Molecular-phylogenetic analyses of Ixodes species from South Africa suggest an African origin of bird-associated exophilic ticks (subgenus Trichotoixodes)

BACKGROUND

Among hard ticks (Acari: Ixodidae), the genus Ixodes comprises the highest number of species, which in turn are most numerous in the Afrotropical zoogeographic region. In South Africa extensive morphological studies have been performed on Ixodes species but only few reports included molecular analyses.

METHODS

In this study, 58 Ixodes spp. ticks, collected from ten mammalian and eight avian host species in South Africa, were molecularly and phylogenetically analyzed. In addition, a newly collected sample of the Palearctic Ixodes trianguliceps was included in the analyses.

RESULTS

Among the ticks from South Africa, 11 species were identified morphologically. The majority of ticks from mammals represented the Ixodes pilosus group with two species (n = 20), followed by ticks resembling Ixodes rubicundus (n = 18) and Ixodes alluaudi (n = 3). In addition, single specimens of Ixodes rhabdomysae, Ixodes ugandanus, Ixodes nairobiensis and Ixodes simplex were also found. Considering bird-infesting ticks, Ixodes theilerae (n = 7), Ixodes uriae (n = 4) and ticks most similar to Ixodes daveyi (provisionally named I. cf. daveyi, n = 2) were identified. Molecular analyses confirmed two species in the I. pilosus group and a new species (I. cf. rubicundus) closely related to I. rubicundus sensu stricto. Phylogenetic trees based on concatenated mitochondrial or mitochondrial and nuclear gene sequences indicated that the subgenus Afrixodes forms a monophyletic clade with bird-associated exophilic ticks (subgenus Trichotoixodes). Ixodes trianguliceps clustered separately whereas I. alluaudi with their morphologically assigned subgenus, Exopalpiger.

CONCLUSIONS

Phylogenetic analyses shed new lights on the relationships of Ixodes subgenera when including multiple sequences from subgenus Afrixodes and African as well as Palearctic species of subgenera Trichotoixodes and Exopalpiger. Subgenera Afrixodes and bird-associated Trichotoixodes share common ancestry, suggesting that the latter might have also originated in Africa. Regarding the subgenus Exopalpiger, I. alluaudi is properly assigned as it clusters among different Australian Ixodes, whereas I. trianguliceps should be excluded.

The occurrence of insectivores (Mammalia, Eulipotyphla) in Georgia from 1864 through to 2022

Background

Of the 108 species that occur in Georgia, ten species are insectivores belonging to the order Eulipotyphla. Forty percent of them are endemic to the Caucasus and sixty percent are endemic to the Middle East, including the Caucasus. Up to now, no comprehensive data on the distribution of insectivores in Georgia have been available.The aggregated standardised data on the occurrence of small mammals can be applied to resource management, biogeography, ecological and systematic studies and to the planning of nature conservation efforts. Hereafter, the attempt to provide accumulated in one paper all known points of insectivores' occurrence in Georgia and make it available to researchers via the open repository GBIF is presented.The dataset is based on both literature data from 30 published sources (251 records), collection vouchers from four main zoological collections containing vouchers from Georgia (415 records) and authors' fieldwork results (217 records). The occurrence points of the specimens stored in collections and museums have been extracted from museum voucher labels and museum journals.

New information

All known sampling points of insectivores in Georgia are collected in one dataset for the first time. Our field surveillance data reach about 24.6% of the records. Most of our data collected since 2003 have not been published yet. About 28.4% of the records have been recovered from publications in Russian and Georgian languages and 47% of the dataset records are derived from collections.

Detection of Pneumocystis and Morphological Description of Fungal Distribution and Severity of Infection in Thirty-Six Mammal Species

Pneumocystis spp. are thought to adapt to the lungs of potentially all mammals. However, the full host range, fungal burden and severity of infection are unknown for many species. In this study, lung tissue samples originating from 845 animals of 31 different families of eight mammal orders were screened by in situ hybridization (ISH) using a universal 18S rRNA probe for Pneumocystis, followed by hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining for determining histopathological lesions. A total of 216 (26%) samples were positive for Pneumocystis spp., encompassing 36 of 98 investigated mammal species, with 17 of them being described for the first time for the presence of Pneumocystis spp. The prevalence of Pneumocystis spp. as assessed by ISH varied greatly among different mammal species while the organism load was overall low, suggesting a status of colonization or subclinical infection. Severe Pneumocystis pneumonia seemed to be very rare. For most of the Pneumocystis-positive samples, comparative microscopic examination of H&E- and ISH-stained serial sections revealed an association of the fungus with minor lesions, consistent with an interstitial pneumonia. Colonization or subclinical infection of Pneumocystis in the lung might be important in many mammal species because the animals may serve as a reservoir.

A NEW EIMERIAN (APICOMPLEXA: EIMERIIDAE) FROM EASTERN MOLE, SCALOPUS AQUATICUS (MAMMALIA: EULIPOTYPHLA: TALPIDAE), IN CENTRAL ARKANSAS, WITH ADDITIONAL INFORMATION ON CYCLOSPORA YATESI MCALLISTER, MOTRIUK-SMITH, AND KERR

The eastern mole, Scalopus aquaticus (L.), is a common inhabitant of loamy soils in Canada, the eastern United States, and Mexico. Seven coccidian parasites have been previously reported from S. aquaticus, including 3 cyclosporans and 4 eimerians from hosts taken in Arkansas and Texas. A single S. aquaticus, collected in February 2022 in central Arkansas, was found to be passing oocysts of 2 coccidians, a new species of Eimeria, and Cyclospora yatesiMcAllister, Motriuk-Smith, and Kerr, 2018. Oocysts of Eimeria brotheri n. sp. are ellipsoidal (sometimes ovoidal) with a smooth bilayered wall, measure 14.0 × 9.9 μm, and have a length/width (L/W) ratio of 1.5; both micropyle and oocyst residua are absent, but a single polar granule is present. Sporocysts are ellipsoidal and measure 8.1 × 4.6 μm, L/W 1.8; a flattened to knoblike Stieda body as well as a rounded sub-Stieda body are present. The sporocyst residuum is composed of an irregular mass of large granules. Additional metrical and morphological information is provided on oocysts of C. yatesi. This study demonstrates that although several coccidians were previously documented from this host, additional S. aquaticus should be examined for coccidians from Arkansas as well as other parts of its range.

The Fast and the Furriest: Investigating the Rate of Selection on Mammalian Toxins

The evolution of venom and the selection pressures that act on toxins have been increasingly researched within toxinology in the last two decades, in part due to the exceptionally high rates of diversifying selection observed in animal toxins. In 2015, Sungar and Moran proposed the 'two-speed' model of toxin evolution linking evolutionary age of a group to the rates of selection acting on toxins but due to a lack of data, mammals were not included as less than 30 species of venomous mammal have been recorded, represented by elusive species which produce small amounts of venom. Due to advances in genomics and transcriptomics, the availability of toxin sequences from venomous mammals has been increasing. Using branch- and site-specific selection models, we present the rates of both episodic and pervasive selection acting upon venomous mammal toxins as a group for the first time. We identified seven toxin groups present within venomous mammals, representing Chiroptera, Eulipotyphla and Monotremata: KLK1, Plasminogen Activator, Desmallipins, PACAP, CRiSP, Kunitz Domain One and Kunitz Domain Two. All but one group (KLK1) was identified by our results to be evolving under both episodic and pervasive diversifying selection with four toxin groups having sites that were implicated in the fitness of the animal by TreeSAAP (Selection on Amino Acid Properties). Our results suggest that venomous mammal ecology, behaviour or genomic evolution are the main drivers of selection, although evolutionary age may still be a factor. Our conclusion from these results indicates that mammalian toxins are following the two-speed model of selection, evolving predominately under diversifying selection, fitting in with other younger venomous taxa like snakes and cone snails-with high amounts of accumulating mutations, leading to more novel adaptions in their toxins.

Orthohantaviruses in Reservoir and Atypical Hosts in the Czech Republic: Spillover Infection and Indication of Virus-Specific Tissue Tropism

Orthohantaviruses (genus Orthohantavirus) are a diverse group of viruses that are closely associated with their natural hosts (rodents, shrews, and moles). Several orthohantaviruses cause severe disease in humans. Central and western Europe are areas with emerging orthohantavirus occurrences. In our study, several orthohantaviruses, including the pathogenic Kurkino virus (KURV), were detected in their natural hosts trapped at several study sites in the Czech Republic. KURV was detected mainly in its typical host, the striped field mouse (Apodemus agrarius). Nevertheless, spillover infections were also detected in wood mice (Apodemus sylvaticus) and common voles (Microtus arvalis). Similarly, Tula virus (TULV) was found primarily in common voles, and events of spillover to rodents of other host species, including Apodemus spp., were recorded. In addition, unlike most previous studies, different tissues were sampled and compared to assess their suitability for orthohantavirus screening and possible tissue tropism. Our data suggest possible virus-specific tissue tropism in rodent hosts. TULV was most commonly detected in the lung tissue, whereas KURV was more common in the liver, spleen, and brain. Moreover, Seewis and Asikkala viruses were detected in randomly found common shrews (Sorex araneus). In conclusion, we have demonstrated the presence of human-pathogenic KURV and the potentially pathogenic TULV in their typical hosts as well as their spillover to atypical host species belonging to another family. Furthermore, we suggest the possibility of virus-specific tissue tropism of orthohantaviruses in their natural hosts. IMPORTANCE Orthohantaviruses (genus Orthohantavirus, family Hantaviridae) are a diverse group of globally distributed viruses that are closely associated with their natural hosts. Some orthohantaviruses are capable of infecting humans and causing severe disease. Orthohantaviruses are considered emerging pathogens due to their ever-increasing diversity and increasing numbers of disease cases. We report the detection of four different orthohantaviruses in rodents and shrews in the Czech Republic. Most viruses were found in their typical hosts, Kurkino virus (KURV) in striped field mice (Apodemus agrarius), Tula virus (TULV) in common voles (Microtus arvalis), and Seewis virus in common shrews (Sorex araneus). Nevertheless, spillover infections of atypical host species were also recorded for KURV, TULV, and another shrew-borne orthohantavirus, Asikkala virus. In addition, indications of virus-specific patterns of tissue tropism were observed. Our results highlight the circulation of several orthohantaviruses, including KURV, which is pathogenic to humans, among rodents and shrews in the Czech Republic.

Antimicrobial Activity of Cathelicidin-Derived Peptide from the Iberian Mole Talpa occidentalis

The immune systems of all vertebrates contain cathelicidins, a family of antimicrobial peptides. Cathelicidins are a type of innate immune effector that have a number of biological functions, including a well-known direct antibacterial action and immunomodulatory function. In search of new templates for antimicrobial peptide discovery, we have identified and characterized the cathelicidin of the small mammal Talpa occidentalis. We describe the heterogeneity of cathelicidin in the order Eulipotyphla in relation to the Iberian mole and predict its antibacterial activity using bioinformatics tools. In an effort to correlate these findings, we derived the putative active peptide and performed in vitro hemolysis and antimicrobial activity assays, confirming that Iberian mole cathelicidins are antimicrobial. Our results showed that the Iberian mole putative peptide, named To-KL37 (KLFGKVGNLLQKGWQKIKNIGRRIKDFFRNIRPMQEA) has antibacterial and antifungal activity. Understanding the antimicrobial defense of insectivores may help scientists prevent the spread of pathogens to humans. We hope that this study can also provide new, effective antibacterial peptides for future drug development.

MAMMALS IN PORTUGAL: A data set of terrestrial, volant, and marine mammal occurrences in Portugal

Mammals are threatened worldwide, with ca. 26% of all species being included in the IUCN threatened categories. This overall pattern is primarily associated to habitat loss or degradation, and human persecution for terrestrial mammals, and pollution, open net fishing, climate change and prey depletion for marine mammals. Mammals play a key role in maintaining ecosystems functionality and resilience, and therefore information on their distribution is crucial to delineate and support conservation actions. MAMMALS IN PORTUGAL is a publicly available data set compiling unpublished geo-referenced occurrence records of 92 terrestrial, volant, and marine mammals in mainland Portugal and archipelagos of Azores and Madeira that includes 107,852 data entries between 1873 and 2021 (72% of the data occurring in 2000 and 2021). The methods used to collect the data were: live observations/captures (42%), sign surveys (38%), camera trapping (16%), bioacoustics surveys (4%) and radio-tracking and inquiries that represent less than 1% of the records. The data set includes 13 types of records: 1) burrows | soil mounds | tunnel, 2) capture, 3) colony, 4) dead animal | hair | skulls | jaws, 5) genetic confirmation, 6) inquiries, 7) observation of live animal, 8), observation in shelters, 9) photo trapping | video, 10), predators diet | pellets | pine cones/nuts, 11) scat | track | ditch, 12) telemetry and 13) vocalization | echolocation. The spatial uncertainty of most records ranges between 0 and 100 m (76%). Rodentia (n = 34,754) has the highest number of records followed by Chiroptera (n = 18,858), Carnivora (n = 18,594), Lagomorpha (n = 17,679), Cetartiodactyla (n = 11,568) and Eulipotyphla (n = 6400). The data set includes records of species classified by the IUCN as threatened (e.g., Oryctolagus cuniculus (n = 12,407), Monachus monachus (n = 1512), and Lynx pardinus (n = 197)]. We believe that this data set may stimulate the publication of other European countries data sets which would certainly contribute to ecology and conservation-related research, and therefore assisting on the development of more accurate and tailored conservation management strategies for each species. There are no copyright restrictions; please cite this data paper when the data are used in publications.

Myoglobin primary structure reveals multiple convergent transitions to semi-aquatic life in the world's smallest mammalian divers

The speciose mammalian order Eulipotyphla (moles, shrews, hedgehogs, solenodons) combines an unusual diversity of semi-aquatic, semi-fossorial, and fossorial forms that arose from terrestrial forbearers. However, our understanding of the ecomorphological pathways leading to these lifestyles has been confounded by a fragmentary fossil record, unresolved phylogenetic relationships, and potential morphological convergence, calling for novel approaches. The net surface charge of the oxygen-storing muscle protein myoglobin (ZMb), which can be readily determined from its primary structure, provides an objective target to address this question due to mechanistic linkages with myoglobin concentration. Here, we generate a comprehensive 71 species molecular phylogeny that resolves previously intractable intra-family relationships and then ancestrally reconstruct ZMb evolution to identify ancient lifestyle transitions based on protein sequence alone. Our phylogenetically informed analyses confidently resolve fossorial habits having evolved twice in talpid moles and reveal five independent secondary aquatic transitions in the order housing the world's smallest endothermic divers.

Morphology of Pholeoixodes species associated with carnivores in the western Palearctic: Pictorial key based on molecularly identified Ixodes (Ph.) canisuga, I. (Ph.) hexagonus and I. (Ph.) kaiseri males, nymphs and larvae

Three Palearctic members of the subgenus Pholeoixodes, i.e., Ixodes canisuga, Ixodes hexagonus and Ixodes kaiseri are frequently collected from dogs, cats, red foxes, badgers and other carnivorous/insectivorous hosts in Europe. While a pictorial identification key has been reported for female Pholeoixodes ticks, a similar work has not been done on their male, nymphal and larval specimens. This study was initiated in order to clarify and re-examine those morphological characters of these three tick species, which can be used relatively easily to identify/distinguish them. In the case of larvae the aims included finding alternatives to chaetotaxy, which is difficult to observe and its usefulness is also affected by uncertainties in literature data. For this, 609 Pholeoixodes ticks (males, nymphs and larvae) were collected from carnivores, hedgehogs and their environment in six European countries (representing Western, Central and Southeastern Europe), followed by detailed morphological examination and/or molecular analyses to confirm the identity of their species. Based on the morphology of 84 molecularly analyzed specimens and a new identification key compiled accordingly, altogether 116 I. canisuga, 277 I. hexagonus and 216 I. kaiseri males, nymphs and larvae were identified. Ixodes kaiseri was not found in Western Europe, where I. canisuga predominated. In Central Europe, all three Pholeoixodes species were collected, the largest number of specimens represented by I. hexagonus. On the other hand, in Southeastern Europe I. kaiseri had the highest abundance. In conclusion, the morphology of internal spur on the first coxae (as the traditionally used character to distinguish I. hexagonus from other Pholeoixodes species) is trustworthy to recognize males but is less informative in the case of nymphs and larvae. The latter can be identified more properly by observing the morphology of basis capituli. In particular, nymphs and larvae of I. canisuga have anteriorly flattened basis capituli, forming a plateau that surrounds the base of the hypostome. On the other hand, nymphs and larvae of I. hexagonus and I. kaiseri lack a similar plateau, but (unlike I. canisuga) have cornuae, which are either posterolaterally or caudally directed, respectively.

Diversity, distribution and changes in communities of fleas on small mammals along the elevational gradient from the Pannonian Plain to the Carpathian Mountains

The causal chain of parasite-host-environment interactions, the so-called 'dual parasite environment', makes studying parasites more complicated than other wild organisms. A sample of 65 282 fleas taken from 336 different locations were analysed for changes in the distribution, diversity and compensation of flea communities found on small mammals along an elevational diversity gradient ranging from the Pannonian Plain to the base of the Carpathian summits. The fleas were divided into four groups, which were derived from changes in abundance and occurrence determined from cluster analysis. They are (1) flea species whose range seems unrelated to any change in elevation; (2) species that avoid high altitudes; (3) a group that can be subdivided into two types: (i) host-specific fleas and (ii) mountains species and (4) species opting for high altitudes on the gradient or preferring lower to middle elevations below 1000 m. Our study showed a unimodal pattern of flea diversity along the elevational gradient. It indicated that seasonality significantly conditions changes in biodiversity and patterns of spatial change along the elevational gradient, with specific flea species influenced by their host, while the impact of environmental conditions is more pronounced in opportunistic flea species.

Can Coronaviruses Steal Genes from the Host as Evidenced in Western European Hedgehogs by EriCoV Genetic Characterization?

Due to their need for living cells, viruses have developed adaptive evolutionary strategies to survive and perpetuate in reservoir hosts that play a crucial role in the ecology of emerging pathogens. Pathogenic and potentially pandemic betacoronaviruses arose in humans in 2002 (SARS-CoV, disappeared in July 2003), 2012 (MERS-CoV, still circulating in Middle East areas), and 2019 (SARS-CoV-2, causing the current global pandemic). As universally recognized, bats host ancestors of the above-mentioned zoonotic viruses. However, hedgehogs have been recently identified in Europe and Asia as possible reservoirs of MERS-CoV-like strains classified as Erinaceus coronavirus (EriCoV). To elucidate the evolution and genetics of EriCoVs, NGS (next generation sequencing) and Sanger sequencing were used to examine fecal samples collected in Northern Italy in 2018/2019 from 12 hedgehogs previously found EriCoV-positive by RT-PCR. By sequence analysis, eight complete EriCoV genomes, obtained by NGS, showed a high phylogenetic correlation with EriCoV strains previously reported in Eurasia. Interestingly, eight viral strains presented an additional ORF encoding for the CD200 ortholog located between the genes encoding for the Spike and the ORF3a proteins. The CD200 ortholog sequences were closely similar to the host CD200 protein but varying among EriCoVs. The result, confirmed by Sanger sequencing, demonstrates for the first time that CoVs can acquire host genes potentially involved in the immune-modulatory cascade and possibly enabling the virus to escape the host defence.

Comparative histological studies on properties of polysaccharides secreted by vomeronasal glands of eight Laurasiatheria species

Most mammalian species have a vomeronasal organ that detects specific chemical substances, such as pheromones. Mucous fluid covering the vomeronasal sensory epithelium is secreted by vomeronasal glands, and the properties of these fluids have been suggested to be involved in chemical detection. Histological studies using periodic acid-Schiff (PAS) and Alcian blue pH 2.5 (AB) stains, which respectively detect natural and acidic polysaccharides, have suggested variations in the nature of the vomeronasal glands among species. Here, we investigated the responsivity of the vomeronasal glands to PAS and AB stains in eight Laurasiatheria species. All species studied herein possessed vomeronasal glands that stained positive for PAS, like other many reported species. The vomeronasal glands of dogs and minks - like rodents, were AB-negative, whereas those of cows, goats, sika deer, musk shrews and two bat species were positive. Considering the present findings and previous reports, the vomeronasal glands in most of Laurasiatheria species appear to be fundamentally abundant in acidic polysaccharides, whereas those in carnivores essentially contains neutral polysaccharides.

Microscopic structure of the tongue in the lesser hedgehog tenrec (Echinops telfairi, Afrosoricida) and its relation to phylogenesis

The tongue of the lesser hedgehog tenrec (Echinops telfairi) was evaluated by light and scanning electron microscopy. Dorsal and lateral surfaces of the tongue were densely covered with various types of lingual papillae. Two types of mechanical papillae (filiform and conical) and two types of sensory papillae (fungiform and vallate) were observed. Rostrocaudally, the number of spikes in filiform papillae increased. Filiform, crown-like papillae were found on the radix, as well as large conical papillae with a wide base and a caudally bent single spike. Fungiform papillae were scattered in four rows on the dorsal surface. Three vallate papillae in inverse triangular layout were developed in the area of the lingual radix. Taste buds were found in the sensory papillae, i.e., fungiform and vallate. The lingual glands were predominantly seromucous. These glands were evenly scattered from the caudal portion of the lingual apex to the lingual radix. Purely serous glands were localized close to vallate papillae. A histochemical analysis of glands was performed. Results were compared to the Afrotheria (tenrec's relatives) and Eulipotyphla (animals with similar feeding habits to tenrecs). This study is the first description of the lingual morphology in the member of the Order Afrosoricida. Moreover, it compares the effect of the phylogenetic relation to the effect of the feeding habits on the lingual morphology.

Comparison of the gut microbiotas of laboratory and wild Asian house shrews (Suncus murinus) based on cloned 16S rRNA sequences

The Asian house shrew, Suncus murinus, is an insectivore (Eulipotyphla, Mammalia) and an important laboratory animal for life-science studies. The gastrointestinal tract of Suncus is simple: the length of the entire intestine is very short relative to body size, the large intestine is quite short, and there are no fermentative chambers such as the forestomach or cecum. These features imply that Suncus has a different nutritional physiology from those of humans and mice, but little is known about whether Suncus utilizes microbial fermentation in the large (LI) or small (SI) intestine. In addition, domestication may affect the gastrointestinal microbial diversity of Suncus. Therefore, we compared the gastrointestinal microbial diversity of Suncus between laboratory and wild Suncus and between the SI and LI (i.e., four groups: Lab-LI, Lab-SI, Wild-LI, and Wild-SI) using bacterial 16S rRNA gene library sequencing analyses with a sub-cloning method. We obtained 759 cloned sequences (176, 174, 195, and 214 from the Lab-LI, Lab-SI, Wild-LI, and Wild-SI samples, respectively), which revealed that the gastrointestinal microbiota of Suncus is rich in Firmicutes (mostly lactic acid bacteria), with few Bacteroidetes. We observed different bacterial communities according to intestinal region in laboratory Suncus, but not in wild Suncus. Furthermore, the gastrointestinal microbial diversity estimates were lower in laboratory Suncus than in wild Suncus. These results imply that Suncus uses lactic acid fermentation in the gut, and that the domestication process altered the gastrointestinal bacterial diversity.

Post K-Pg diversification of the mammalian order Eulipotyphla as suggested by phylogenomic analyses of ultra-conserved elements

The origin of the mammalian order Eulipotyphla has been debated intensively with arguments around whether they began diversifying before or after the Cretaceous-Palaeogene (K-Pg) boundary at 66 Ma. Here, we used an in-solution nucleotide capture method and next generation DNA sequencing to determine the sequence of hundreds of ultra-conserved elements (UCEs), and conducted phylogenomic and molecular dating analyses for the four extant eulipotyphlan lineages-Erinaceidae, Solenodontidae, Soricidae, and Talpidae. Concatenated maximum-likelihood analyses with single or partitioned models and a coalescent species-tree analysis showed that divergences among the four major eulipotyphlan lineages occurred within a short period of evolutionary time, but did not resolve the interrelationships among them. Alternative suboptimal phylogenetic hypotheses received consistently the same amount of support from different UCE loci, and were not significantly different from the maximum likelihood tree topology, suggesting the prevalence of stochastic lineage sorting. Molecular dating analyses that incorporated among-lineage evolutionary rate differences supported a scenario where the four eulipotyphlan families diversified between 57.8 and 63.2 Ma. Given short branch lengths with low support values, traces of rampant genome-wide stochastic lineage sorting, and post K-Pg diversification, we concluded that the crown eulipotyphlan lineages arose through a rapid diversification after the K-Pg boundary when novel niches were created by the mass extinction of species.

A global database on non-volant small mammal composition in natural and human-modified habitats

Non-volant small mammals, which include small-bodied representatives from several mammal orders, have been used as a model group to test the effects of habitat conversion and edge creation on biodiversity. Small mammals occupy a large variety of habitat types and vegetation strata, and have varied lifestyles and diets. They include species with slow-to fast-life history (the Etruscan shrew Suncus etruscus and European Hare Lepus europaeus, respectively) and with very specialized to very generalist habits and diets (the Atlantic bamboo rat Kannabateomys amblyonyx and house mouse Mus musculus, respectively). There are no databases with global coverage focusing on small mammal composition in natural and human-modified habitats and that include neglected natural habitats (e.g. grasslands and savannas). Here, peer-reviewed articles were searched in the primary literature to synthesize almost half century (1973–2017) of research on small mammal composition in natural forests, grasslands and their natural edges, and in five types of human-modified habitats (human-induced forest edges, human-induced grassland edges, crop fields, clear-cuts and tree plantations). The complete database includes information from 199 peer-reviewed articles. Presence data were obtained for 534 species (including 30 unidentified) in 551 sites distributed in 45 countries, 92 ecoregions, 10 biomes and six realms. Measurements of sampling effort and number of species records (number of individuals, captures) per habitat were also obtained, from which researchers can calculate a measure of abundance standardized by the sampling effort. The database will be useful for researchers interested in local-to broad-scale patterns of alpha- and beta-diversity in natural and human-modified habitats.

The complete mitochondrial genome of Soriculus nigrescens (Soricomorpha: Soricinae)

The Himalayan Shrew (Soriculus nigrescens) Gray, 1842 belongs to the subfamily Soricinae, which is distributed in southwest China, Nepal, India, and Bhutan. This species is classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. In this study, we sequenced the complete mitochondrial genome of S. nigrescens. This mitogenome is 17,284 bp in length and contains a set of 13 protein-coding genes (PCGs), two ribosomal RNA genes (rRNA), 22 transfer RNA genes (tRNA), one origin of L strand replication, and one control region. In order to explore the molecular phylogenetics evolution of Soricinae, the nucleotide sequence data of 13 PCGs of S. nigrescens and other 17 Insectivores were used for the phylogenetic analysis.

The complete mitochondrial genome of pygmy red-toothed shrew (Chodsigoa parva)

The study of pygmy red-toothed shrew (Chodsigoa parva), which is the smallest species of geuns Chodsigoa, is extremely lacking. Also, it is classified as data deficient (DD) on The IUCN Red List. Here, we obtained a complete mitochondrial genome of Chodsigoa parva. The mitochondrial genome of C. parva is totally 17,216 bp in length and it is composed of 13 protein-coding genes, 22 transfer RNA genes (tRNA), 2 ribosomal RNA genes (rRNA), and 2 non-coding regions. We restructured Bayesian phylogenetic tree by using 19 species those belong to family Soricidae. The mitochondrial genome can provide basic data for further study about the phylogenetic relationship of family Soricidae.

New records of a critically endangered shrew from Mexican cloud forests (Soricidae, Cryptotis nelsoni) and prospects for future field research

The Nelson´s small-eared shrew, Cryptotisnelsoni (Merriam, 1895), is a critically endangered species, endemic to cloud forests in Los Tuxtlas, a mountain range along the Gulf of Mexico coast. This species is only known from the type locality and its surroundings. Here we present new records that extend its distribution approximately 7 km southeast of the type locality and report more specimens near to the type locality. We also identified climatically suitable areas for C.nelsoni using ecological niche modelling and investigated the sampling bias to identify poorly sampled areas in Los Tuxtlas. We suggest that the scarcity of records in other areas with suitable climatic conditions throughout Los Tuxtlas is a consequence of incomplete surveys. We strongly highlight the importance of continuing surveying this critically endangered shrew using more efficient sampling techniques to better understand its current distribution and conservation status. Despite all known localities occurring inside Los Tuxtlas Biosphere Reserve, deforestation and climate change still pose current and future threats to this species.

Small terrestrial mammals of Albania: distribution and diversity (Mammalia, Eulipotyphla, Rodentia)

In this paper new records are reported for 23 species of small terrestrial mammals (STM) of Albania collected during the field work campaigns organised in the framework of the project “Strengthening capacity in National Nature Protection – preparation for Natura 2000 network” (NaturAL) in Albania during the summer and autumn of 2016 and 2017 Data on small mammals were primarily collected through Sherman live-trapping campaigns in six high priority protected areas of Albania: Korab-Koritnik, Bredhi i Hotovës, Tomorri, Llogara-Karaburun, Divjakë-Karavasta, Liqeni i Shkodrës (Skadar lake), Lëpushë-Vermosh. Other data were obtained by analysis of owl pellets or by direct observation of individuals (dead or alive) in the field. For 21 species Erinaceusroumanicus, Neomysanomalus, Crocidurasuaveolens, Crociduraleucodon, Suncusetruscus, Talpastankovici/caeca, Myocastorcoypus, Sciurusvulgaris, Glisglis, Dryomysnitedula, Muscardinusavellanarius, Microtuslevis/arvalis, Microtussubterraneus, Microtusthomasi, Microtusfelteni, Myodesglareolus, Apodemussylvaticus, Apodemusflavicollis, Apodemusepimelas, Musmusculus, and Musmacedonicus additional records are provide and their distributions reviewed, while the presence of two new species of shrews (Sorexaraneus and Sorexminutus) for Albania is reported for the first time. A comprehensive review of the published and unpublished distribution records of STM species of the country is made, together with an updated checklist and distribution maps of the species.

Appropriate fossil calibrations and tree constraints uphold the Mesozoic divergence of solenodons from other extant mammals

The mammalian order Eulipotyphla includes four extant families of insectivorans: Solenodontidae (solenodons); Talpidae (moles); Soricidae (shrews); and Erinaceidae (hedgehogs). Of these, Solenodontidae includes only two extant species, which are endemic to the largest islands of the Greater Antilles: Cuba and Hispaniola. Most molecular studies suggest that eulipotyphlan families diverged from each other across several million years, with the basal split between Solenodontidae and other families occurring in the Late Cretaceous. By contrast, Sato et al. (2016) suggest that eulipotyphlan families diverged from each other in a polytomy ∼58.6 million years ago (Mya). This more recent divergence estimate for Solenodontidae versus other extant eulipotyphlans suggests that solenodons must have arrived in the Greater Antilles via overwater dispersal rather than vicariance. Here, we show that the young timetree estimates for eulipotyphlan families and the polytomy are due to an inverted ingroup-outgroup arrangement of the tree, the result of using Tracer rather than TreeAnnotator to compile interfamilial divergence times, and of not enforcing the monophly of well-established clades such as Laurasiatheria and Eulipotyphla. Finally, Sato et al.'s (2016) timetree includes several zombie lineages where estimated divergence times are much younger than minimum ages that are implied by the fossil record. We reanalyzed Sato et al.'s (2016) original data with enforced monophyly for well-established clades and updated fossil calibrations that eliminate the inference of zombie lineages. Our resulting timetrees, which were compiled with TreeAnnotator rather than Tracer, produce dates that are in good agreement with other recent studies and place the basal split between Solenodontidae and other eulipotyphlans in the Late Cretaceous.

Torpor Patterns in Desert Hedgehogs (Paraechinus aethiopicus) Represent Another New Point along a Thermoregulatory Continuum

Documenting variation in thermoregulatory patterns across phylogenetically and geographically diverse taxa is key to understanding the evolution of endothermy and heterothermy in birds and mammals. We recorded body temperature (T_b) in free-ranging desert hedgehogs (Paraechinus aethiopicus) across three seasons in the deserts of Saudi Arabia. Modal T_b's (35°-36.5°C) were slightly below normal for mammals but still warmer than those of other hedgehogs. The single maximum T_b recorded was 39.2°C, which is cooler than maximum T_b's recorded in most desert mammals. Desert hedgehogs commonly used torpor during winter and spring but never during summer. Torpor bouts occurred frequently but irregularly, and most lasted less than 24 h. Unlike daily heterotherms, desert hedgehogs did occasionally remain torpid for more than 24 h, including one bout of 101 h. Body temperatures during torpor were often within 2°-3°C of ambient temperature; however, we never recorded repeated bouts of long, predictable torpor punctuated by brief arousal periods similar to those common among seasonal hibernators. Thus, desert hedgehogs can be included on the ever-growing list of species that display torpor patterns intermediate to traditionally defined hibernators and daily heterotherms. Extant hedgehogs are a recent radiation within an ancient family, and the intermediate thermoregulatory pattern displayed by desert hedgehogs is unlike the deeper and more regular torpor seen in other hedgehogs, suggesting that this may be a derived-as opposed to ancestral-trait in this subfamily. We suggest that this family (Erinaceidae) and order (Eulipotyphla) may be important for understanding the evolution of thermoregulatory patterns among Laurasiatheria and mammals in general.

Cabinet of Curiosities: Venom Systems and Their Ecological Function in Mammals, with a Focus on Primates

Venom delivery systems (VDS) are common in the animal kingdom, but rare amongst mammals. New definitions of venom allow us to reconsider its diversity amongst mammals by reviewing the VDS of Chiroptera, Eulipotyphla, Monotremata, and Primates. All orders use modified anterior dentition as the venom delivery apparatus, except Monotremata, which possesses a crural system. The venom gland in most taxa is a modified submaxillary salivary gland. In Primates, the saliva is activated when combined with brachial gland exudate. In Monotremata, the crural spur contains the venom duct. Venom functions include feeding, intraspecific competition, anti-predator defense and parasite defense. Including mammals in discussion of venom evolution could prove vital in our understanding protein functioning in mammals and provide a new avenue for biomedical and therapeutic applications and drug discovery.

Reconstructing the evolutionary origins and phylogeography of hantaviruses

Rodents have long been recognized as the principal reservoirs of hantaviruses. However, with the discovery of genetically distinct and phylogenetically divergent lineages of hantaviruses in multiple species of shrews, moles, and insectivorous bats from widely separated geographic regions, a far more complex landscape of hantavirus host distribution, evolution, and phylogeography is emerging. Detailed phylogenetic analyses, based on partial and full-length genomes of previously described rodent-borne hantaviruses and newly detected non-rodent-borne hantaviruses, indicate an Asian origin and support the emerging concept that ancestral non-rodent mammals may have served as the hosts of primordial hantaviruses.