executive function (EF) in older adults. However, whether the exercise training effect on EF is affected by moderators including the specific sub-domain of EF, exercise prescription variables, and sample characteristics remains unknown.

Objectives

This systematic and meta-analytic review of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) investigated the effects of exercise training on EF in older adults and explored potential moderators underlying the effects of exercise training on EF.

Methods

In accordance with the PRISMA guidelines, the electronic databases MEDLINE (PubMed) and EMBASE (Scopus) were searched from January 2003 to November 2019. All studies identified for inclusion were peer-reviewed and published in English. To be included, studies had to report findings from older (> 55 years old), cognitively normal adults or adults with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) randomized to an exercise training or a control group. The risk of bias in each study was appraised using the Cochrane risk-of-bias tool. Fixed-effects models were used to compare the effects of exercise training and control conditions on EF assessed at baseline and post-intervention. In addition, subgroup analyses were performed for three moderators (i.e., the specific sub-domain of EF, exercise prescription variables, and sample characteristics).

Results

Thirty-three RCTs were included. Overall, exercise training was associated with a significant small improvement in EF [Q(106) = 260.09, Hedges’ g = 0.21; p < 0.01]. The EF sub-domain moderator was not significant [Q(2) = 4.33, p > 0.05], showing that the EF improvement in response to exercise is evident for measures of inhibition, updating, and shifting. Regarding exercise prescription variables, results were significantly moderated by frequency of exercise training [Q(1) = 10.86, p < 0.05], revealing that effect sizes (ESs) were larger for moderate frequency (g = 0.31) as compared to low frequency exercise (g = 0.15). The results also showed type of exercise training moderated the ESs [Q(4) = 26.18, p < 0.05], revealing that ESs were largest for other forms of exercise (g = 0.44), followed by Tai Chi and yoga (g = 0.38), resistance exercise (g = 0.22), aerobic exercise (g = 0.14), and combined exercise (g = 0.10). In addition, The results showed moderated length of training the ESs [Q(2) = 16.64, p < 0.05], revealing that ESs were largest for short length (g = 0.32), followed by mid length (g = 0.26) and long length (g = 0.09). No significant difference in effects was observed as a function of exercise intensity [Q(1) = 2.87 p > 0.05] and session time [Q(2) = 0.21, p > 0.05]. Regarding sample characteristics, the results were significantly moderated by age [Q(2) = 20.64, p < 0.05], with significant benefits for young-old (55–65 years old) (g = 0.30) and mid-old (66–75 years old) (g = 0.25), but no effect on EF for old-old (more than 75 years old). The results were also significantly moderated by physical fitness levels [Q(1) = 10.80, p < 0.05], revealing that ESs were larger for sedentary participants (g = 0.33) as compared to physically fit participants (g = 0.16). In addition, results were also significantly moderated by cognitive status [Q(1) = 11.44, p < 0.05], revealing that ESs were larger for participants with cognitively normal (g = 0.26) as compared to those with mild cognitive impairment (g = 0.08). No significant differences in effects were observed as a function of sex [Q(2) = 5.38, p > 0.05].

Conclusions

Exercise training showed a small beneficial effect on EF in older adults and the magnitude of the effect was different across some moderators.

Integrity of the Prefronto-striato-thalamo-prefrontal Loop Predicts Tai Chi Chuan Training Effects on Cognitive Task-switching in Middle-aged and Older Adults

Tai Chi Chuan (TCC) exercise has been shown to improve cognitive task-switching performance in older adults, but the extent of this positive effect varies among individuals. Past research also shows that brain white matter integrity could predict behavioral gains of cognitive and motor learning. Therefore, in this randomized controlled trial (NCT02270320), we examined whether baseline integrity of three target white matter tract groups was predictive of task-switching improvement after 12-week TCC training in middle-aged and older adults. Thirty-eight eligible participants were randomly assigned to a TCC group (n = 19) and a control group (n = 19). Cognitive task-switching and physical performances were collected before and after training. Brain diffusion spectrum MR images were acquired before training and the general fractional anisotropy (GFA) of each target white matter tract group was calculated to indicate baseline white matter integrity of that group. Correlation and regression analyses between these GFAs and post-training task-switching improvement were analyzed using adjusted p-values. After 12 weeks, significant task-switching and physical performance improvements were found only in the TCC group. Moreover, higher baseline GFA of the prefronto-striato-thalamo-prefrontal loop fibers (r = −0.63, p = 0.009), but not of the prefronto-parietal/occipital (r = −0.55, p = 0.026) and callosal (r = −0.35, p = 0.189) fiber groups, was associated with greater reductions of task-switching errors after the TCC training. Multiple regression analysis revealed that baseline GFA of the prefronto-striato-thalamo-prefrontal loop fibers was the only independent white matter integrity predictor of task-switching error reductions after TCC training (β = −0.620, adjusted R² change = 0.265, p = 0.009). These findings not only highlight the important role of baseline integrity of the prefronto-striatal circuits in influencing the extent of positive cognitive task-switching effects from short-term TCC training, but also implicate that preserving good white matter integrity in the aging process may be crucial in order to gain the best cognitive effects of exercise interventions.

Up-regulation of proactive control is associated with beneficial effects of a childhood gymnastics program on response preparation and working memory

The current study focused on the effects of an 8-week motor skill-based physical activity (i.e., gymnastics) program on the contingent negative variation derived from event-related brain potentials (CNV-ERP) during a working memory task in children. Children aged 7-10 years old were assigned to a gymnastics group (n = 26) or a wait-list control group (n = 24). The gymnastics group engaged in a gymnastics program whereas children in the control group were asked to maintain their typical routine during the intervention period. Working memory performance was measured by a delayed-matching working memory task, accompanied by CNV-ERP collection. The results revealed significant improvement of response accuracy from pre-test to post-test in the gymnastic group regardless of memory demands. Moreover, significant increase from pre-test to post-test in the initial CNV was observed in the gymnastic group regardless of memory demands. Bivariate correlations further indicated that, in the gymnastic group, increases in response accuracy from pre-test to post-test were correlated with increases in initial CNV from pre-test to post-test in task conditions with lower and higher memory loads. Overall, the current findings suggest that up-regulation of proactive control may characterize the beneficial effects of childhood motor skill-based physical activity on working memory.

Effects of Parental Education on Screen Time, Sleep Disturbances, and Psychosocial Adaptation Among Asian Preschoolers: A Randomized Controlled Study

PURPOSE

A recent increase in screen time during early childhood has adversely affected the sleep and psychosocial health of children; however, limited information is available regarding effective interventions to reduce the screen time among them. This study aimed to investigate the effect of a parental educational program on screen use, sleep quality, and psychosocial adaptation among preschoolers.

DESIGN AND METHODS

A clustered randomized controlled study with a parallel-group design was conducted. Preschoolers with a screen time of ≥2 h/day and their parents were recruited. In total, 14 kindergartens containing 129 parent-child dyads were randomly allocated to either the experimental group (receiving parental education, N = 63 dyads) or the control group (daily activities, N = 66 dyads). Data were collected before and after the intervention. A screen time questionnaire, the Children's Sleep Habits Questionnaire, and the Pediatric Symptom checklist-17 were provided to the participants. A linear mixed-model analysis was performed to examine the efficacy of the intervention.

RESULTS

After the intervention, the screen time of children in the experimental group was significantly reduced (effect size: 0.83, p < .001), and they presented improved sleep quality (effect size: 0.57, p = .01) and attention score (effect size: 0.77, p = .02) for psychosocial adaptation.

CONCLUSIONS

Parental education is an effective intervention for reducing screen time and improving sleep quality and attention among preschoolers.

PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS

Healthcare professionals should consider implementing parental educational programs to reduce screen time, and thus improve the sleep quality and psychosocial health of preschoolers.

Systematic review of the acute and chronic effects of high-intensity interval training on executive function across the lifespan

Research regarding the effects of high-intensity interval training (HIIT) on executive function has grown exponentially in recent years. However, there has been no comprehensive review of the current state of literature. Therefore, the aim of this systematic review is to summarize previous research regarding the acute and chronic effects of HIIT on executive function across the lifespan and highlight future research directions. The results indicated that acute bouts of HIIT has a positive effect on inhibition in children/adolescents and adults, and further that chronic HIIT benefits inhibition and working memory in children. More research employing chronic interventions, focusing on middle-aged and older adults, and examining the effects on the working memory and cognitive flexibility domains of executive function are needed. Future research should also focus on a) the use of stronger research designs, b) the effects of HIIT dosage/modality, c) consideration of individual differences, d) possible underlying mechanisms, and e) examining the feasibility of translating HIIT to real-word settings.

Acute Aerobic Exercise Ameliorates Cravings and Inhibitory Control in Heroin Addicts: Evidence From Event-Related Potentials and Frequency Bands

Objective

Aerobic exercise is considered a potential adjunctive treatment for heroin addicts, but little is known about its mechanisms. Less severe cravings and greater inhibitory control have been associated with reduced substance use. The aim of the current study was to determine the effects, as measured by behavioral and neuroelectric measurements, of acute aerobic exercise on heroin cravings and inhibitory control induced by heroin-related conditions among heroin addicts.

Design

The present study used a randomized controlled design.

Methods

Sixty male heroin addicts who met the DSM-V criteria were recruited from the Isolated Detoxification Center in China and randomly assigned to one of two groups; one group completed a 20-min bout of acute stationary cycle exercise with vigorous intensity (70-80% of maximum heart rate, exercise group), and the other group rested (control group). The self-reported heroin craving levels and inhibitory control outcomes (measured by a heroin-related Go/No-Go task) were assessed pre- and post-exercise.

Results

The heroin craving levels in the exercise group were significantly attenuated during, immediately following, and 40 min after vigorous exercise compared with before exercise; moreover, during exercise, a smaller craving was observed in the exercise group than in the control group. Acute exercise also facilitated inhibition performance in the No-Go task. After exercise, the participants' accuracy, the N2d amplitudes, and the theta two band spectral power during the No-Go conditions were higher in the exercise group than in the control group. Interestingly, significant correlations between the changes in these sensitive measurements and the changes in cravings were observed.

Conclusions

This is the first empirical study to demonstrate that aerobic exercise may be efficacious for reducing heroin cravings and promoting inhibitory control among heroin addicts.

Exercise Behavior and Mood during the COVID-19 Pandemic in Taiwan: Lessons for the Future

The Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic and its associated governmental recommendations and restrictions have influenced many aspects of human life, including exercise and mental health. This study aims to explore the influence of COVID-19 on exercise behavior and its impact on mood states, as well as predict changes in exercise behavior during a similar future pandemic in Taiwan. A cross-sectional online survey was conducted between 7 April and 13 May 2020 (n = 1114). Data on exercise behavior pre and during the pandemic and mood states were collected. A cumulative link model was used to predict changes in exercise frequency during a similar future pandemic by exercise frequency during the pandemic. A linear model was used to predict the influence of exercise frequency before and during the pandemic on mood states during the pandemic. A total of 71.2%, 67.3%, and 58.3% of respondents maintained their exercise intensity, frequency, and duration, respectively, during the pandemic. Frequent exercisers are more likely to maintain their exercise frequency during a similar pandemic (p < 0.001). Higher exercise frequencies during the pandemic were associated with better mood states (p < 0.05). Moreover, the effects of prepandemic exercise frequency on mood states are moderated by changes in exercise frequency during the pandemic (p < 0.05). Additionally, maintenance of exercise frequency during a pandemic specifically for frequent exercisers are recommended to preserve mood states. These results may provide evidence for health policies on exercise promotion and mental health before and during a future pandemic.

Acute High-Intensity Interval Exercise Improves Inhibitory Control Among Young Adult Males With Obesity

Objective

The aim of the present study was to examine the influence of acute high-intensity interval exercise (HIIE) on neural and behavioral measures of inhibitory control in young male adults with obesity.

Design

The present study employed a within-subjects design.

Methods

Sixteen male adults with obesity [body mass index (BMI) > 28 kg/m²] were recruited. Reaction time and response accuracy of the Flanker task as well as P3 and late positive potential (LPP) components of the event-related potential (ERP) were measured following HIIE and a sedentary control, in counterbalanced order. The HIIE session consisted of 30 min of stationary cycle exercise (5-min warm-up, 20-min HIIE, and a 5-min cool-down), whereas the control condition consisted of a time and attention-matched sedentary resting session.

Results

Faster response times were observed following HIIE regardless of Flanker task condition. Faster and more accurate responses were also observed for congruent relative to incongruent conditions across both sessions. Relative to the neuroelectric data, acute HIIE resulted in increased LPP amplitude but did not affect P3 amplitude.

Conclusion

Collectively, a single bout of HIIE has a general beneficial effect on basic information processing and inhibitory control among young adult males with obesity. Acute HIIE was found to impact LPP amplitude, but not the P3, which may suggest a modulation in the ability to successfully maintain attention and filter irrelevant information to achieve successful cognitive inhibition. Future research is warranted to extend these findings to a larger sample size that includes both genders, other cognitive functions, and a comparison of different modes of exercise.

Age, period and birth cohort effects on the prevalence of overweight and obesity among Taiwanese adolescents: a national population-based study

BACKGROUND

The age-period-cohort effects on youth overweight and obesity among junior and senior high school students in Taiwan is not clear.

METHODS

We utilized the 2006-14 nationally representative School Physical Fitness Dataset. Based on the International Obesity Task Force cut-off criteria, a log-linear age-period-cohort analysis was performed to determine the influence of age, period and cohort on the trend in being overweight, obese and severely obese for both sexes.

RESULTS

The final dataset included 1073173 individuals (n = 520 382 boys and 552 791 girls). For girls, the prevalence of overweight and obesity declined with age, and the prevalence of overweight declined over time. For boys, the prevalence of overweight and obesity declined with age and over time from 2006 to 2014. The prevalence of severe obesity declined over time and increased with age for the boys. The younger birth cohorts had greater odds of being overweight, obese and severely obese than the older birth cohorts.

CONCLUSIONS

After differentiating the age-period-cohort effects, the data suggested a decreasing temporal trend in overweight and obesity among adolescents in Taiwan from 2006 to 2014. Among the birth cohorts of the 1990s, the younger cohorts had greater odds of being overweight and obese than the older cohorts when they reached adolescence.

Cardiorespiratory Fitness, Age, and Multiple Aspects of Executive Function Among Preadolescent Children

Cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) and age have been positively associated with children's executive function; however, few studies have simultaneously assessed the associations between both variables and different aspects of executive function among preadolescent children. Therefore, the purpose of the current study was to evaluate the simultaneous influence of CRF and age on three aspects of executive function. Preadolescent children's (n = 338) CRF levels were estimated based on the Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run (PACER) test and then grouped into two age groups (Young Group: 9-10 years old and Old Group: 11-12 years old). Hierarchical multiple regression analyses were conducted for the 2-back task, the Flanker task, and the Local-Global task to assess the influence of CRF and age on working memory, inhibitory control, and shifting, respectively. Preadolescent children with greater CRF levels were associated with higher response accuracy during the 2-back task and shorter response time across congruent and incongruent conditions of the Flanker task, whereas older children showed generally superior cognitive performance. Notably, only the Old Group's CRF was positively correlated with the accuracy in the switching condition of the Local-Global task. These findings suggest that CRF or age was generally associated with better performances in working memory and inhibitory control aspects of executive function. Furthermore, the positive influence of CRF on shifting may be modulated by developed cortical maturation.

Effects of Brain Breaks Videos on the Motives for the Physical Activity of Malaysians with Type-2 Diabetes Mellitus

Brain Breaks videos are web-based structured physical activity (PA) videos that aim at stimulating an interest in learning and promoting health. Exercise is one of the important treatment regimens for people with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Thus, the objective of this study was to determine the effects that Brain Breaks videos have on the motives for PA, as measured by the Physical Activity and Leisure Motivation Scale-Malay (PALMS-M), and the amount of PA, as measured by the International Physical Activity Questionnaire-Malay (IPAQ-M), in T2DM patients (the most common type of diabetes mellitus patients). This study was conducted using a randomized, double-blind design and grouped subjects under two research conditions: an experimental group given Brain Breaks videos and a control group. Purposive sampling was employed to recruit 70 T2DM patients (male = 39, female = 31) with the mean age of 57.6 (SD = 8.5) from Hospital Universiti Sains Malaysia, Kelantan. Over a four-month period, the participants in the experimental group were asked to perform PA daily based on a Brain Breaks video (10 min in duration) that was shared through a WhatsApp group. All participants from both groups answered the PALMS-M questionnaire five times: pre-intervention, the end of the first month, second month, and third month, and post-intervention. A repeated measure multivariate analysis of variance and a repeated measure analysis of variance were performed for the analyses of the data. The results demonstrated that four (appearance, others’ expectations, physical condition, and mastery) out of eight motives for PA produced a significant mean score difference between the two study groups. All eight motives for PA showed an upward trend for the experimental group during the study period, while the control group showed a downward trend for all motives during the study period. As for the amount of PA, both groups showed significant differences (p = 0.001). The amount of PA increased in the experimental group during the study period, while it decreased in the control group. Therefore, Brain Breaks videos can be considered as an effective intervention for motivating T2DM patients for PA and improving their amount of PA.

Acute coordinative exercise ameliorates general and food-cue related cognitive function in obese adolescents

Whether the acute coordinative exercise could affect the inhibitory control and food-cue related attention in obese adolescents remains understudied. Therefore, this study used the Stroop test and the food-cue related Stroop test to explore the impacts of 20 min of acute coordinative exercise on the cognitive tests involving inhibitory control and attentional bias towards food-cue related stimuli, respectively, in obese adolescents. Thirty-eight obese adolescents (mean age = 14.63 ± 0.69 years) were equally divided into exercise and control groups. The cognitive tests (i.e., the Stroop test and the food-cue related Stroop test) and hunger scores were conducted and assessed before and after an intervention. The exercise group had significantly larger negative pre-post response time difference in the congruent (-1.04 ± 0.29 ms) and incongruent (-5.76 ± 1.66 ms) conditions of the Stroop test than the control group (ps < 0.01), and a smaller post-interference (1.13 ± 0.14) than the pre-interference (1.31 ± 0.14, p = 0.04). Moreover, a significantly larger negative pre-post response time difference on the food-cue related Stroop test was observed in the exercise group (-4.42 ± 7.20 ms) than the control group (1.76 ± 8.37 ms, p = 0.02). Collectively, an acute coordinative exercise session could induce superior inhibitory control and less attentional bias towards food-cue related stimuli in obese adolescents.

The association between physical fitness parameters and white matter microstructure in older adults: A diffusion tensor imaging study

The present study was designed to examine whether different measures of physical fitness are differentially associated with white matter (WM) microstructure in older adults. Fifty-six healthy adults (mean age: 59.14 years) completed a standardized evaluation of physical fitness measurements (e.g., VO_2peak , push-ups, abdominal sit-ups, sit-and-reach, t test, and vertical jump). Fractional anisotropy (FA), an index of WM microstructure, was assessed using diffusion tensor imaging. The findings indicated that the cardiorespiratory fitness was positively associated with FA in the right cingulum hippocampus and the left cerebral peduncle. However, other physical fitness metrics were not significantly associated with FA in any region. These results suggest that cardiorespiratory fitness, but not other metrics of fitness, might be sensitive to WM microstructure.

The effects of negative air ions on cognitive function: an event-related potential (ERP) study

This study investigated the effects of negative air ions (NAIs) on cognitive function in young male adults, specifically examined whether NAIs could influence the behavioral and neuroelectrical indices of inhibition. Thirty-nine young adults participated in the NAI and the control sessions in a counterbalanced order. A computerized Stroop color-word test was administrated, and N2 of the event-related potential was recorded and then analyzed. The results revealed that participants in the NAI session demonstrated shorter reaction times and higher accuracy for both Stroop congruent and incongruent trials. Larger N2 amplitudes were also observed in the NAI session than in the control session, whereas no alterations in the latencies were found. These findings suggest that NAIs resulted in a general improvement in both basic information processing and inhibition. This facilitation may be related to an enhanced neuronal processing or alertness status reflected by larger amplitudes of the N2 component.

Effects of Exercise Modes on Neural Processing of Working Memory in Late Middle-Aged Adults: An fMRI Study

Recent studies have highlighted the importance of regular exercise on cognitive function in aging populations, with aerobic exercise and cardiovascular fitness having received the largest amount of research attention. However, the relationship between exercise mode and cognitive function underlying behavioral modification and neural activation remains unknown. The present study, therefore, sought to examine the associations between different exercise modes and the working memory (WM) aspect of executive function as well as its task-evoked brain activation in the late middle-aged population. Seventy late middle-aged adults were classified into open-skill, closed-skill, or irregular exercise groups based on their participation in exercise activities prior to the study and then performed a spatial working memory (SWM) task while undergoing functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scanning. The results revealed that exercise groups, regardless of exercise modes, showed better SWM and physical fitness performance. Additionally, the open-skill group exhibited greater brain activation in the prefrontal lobe, anterior cingulate cortex/supplementary motor area (ACC/SMA), and hippocampus than those in the closed-skill group, suggesting a mode-sensitive compensatory mechanism in late middle-aged adults. These findings indicate that exercise promotes cognitive health, improves WM, and enhances neurocognitive scaffolding in late middle-aged adults and further suggest that various exercise modes can effectively modulate frontal and hippocampal function in the face of age-related neurocognitive declines, implications that may inform the development of exercise programs for the elderly.

Effects of Acute Exercise Duration on the Inhibition Aspect of Executive Function in Late Middle-Aged Adults

Objective: This study investigated whether acute exercise duration affects inhibition in late middle-aged adults. Methods: Over four separate days, 40 late middle-aged adults completed, in a counterbalanced order, three exercise sessions consisting of single bouts of moderate-to-vigorous intensity cycling, with the main acute exercise durations being 10, 20, and 45 min, and a control session consisting of 30 min of reading. Their inhibition performance was then evaluated by administration of the Stroop test following each session. Results: The participants had shorter mean response times for both the congruent and neutral conditions of the Stroop following the acute exercise lasting 20 min than they did after the control session. The acute exercise lasting 20 min also resulted in shorter response times for both conditions of the Stroop than the acute exercise lasting only 10 min. Meanwhile, the acute exercise lasting 45 min resulted in a shorter mean response time for the neutral Stroop condition than did the control session. Finally, the acute exercise lasting 20 min resulted in the shortest mean response time of all four sessions for the Stroop incongruent condition. Conclusion: The above findings suggest that the moderate-to-vigorous intensity acute exercise lasting 20 min facilitated multiple cognitive function domains in general, whereas the exercise sessions of shorter and longer duration had negligible effects on executive function in the late middle-aged adults. These results highlight the need to consider the duration of any moderate-to-vigorous intensity exercise when developing acute exercise programs to facilitate executive function in aged populations.

Effects of Acute Aerobic and Resistance Exercise on Cognitive Function and Salivary Cortisol Responses

This study aimed to determine the comparative effectiveness of aerobic vs. resistance exercise on cognitive function. In addition, salivary cortisol responses, as an indicator of arousal-related neuroendocrine responses, were assessed as a potential mechanism underlying the effects of these 2 modes of acute exercise on cognition. Forty-two young adults were recruited and performed the Stroop task after 1 session of aerobic exercise, resistance exercise, and a sedentary condition performed on separate days. Saliva samples were collected at baseline and immediately and 30 min after treatment conditions. Acute exercise, regardless of exercise modality, improved multiple aspects of cognitive function as reflected by the Stroop task. Cortisol responses were higher after both modes of acute exercise compared with the sedentary condition and were higher at baseline and 30 min afterward compared with immediately after treatment conditions. These findings suggest that acute exercise of moderate intensity facilitates cognitive function, and, although salivary cortisol is influenced by acute exercise, levels were not related to improvements in cognition.