A novel method for sampling subgingival microbiome: a comparative metatranscriptomic study

The subgingival microbiome has been implicated in oral and systemic diseases such as periodontitis and Alzheimer's disease. However, subgingival sampling is challenging. We developed a novel method of sampling the subgingival microbiome by rotationally swabbing the supragingival area, named subgingival-P (for proxy) samples. We sampled and metatranscriptomically analyzed subgingival and subgingival-P samples of three different teeth in 20 individuals. The subgingival-P samples were comparable to the subgingival samples in the relative abundances of microorganisms and microbial gene expression levels. Our data demonstrate that the novel method of collecting and analyzing the subgingival-P samples can act as a proxy for the subgingiva, paving the way for large and diverse studies investigating the role of the subgingival microbiome in health and disease.

Modified Procedure for Simple and Rapid Collection of Zebrafish Fluid Samples for Biochemical Analyses

This study addresses the challenge of collecting blood samples from zebrafish for biochemical analysis. Traditional methods are cumbersome due to low blood flow and rapid coagulation. Based on a previously published technique, we simplified the process by applying an anticoagulant solution directly to the incision site. The modified protocol involves immersing the fish in an ice bath, making a cross-sectional incision, and immediately applying anticoagulant solution. Centrifugation of the specimens provides a streamlined and efficient approach to zebrafish fluid sample collection, compatible with classic biochemical marker analyses.

Effects of variation in sample storage conditions and swab order on 16S vaginal microbiome analyses

IMPORTANCE

The composition of the human vaginal microbiome has been linked to a variety of medical conditions including yeast infection, bacterial vaginosis, and sexually transmitted infection. The vaginal microbiome is becoming increasingly acknowledged as a key factor in personal health, and it is essential to establish methods to collect and process accurate samples with self-collection techniques to allow large, population-based studies. In this study, we investigate if using AssayAssure Genelock, a nucleic acid preservative, introduces microbial biases in self-collected vaginal samples. To our knowledge, we also contribute some of the first evidence regarding the impacts of multiple swabs taken at one time point. Vaginal samples have relatively low biomass, so the ability to collect multiple swabs from a unique participant at a single time would greatly improve the replicability and data available for future studies. This will hopefully lay the groundwork to gain a more complete and accurate understanding of the vaginal microbiome.

Extraction-Free Detection of SARS-CoV-2 Viral RNA Using LumiraDx's RNA Star Complete Assay from Clinical Nasal Swabs Stored in a Novel Collection and Transport Medium

Background: The rapid detection of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) is vital for patient care. The LumiraDx™ SARS-CoV-2 RNA Star Complete (RSC) is an Emergency Use Authorization-recognized molecular test using nasal/nasopharyngeal swabs immersed in a viral/universal transport medium (VTM/UTM). However, there is a critical need for an alternative medium for point-of-care testing (POCT). This study aimed to investigate Xtract-Free (XF), a novel collection medium for transport and direct (extraction-free) use with nucleic acid tests. Methods: Using serially diluted SARS-CoV-2 viral RNA (vRNA) in a routine UTM and XF, a limit of detection (LOD) was established via an RSC test and a quantitative reverse transcription PCR (RT-qPCR). Additionally, the results obtained from a panel of 108 clinical "car-side" nasal swabs collected in XF during the coronavirus pandemic and assessed using the "gold-standard" RT-qPCR assay were compared to Lumira's RSC assay. Results: The average replicate RT-qPCR cycle threshold (CT) values for vRNA in XF and UTM were observed to be equivalent. An LOD for which five out of five replicates were detected using XF or VTM was approximately 2000 copies/mL. The nasal swabs collected in XF exhibited 93.9% positive percent agreement (sensitivity) and 100% negative percent agreement (specificity) compared to the RT-qPCR. Three specimens tested positive via an RT-qPCR were negative when tested via RSC; however, all three samples had CT values ≥ 36.4. Conclusions: XF is equivalent to VTM/UTM and is compatible for use with the RSC test. Furthermore, XF can be used directly with RT-qPCRs and rapid antigen testing without the requirement for separate nucleic acid extraction (an extraction-free process), making it ideal for cost-effective high-throughput and decentralized respiratory testing. Impact Statement: This study is the first to evaluate LumiraDx's SARS-CoV-2 RNA Star Complete assay in concert with Xtract-Free (XF), a novel collection medium containing a proprietary RNase-inactivating technology for the rapid, "extraction-free" detection of SARS-CoV-2 RNA from clinical nasal swabs. Specimens collected in XF combined with rapid LumiraDx detection provide a safe and sensitive alternative to VTM/UTM, and Molecular Transport medium (MTM) for high throughput, "extraction-free" molecular detection.

Application of Single Particle ICP-MS for the Determination of Inorganic Nanoparticles in Food Additives and Food: A Short Review

Due to enhanced properties at the nanoscale, nanomaterials (NMs) have been incorporated into foods, food additives, and food packaging materials. Knowledge gaps related to (but not limited to) fate, transport, bioaccumulation, and toxicity of nanomaterials have led to an expedient need to expand research efforts in the food research field. While classical techniques can provide information on dilute suspensions, these techniques sample a low throughput of nanoparticles (NPs) in the suspension and are limited in the range of the measurement metrics so orthogonal techniques must be used in tandem to fill in measurement gaps. New and innovative characterization techniques have been developed and optimized for employment in food nano-characterization. Single particle inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, a high-throughput nanoparticle characterization technique capable of providing vital measurands of NP-containing samples such as size distribution, number concentration, and NP evolution has been employed as a characterization technique in food research since its inception. Here, we offer a short, critical review highlighting existing studies that employ spICP-MS in food research with a particular focus on method validation and trends in sample preparation and spICP-MS methodology. Importantly, we identify and address areas in research as well as offer insights into yet to be addressed knowledge gaps in methodology.

Ex vivo instability of lipids in whole blood: preanalytical recommendations for clinical lipidomics studies

Reliability, robustness, and interlaboratory comparability of quantitative measurements is critical for clinical lipidomics studies. Lipids' different ex vivo stability in blood bears the risk of misinterpretation of data. Clear recommendations for the process of blood sample collection are required. We studied by UHPLC-high resolution mass spectrometry, as part of the "Preanalytics interest group" of the International Lipidomics Society, the stability of 417 lipid species in EDTA whole blood after exposure to either 4°C, 21°C, or 30°C at six different time points (0.5 h-24 h) to cover common daily routine conditions in clinical settings. In total, >800 samples were analyzed. 325 and 288 robust lipid species resisted 24 h exposure of EDTA whole blood to 21°C or 30°C, respectively. Most significant instabilities were detected for FA, LPE, and LPC. Based on our data, we recommend cooling whole blood at once and permanent. Plasma should be separated within 4 h, unless the focus is solely on robust lipids. Lists are provided to check the ex vivo (in)stability of distinct lipids and potential biomarkers of interest in whole blood. To conclude, our results contribute to the international efforts towards reliable and comparable clinical lipidomics data paving the way to the proper diagnostic application of distinct lipid patterns or lipid profiles in the future.

Methods in Nutrition & Gut Microbiome Research: An American Society for Nutrition Satellite Session [13 October 2022]

The microbial cells colonizing the human body form an ecosystem that is integral to the regulation and maintenance of human health. Elucidation of specific associations between the human microbiome and health outcomes is facilitating the development of microbiome-targeted recommendations and treatments (e.g., fecal microbiota transplant; pre-, pro-, and post-biotics) to help prevent and treat disease. However, the potential of such recommendations and treatments to improve human health has yet to be fully realized. Technological advances have led to the development and proliferation of a wide range of tools and methods to collect, store, sequence, and analyze microbiome samples. However, differences in methodology at each step in these analytic processes can lead to variability in results due to the unique biases and limitations of each component. This technical variability hampers the detection and validation of associations with small to medium effect sizes. Therefore, the American Society for Nutrition (ASN) Nutritional Microbiology Group Engaging Members (GEM), sponsored by the Institute for the Advancement of Food and Nutrition Sciences (IAFNS), hosted a satellite session on methods in nutrition and gut microbiome research to review currently available methods for microbiome research, best practices, as well as tools and standards to aid in comparability of methods and results. This manuscript summarizes the topics and research discussed at the session. Consideration of the guidelines and principles reviewed in this session will increase the accuracy, precision, and comparability of microbiome research and ultimately the understanding of the associations between the human microbiome and health.

Development of Improved DNA Collection and Extraction Methods for Handled Documents

Handwritten documents may contain probative DNA, but most crime laboratories do not process this evidence. DNA recovery should not impair other evidence processing such as latent prints or indented writing. In this study, single fingermarks on paper were sampled with flocked swabs, cutting, and dry vacuuming. In addition, two extraction methods were compared for the sample type. DNA yields were low across all methods; however, this work confirms the ability to recover DNA from paper and the usefulness of the vacuum sampling method combined with the Chelex-Tween method. Stability of touch DNA deposits were compared over an 11-month period to better understand degradation that may occur over time. No significant difference in DNA recovery was observed, suggesting DNA deposits on paper are stable over an 11-month span.

VAMS-Based Blood Capillary Sampling for Mass Spectrometry-Based Human Metabolomics Studies

Volumetric absorptive microsampling (VAMS) is a recently developed sample collection method that enables single-drop blood collection in a minimally invasive manner. Blood biomolecules can then be extracted and processed for analysis using several analytical platforms. The integration of VAMS with conventional mass spectrometry (MS)-based metabolomics approaches is an attractive solution for human studies representing a less-invasive procedure compared to phlebotomy with the additional potential for remote sample collection. However, as we recently demonstrated, VAMS samples require long-term storage at -80 °C. This study investigated the stability of VAMS samples during short-term storage and compared the metabolome obtained from capillary blood collected from the fingertip to those of plasma and venous blood from 22 healthy volunteers. Our results suggest that the blood metabolome collected by VAMS samples is stable at room temperature only for up to 6 h requiring subsequent storage at -80 °C to avoid significant changes in the metabolome. We also demonstrated that capillary blood provides better coverage of the metabolome compared to plasma enabling the analysis of several intracellular metabolites presented in red blood cells. Finally, this work demonstrates that with the appropriate pre-analytical protocol capillary blood can be successfully used for untargeted metabolomics studies.

Evaluation of saliva and nasopharyngeal swab sampling for genomic detection of SARS-CoV-2 in children accessing a pediatric emergency department during the second pandemic wave

SARS-CoV-2 infection is mainly detected by multiplex real-time RT-PCR from upper respiratory specimens, which is considered the gold-standard technique for SARS-CoV-2 infection diagnosis. A nasopharyngeal (NP) swab represents the clinical sample of choice, but NP swabbing can be uncomfortable to the patients, especially for pediatric-age participants, requires trained healthcare personnel, and may generate an aerosol, increasing the intrinsic exposure risk of healthcare workers. The objective of this study was to compare paired NP and saliva samples (SS) collected from pediatric patients to evaluate whether the saliva collection procedure may be considered a valuable alternative to the classical NP swab (NPS) sampling in children. In this study, we describe a SARS-CoV-2 multiplex real-time RT-PCR protocol for SS, comparing the results with the paired NPS specimens from 256 pediatric patients (mean age 4.24 ± 4.40 years) admitted to the hospital emergency room of Azienda Ospedaliera Universitaria Integrata (AOUI), Verona, and randomly enrolled between September 2020 and December 2020. The saliva sampling demonstrated consistent results when compared to NPS use. The SARS-CoV-2 genome was detected in 16 out of 256 (6.25%) NP samples, among which 13 (5.07%) were positive even when paired SS were analyzed. Moreover, SARS-CoV-2-negative NPS and SS were consistent, and the overall concordances between NPS and SS were detected in 253 out of 256 samples (98.83%). Our results suggest that saliva samples may be considered a valuable alternative to NPS for SARS-CoV-2 direct diagnosis with multiplex real-time RT-PCR in pediatric patients.

Toxicological Analysis of Drugs in Human Mummified Bodies and Proposed Guidelines

From palaeopathology to forensic taphonomy, mummified human bodies constitute biological archives of paramount importance. Toxicology analysis of endobiotics and xenobiotics has already shown value to archaeological mummies research with detecting heavy metals, sedative-hypnotic drugs, and stimulants. Thanks to the large window of drug detection in hair and nails, the information from such studies has increased the scientific community's knowledge regarding past populations' lifestyles. Still, few bibliographic references exist regarding toxicology reports in mummified bodies from forensic settings. Here, the authors aim to draw attention to the valuable contribution of toxicology analysis, taking into account previously conducted studies and their findings. Given that sample collection on mummified bodies from forensic scenarios may not always happen in laboratories or autopsy rooms, the authors also suggest guidelines for in situ sampling of forensic mummies. It is expected that the present technical note will encourage experts to perform toxicology analysis in mummified bodies and publish their case reports more often.

Cross-Sectional Study on Lateral Skull Radiographs to Design a New Nasopharyngeal Swab for Simplified COVID-19 and Respiratory Infections Diagnostic Testing in Children

Nasopharyngeal swab sample collection is the first-line testing method for diagnosing COVID-19 infection and other respiratory infections. Current information on how to properly perform nasopharyngeal swabbing in children is largely defective. This study aimed at collecting nostril to nasopharynx distance measurements on lateral skull radiographs of children and adolescents to design a nasopharyngeal swab meant to standardize and facilitate the sample collection procedure. A total of 323 cephalograms of 152 male and 171 female children aged 4-14 years taken for orthodontic reasons were selected. On each cephalogram, the shortest distance between the most anterosuperior point of the nostril contour and the nasopharynx outline was measured in mm parallel to the palatal plane. Descriptive statistics of the measurements were calculated for each age group. The lower limit of the 95% confidence intervals of the measurements was taken as a reference to design a swab shaft with marks that, at each age, delimitate a safety boundary for swab progression up to the posterior nasopharyngeal wall. The simplification of the procedure enabled by the newly designed nasopharyngeal swab is valuable to help healthcare providers perform specimen collection on children in a safe and effective way, perhaps under the less-than-ideal conditions possibly occurring in 'point-of-need' contexts.

Morning SARS-CoV-2 Testing Yields Better Detection of Infection Due to Higher Viral Loads in Saliva and Nasal Swabs upon Waking

Optimizing specimen collection methods to achieve the most reliable SARS-CoV-2 detection for a given diagnostic sensitivity would improve testing and minimize COVID-19 outbreaks. From September 2020 to April 2021, we performed a household-transmission study in which participants self-collected specimens every morning and evening throughout acute SARS-CoV-2 infection. Seventy mildly symptomatic participants collected saliva, and of those, 29 also collected nasal swab specimens. Viral load was quantified in 1,194 saliva and 661 nasal swab specimens using a high-analytical-sensitivity reverse transcription-quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) assay. Viral loads in both saliva and nasal swab specimens were significantly higher in morning-collected specimens than in evening-collected specimens after symptom onset. This aspect of the biology of SARS-CoV-2 infection has implications for diagnostic testing. We infer that morning collection would have resulted in significantly improved detection and that this advantage would be most pronounced for tests with low to moderate analytical sensitivity. Collecting specimens for COVID-19 testing in the morning offers a simple and low-cost improvement to clinical diagnostic sensitivity of low- to moderate-analytical-sensitivity tests. IMPORTANCE Our findings suggest that collecting saliva and nasal swab specimens in the morning immediately after waking yields higher SARS-CoV-2 viral loads than collection later in the day. The higher viral loads from morning specimen collection are predicted to significantly improve detection of SARS-CoV-2 in symptomatic individuals, particularly when using moderate- to low-analytical-sensitivity COVID-19 diagnostic tests, such as rapid antigen tests.

Management of an emergency sample collection team under the setting of whole-community severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 nucleic acid testing

Background

During the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic, a nucleic acid test is frequently conducted to identify positive cases. Compared with a hospital-based strategy, whole-community nucleic acid testing displays a unique advantage in rapid screening of a massive population. Yet a management plan to ensure ample and contamination-free sample collection is lacking.

The objective of the current study was to establish an efficient operational mode of whole-community nucleic acid testing by management of a sample collection team and to provide a reference for joint prevention work to contain the spread of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2.

Methods

The efficient operation of nucleic acid testing within the community was implemented by urgent setting up of sample collection teams, efficient allocation of medical supplies, optimization of management procedures and coordination among multiple working departments.

Results

A total of 21 585 nucleic acid samples were collected within 3 d, while no one was missed or experienced a cross infection. No falls, heatstroke, disputes or other adverse events occurred.

Conclusions

Under the emergency setting of nucleic acid testing of a large population, a management system with orderly organization, clear division of responsibilities and standardized operational procedures should be formulated.

In-Plane Si Microneedles: Fabrication, Characterization, Modeling and Applications

Microneedles are getting more and more attention in research and commercialization since their advancement in the 1990s due to the advantages over traditional hypodermic needles such as minimum invasiveness, low material and fabrication cost, and precise needle geometry control, etc. The design and fabrication of microneedles depend on various factors such as the type of materials used, fabrication planes and techniques, needle structures, etc. In the past years, in-plane and out-of-plane microneedle technologies made by silicon (Si), polymer, metal, and other materials have been developed for numerous biomedical applications including drug delivery, sample collections, medical diagnostics, and bio-sensing. Among these microneedle technologies, in-plane Si microneedles excel by the inherent properties of Si such as mechanical strength, wear resistance, biocompatibility, and structural advantages of in-plane configuration such as a wide range of length, readiness of integration with other supporting components, and complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) compatible fabrication. This article aims to provide a review of in-plane Si microneedles with a focus on fabrication techniques, theoretical and numerical analysis, experimental characterization of structural and fluidic behaviors, major applications, potential challenges, and future prospects.

Enhancing Chelonian Health Assessments by Determining Agreement in Pathogen Detection between Sampling Sites Using Quantitative PCR

Pathogen surveillance is common in chelonians and multiple anatomical sampling sites are used for pathogen detection, but agreement between these sites has not been assessed. The objective of this study was to assess agreement between three sampling sites, oral swab (OS), cloacal swab (CS), and combined oral/cloacal swab (OCS), for detecting three pathogens in eastern box turtles (Terrapene carolina carolina). Box turtles (n=88) were assayed for Terrapene adenovirus 1 (TerADV1), Terrapene herpesvirus 1 (TerHV1), and Mycoplasmopsis sp. using quantitative PCR. Agreement between pathogen status based on sampling site was assessed using the Cohen kappa. Agreement was highest for Mycoplasmopsis sp. between OCS and OS (k=0.941), whereas moderate and minimal agreement were noted between OCS and CS (k=0.64) and OS and CS (k=0.538). For TerADV1, agreement was weak between OCS and OS (k=0.559), minimal between OS and CS (k=0.283), and absent between OCS and CS (k=0.204). TerHV1 agreement was moderate between OCS and OS (k=0.783) and absent between OCS and CS (k=0.106) and OS and CS (k=0.052). All pathogens were most frequently detected in OCS samples and DNA concentrations differed between sampling sites (P<0.0001). If testing multiple samples is not possible, OCS sampling improves the detection of these three pathogens over OS and CS alone.

Design and Evaluation of In-Plane Silicon Microneedles Fabricated with Post-CMOS Compatible Processes

In this paper, a comprehensive study was carried out on in-plane silicon (Si) microneedles, a useful tool for transdermal drug delivery and sample collection. Microneedles with eleven designs were investigated by post-complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) compatible microfabrication processes and characterized via pricking tests by insertion in chicken breast flesh. Mechanical strength of all designs were also evaluated by theoretical calculation and finite element modeling (FEM) for bending and buckling analysis. To efficiently improve the sharpness and insertion, the wedge-shaped needle tips with thickness determined by Si wafer thickness were sharpened by a wet chemical etching process. Insertion forces recorded from pricking tests and bending and buckling from theoretical calculation and FEM analysis before and after etching were compared. The results showed that the insertion force, free bending force and the maximum buckling force were all reduced and the maximum bending stress were improved after tip sharpening. Furthermore, the buckling safety factor of all eleven designs was great than 1 and the maximum bending stress was less than the fracture strength of Si, indicating that our in-plane Si microneedles are robust enough for insertion into human skin.

Barriers and solutions to developing and maintaining research networks during a pandemic: An example from the iELEVATE perinatal network

Introduction

To improve maternal health outcomes, increased diversity is needed among pregnant people in research studies and community surveillance. To expand the pool, we sought to develop a network encompassing academic and community obstetrics clinics. Typical challenges in developing a network include site identification, contracting, onboarding sites, staff engagement, participant recruitment, funding, and institutional review board approvals. While not insurmountable, these challenges became magnified as we built a research network during a global pandemic. Our objective is to describe the framework utilized to resolve pandemic-related issues.

Methods

We developed a framework for site-specific adaptation of the generalized study protocol. Twice monthly video meetings were held between the lead academic sites to identify local challenges and to generate ideas for solutions. We identified site and participant recruitment challenges and then implemented solutions tailored to the local workflow. These solutions included the use of an electronic consent and videoconferences with local clinic leadership and staff. The processes for network development and maintenance changed to address issues related to the COVID-19 pandemic. However, aspects of the sample processing/storage and data collection elements were held constant between sites.

Results

Adapting our consenting approach enabled maintaining study enrollment during the pandemic. The pandemic amplified issues related to contracting, onboarding, and IRB approval. Maintaining continuity in sample management and clinical data collection allowed for pooling of information between sites.

Conclusions

Adaptability is key to maintaining network sites. Rapidly changing guidelines for beginning and continuing research during the pandemic required frequent intra- and inter-institutional communication to navigate.

Feasibility of an At-Home Adult Stool Specimen Collection Method in Rural Cambodia

The human microbiome has received significant attention over the past decade regarding its potential impact on health. Epidemiological and intervention studies often rely on at-home stool collection methods designed for high-resource settings, such as access to an improved toilet with a modern toilet seat. However, this is not always appropriate or applicable to low-resource settings. Therefore, the design of a user-friendly stool collection kit for low-resource rural settings is needed. We describe the development, assembly, and user experience of a simple and low-cost at-home stool collection kit for women living in rural Cambodia as part of a randomized controlled trial in 2020. Participants were provided with the stool collection kit and detailed verbal instruction. Enrolled women (n = 480) provided two stool specimens (at the start of the trial and after 12 weeks) at their home and brought them to the health centre that morning in a sterile collection container. User specimen collection compliance was high, with 90% (n = 434) of women providing a stool specimen at the end of the trial (after 12 weeks). This feasible and straightforward method has strong potential for similar or adapted use among adults residing in other rural or low-resource contexts.

Tutorial: Guidelines for Single-Cell RT-qPCR

Reverse transcription quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) has delivered significant insights in understanding the gene expression landscape. Thanks to its precision, sensitivity, flexibility, and cost effectiveness, RT-qPCR has also found utility in advanced single-cell analysis. Single-cell RT-qPCR now represents a well-established method, suitable for an efficient screening prior to single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-Seq) experiments, or, oppositely, for validation of hypotheses formulated from high-throughput approaches. Here, we aim to provide a comprehensive summary of the scRT-qPCR method by discussing the limitations of single-cell collection methods, describing the importance of reverse transcription, providing recommendations for the preamplification and primer design, and summarizing essential data processing steps. With the detailed protocol attached in the appendix, this tutorial provides a set of guidelines that allow any researcher to perform scRT-qPCR measurements of the highest standard.

International Council for Standardisation in Haematology (ICSH) recommendations for collection of blood samples for coagulation testing

This guidance document has been prepared on behalf of the International Council for Standardisation in Haematology (ICSH). The aim of the document is to provide guidance and recommendations for collection of blood samples for coagulation tests in clinical laboratories throughout the world. The following processes will be covered: ordering tests, sample collection tube and anticoagulant, patient preparation, sample collection device, venous stasis before sample collection, order of draw when different sample types need to be collected, sample labelling, blood-to-anticoagulant ratio (tube filling) and influence of haematocrit. The following areas are excluded from this document, but are included in an associated ICSH document addressing processing of samples for coagulation tests in clinical laboratories: sample transport and primary tube sample stability; centrifugation; interfering substances including haemolysis, icterus and lipaemia; secondary aliquots-transport and storage; and preanalytical variables for platelet function testing. The recommendations are based on published data in peer-reviewed literature and expert opinion.

Evaluation of 92 cardiovascular proteins in dried blood spots collected under field-conditions: Off-the-shelf affinity-based multiplexed assays work well, allowing for simplified sample collection

Workplace-collected blood spots deposited on filter paper were analysed with multiplexed affinity-based protein assays and found to be suitable for proteomics analysis. The protein extension assay (PEA) was used to characterize 92 proteins using 1.2 mm punches in repeated samples collected from 20 workers. Overall, 97.8% of the samples and 91.3% of the analysed proteins passed quality control. Both within and between spot correlations using six replicates from the same individual were above 0.99, suggesting that comparable levels are obtained from multiple punches from the same spot and from consecutive spots. Protein levels from dried blood and wet serum from the same individuals were compared and the majority of the analysed proteins were found to be significantly correlated. These results open up for simplified sample collection of blood in field conditions for proteomic analysis, but also highlight that not all proteins can be robustly measured from dried whole blood.

Impact of expression mode and timing of sample collection, relative to milk ejection, on human milk bacterial DNA profiles

AIM

To investigate the impact of expression mode: electric breast pump or hand expression, and timing of sample collection: pre- and post-milk ejection on human milk (HM) bacterial DNA profiles.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Three HM samples from the same breast were collected from 30 breastfeeding mothers: a pre-milk ejection pump-expressed sample (pre-pump), a post-milk ejection pump-expressed sample (post-pump) and a post-milk ejection hand-expressed sample (post-hand). Full-length 16S rRNA gene sequencing was used to assess milk bacterial DNA profiles. Bacterial profiles did not differ significantly based on mode of expression nor timing of sample collection. No significant differences were detected in the relative abundance of any OTUs based on expression condition (pre-pump/ post-pump and post-pump/post-hand) with univariate linear mixed-effects regression analyses (all P-values > 0·01; α = 0·01). Similarly, no difference in richness was observed between sample types (number of observed OTUs: post-pump/post-hand P = 0·13; pre-pump/post-pump P = 0. 45).

CONCLUSION

Bacterial DNA profiles of HM did not differ according to either expression method or timing of sample collection.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY

Hand or pump expression can be utilized to collect samples for microbiome studies. This has implications for the design of future HM microbiome studies.

Technical and Methodological Aspects of Cell-Free Nucleic Acids Analyzes

Analyzes of cell-free nucleic acids (cfNAs) have shown huge potential in many biomedical applications, gradually entering several fields of research and everyday clinical care. Many biological properties of cfNAs can be informative to gain deeper insights into the function of the organism, such as their different types (DNA, RNAs) and subtypes (gDNA, mtDNA, bacterial DNA, miRNAs, etc.), forms (naked or vesicle bound NAs), fragmentation profiles, sequence composition, epigenetic modifications, and many others. On the other hand, the workflows of their analyzes comprise many important steps, from sample collection, storage and transportation, through extraction and laboratory analysis, up to bioinformatic analyzes and statistical evaluations, where each of these steps has the potential to affect the outcome and informational value of the performed analyzes. There are, however, no universal or standard protocols on how to exactly proceed when analyzing different cfNAs for different applications, at least according to our best knowledge. We decided therefore to prepare an overview of the available literature and products commercialized for cfNAs processing, in an attempt to summarize the benefits and limitations of the currently available approaches, devices, consumables, and protocols, together with various factors influencing the workflow, its processes, and outcomes.

Evaluation of Recommended Water Sample Collection Methods and the Impact of Holding Time on Legionella Recovery and Variability from Healthcare Building Water Systems

Water safety and management programs (WSMP) utilize field measurements to evaluate control limits and monitor water quality parameters including Legionella presence. This monitoring is important to verify that the plan is being implemented properly. However, once it has been determined when and how to sample for Legionella, it is important to choose appropriate collection and processing methods. We sought to compare processing immediate and flushed samples, filtration of different volumes collected, and sample hold times. Hot water samples were collected immediately and after a 2-min flush. These samples were plated directly and after filtration of either 100 mL, 200 mL, or 1 L. Additionally, unflushed samples were collected and processed immediately and after 1, 24, and 48 h of hold time. We found that flushed samples had significant reductions in Legionella counts compared to immediate samples. Processing 100 mL of that immediate sample both directly and after filter concentration yielded the highest concentration and percent sample positivity, respectively. We also show that there was no difference in culture values from time 0 compared to hold times of 1 h and 24 h. At 48 h, there were slightly fewer Legionella recovered than at time 0. However, Legionella counts were so variable based on sampling location and date that this hold time effect was minimal. The interpretation of Legionella culture results depends on the sample collection and processing methods used, as these can have a huge impact on the success of sampling and the validation of control measures.

[Report of a case of isolated tuberculous arthritis of the knee: a difficult diagnosis in adolescents]

Tuberculosis is a major global public health problem. Osteoarticular tuberculosis is very rare. In half of the cases it affects the vertebrae. Symptoms are insidious over a prolonged period and isolation of the pathogen is difficult, mostly leading to difficult and delayed diagnosis. We here report a new case of tuberculous arthritis of the knee in a teenager in whom the mean time between symtom onset and definitive diagnosis based on the detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis genome by Xpert MTB/RIF test was eight months. This study emphasizes the importance of bacteriological sampling and diagnostic methods by molecular assay in early and definitive diagnosis of tuberculous arthritis.

Optimization of a Method for the Concentration of Genetic Material in Bacterial and Fungal Communities on Fresh Apple Peel Surfaces

Apples are the most consumed fruit in the United States and have recently been shown to exhibit some vulnerability to contamination across the supply chain. It is unclear what role a fruit microbiome analysis may serve in future food safety programs interested in understanding changes in the product and the processing environment. Ultimately, sample integrity is key if any of these approaches are to be employed; low microbial loads on apple surfaces, the inability to sample the entire surface, and inefficiency of removal may act as barriers to achieving high-quality DNA. As such, the objective of this study was to identify a reproducible method to concentrate and quantify bacterial and fungal DNA from fresh apple surfaces. Five methods were evaluated: two variations of wash solutions for bath sonication, wash filtration, epidermis excision, and surface swabbing. Epidermis excision returned the highest mean DNA quantities, followed by the sonicated washes and wash filtration. Surface swabbing was consistently below the limit of detection. Based on the quantity of host DNA contamination in surface excision, the sonicated wash solution containing a surfactant presents the greatest opportunity for consistent, high-yielding DNA recovery from the entire apple surface.

Minimally Invasive Microbiopsies as an Improved Sampling Method for the Diagnosis of Cutaneous Leishmaniasis

Current sampling methods to diagnose cutaneous leishmaniasis are invasive and painful. An alternative and minimally invasive microbiopsy device was evaluated in a diverse range of cutaneous leishmaniasis lesions in Ethiopia. Using polymerase chain reaction–based diagnosis, the microbiopsy outperformed the routine skin slit sample by detecting more patients while pain scores were significantly lower.

Unexpected abnormal coagulation test results in a 2-year-old child: A case report

Rejection of the sample with repeated blood withdrawal is always an unwanted consequence of sample nonconformity and preanalytical errors, especially in the most vulnerable population - children. Here is presented a case with unexpected abnormal coagulation test results in a 2-year-old child with no previously documented coagulation disorder. Child is planned for tympanostomy tubes removal under the anaesthesia driven procedure, and preoperative coagulation tests revealed prolonged prothrombin time, activated partial thromboplastin time and thrombin time, with fibrinogen and antithrombin within reference intervals. From the anamnestic and clinical data, congenital coagulation disorder was excluded, and with further investigation, sample mismatch, clot presence and accidental ingestion of oral anticoagulant, heparin contamination or vitamin K deficiency were excluded too. Due to suspected EDTA carryover during blood sampling another sample was taken the same day and all tests were performed again. The results for all tests were within reference intervals confirming EDTA effect on falsely prolongation of the coagulation times in the first sample. This case can serve as alert to avoid unnecessary loss in terms of blood withdrawal repetitions and discomfort of the patients and their relatives, tests repeating, prolonging medical procedures, and probably delaying diagnosis or proper medical treatment. It is the responsibility of the laboratory specialists to continuously educate laboratory staff and other phlebotomists on the correct blood collection as well as on its importance for the patient's safety.

Utilization of Mobile Application for Better Implementation of Good Clinical Practice in a Biorepository Sample Collection Process: Functions of PancMoBio in Biobanking

Preanalytical variables of biospecimens play a vital role in biobanking. Currently, there is a lack of a convenient and precise methods to document these variables. Paper documentation and computer-based Lab Information Management System software are the most common solutions, but both have clear disadvantages. An application named PancMoBio was newly developed in our pancreas biobank, with the guidance of good clinical practice principles as well as the incorporation of technical support from professional software companies. With portable electronic devices running this application, all data can be precisely collected in a synchronous manner during sample collection and processing. PancMoBio comprises two major modules-recording and searching-and five submodules in the recording module: blood sample collection, solid tumor tissue sample collection, cystic tumor sample collection, plasma sample separation, and serum sample separation. Compared with other methods, our application was found to be more convenient and accurate in recording preanalytical variables and demonstrated improved capability in facilitating real-time quality control and quality assurance. It was apparent that PancMoBio could improve the integrity of biospecimen and biobank quality management. Thus, it should be considered for further utilization in biobanking.

Mass Spectrometry-Based Plasma Proteomics: Considerations from Sample Collection to Achieving Translational Data

The proteomic analysis of human blood and blood-derived products (e.g., plasma) offers an attractive avenue to translate research progress from the laboratory into the clinic. However, due to its unique protein composition, performing proteomics assays with plasma is challenging. Plasma proteomics has regained interest due to recent technological advances, but challenges imposed by both complications inherent to studying human biology (e.g., interindividual variability) and analysis of biospecimens (e.g., sample variability), as well as technological limitations remain. As part of the Human Proteome Project (HPP), the Human Plasma Proteome Project (HPPP) brings together key aspects of the plasma proteomics pipeline. Here, we provide considerations and recommendations concerning study design, plasma collection, quality metrics, plasma processing workflows, mass spectrometry (MS) data acquisition, data processing, and bioinformatic analysis. With exciting opportunities in studying human health and disease though this plasma proteomics pipeline, a more informed analysis of human plasma will accelerate interest while enhancing possibilities for the incorporation of proteomics-scaled assays into clinical practice.

The Effect of Anticoagulants, Temperature, and Time on the Human Plasma Metabolome and Lipidome from Healthy Donors as Determined by Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry

Liquid-chromatography mass spectrometry is commonly used to identify and quantify metabolites from biological samples to gain insight into human physiology and pathology. Metabolites and their abundance in biological samples are labile and sensitive to variations in collection conditions, handling and processing. Variations in sample handling could influence metabolite levels in ways not related to biology, ultimately leading to the misinterpretation of results. For example, anticoagulants and preservatives modulate enzyme activity and metabolite oxidization. Temperature may alter both enzymatic and non-enzymatic chemistry. The potential for variation induced by collection conditions is particularly important when samples are collected in remote locations without immediate access to specimen processing. Data are needed regarding the variation introduced by clinical sample collection processes to avoid introducing artifact biases. In this study, we used metabolomics and lipidomics approaches paired with univariate and multivariate statistical analyses to assess the effects of anticoagulant, temperature, and time on healthy human plasma samples collected to provide guidelines on sample collection, handling, and processing for vaccinology. Principal component analyses demonstrated clustering by sample collection procedure and that anticoagulant type had the greatest effect on sample metabolite variation. Lipids such as glycerophospholipids, acylcarnitines, sphingolipids, diacylglycerols, triacylglycerols, and cholesteryl esters are significantly affected by anticoagulant type as are amino acids such as aspartate, histidine, and glutamine. Most plasma metabolites and lipids were unaffected by storage time and temperature. Based on this study, we recommend samples be collected using a single anticoagulant (preferably EDTA) with sample processing at <24 h at 4 °C.

Rapidly Processed Stool Swabs Approximate Stool Microbiota Profiles

Collection of fecal swab samples simplifies handling, processing, and archiving compared to collection of stool. This study confirms that fecal swabs reliably replicate the bacterial composition and diversity of stool samples, provided that the swabs are processed shortly after collection. These findings support the use of fecal swabs, when shipping and handling are done properly, to streamline measurements of intestinal microbiota.

Studies of the intestinal microbiome commonly utilize stool samples to measure the microbial composition in the distal gut. However, collection of stool can be difficult from some subjects under certain experimental conditions. Sampling of fecal material using sterile swabs can streamline sample collection, handling, and processing. In this study, we validate the use of swabs of fecal matter to approximate measurements of microbiota in stool using 16S rRNA gene Illumina amplicon sequencing and evaluate the effects of shipping time at ambient temperatures on accuracy. The results indicate that swab samples reliably replicate the stool microbiota bacterial composition, alpha diversity, and beta diversity when swabs are processed quickly (≤2 days) but that sample quality quickly degrades after this period and is accompanied by increased abundances of Enterobacteriaceae. Fresh swabs appear to be a viable alternative to stool sampling when standard collection methods are challenging, but extended exposure to ambient temperatures prior to processing threatens sample integrity.

IMPORTANCE Collection of fecal swab samples simplifies handling, processing, and archiving compared to collection of stool. This study confirms that fecal swabs reliably replicate the bacterial composition and diversity of stool samples, provided that the swabs are processed shortly after collection. These findings support the use of fecal swabs, when shipping and handling are done properly, to streamline measurements of intestinal microbiota.

Comparison between self sampling and provider collected samples for Human Papillomavirus (HPV) Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) testing in a Nigerian facility

Introduction

The multiple visits required for an effective Pap smear screening program is difficult to replicate in many developing countries. This precludes early diagnosis and care for patients with cervical cancer and contributes to its high mortality in these countries. HPV screening has higher specificity and high negative predictive value and has the advantage that materials can be self-collected, which permits the screening of women who for various cultural and religious reasons would be reluctant to come to the clinic to expose themselves for screening. The aim of the study was to assess the degree of agreement between self sampling for HPV DNA with samples collected by a health provider.

Methods

Each respondent selected from women presenting for cervical cancer screening underwent both self- and provider sampling for HPV DNA testing using Hybribio GenoArray.

Results

Of the 194 women screened, 12 (6.2%) and 19 (9.8%) had HPV on self sampling and provider col-lected samples respectively. The commonest HPV type seen using both techniques was HPV 58 (2.6%). Multiple HPV genotypes were seen in 1 (0.5%) and 5 cases (2.6%) of provider and self-collected samples respectively. The high risk-HPV detection rate was 7.2% when self sampled and 6.8% when sampled by the provider. There was moderate correlation between both sampling techniques (κ = 0.47, 95% CI: 21.3 - 72.3%, P < 0.05).

Conclusion

Our study shows moderate correlation between both sampling techniques. Larger multicentre studies will be needed to provide results generalisable to the Nigerian population. Keywords: Pap smear, HPV screening, cervical cancer, sample collection, self-sampling, provider collected, PCR, HPV DNA, Ile-Ife Nigeria.

Supplementing electronic health records through sample collection and patient diaries: A study set within a primary care research database

PURPOSE

To describe a novel observational study that supplemented primary care electronic health record (EHR) data with sample collection and patient diaries.

METHODS

The study was set in primary care in England. A list of 3974 potentially eligible patients was compiled using data from the Clinical Practice Research Datalink. Interested general practices opted into the study then confirmed patient suitability and sent out postal invitations. Participants completed a drug-use diary and provided saliva samples to the research team to combine with EHR data.

RESULTS

Of 252 practices contacted to participate, 66 (26%) mailed invitations to patients. Of the 3974 potentially eligible patients, 859 (22%) were at participating practices, and 526 (13%) were sent invitations. Of those invited, 117 (22%) consented to participate of whom 86 (74%) completed the study.

CONCLUSIONS

We have confirmed the feasibility of supplementing EHR with data collected directly from patients. Although the present study successfully collected essential data from patients, it also underlined the requirement for improved engagement with both patients and general practitioners to support similar studies.

Vitamin Concentrations in Human Milk Vary with Time within Feed, Circadian Rhythm, and Single-Dose Supplementation

Background: Human milk is the subject of many studies, but procedures for representative sample collection have not been established. Our improved methods for milk micronutrient analysis now enable systematic study of factors that affect its concentrations.Objective: We evaluated the effects of sample collection protocols, variations in circadian rhythms, subject variability, and acute maternal micronutrient supplementation on milk vitamin concentrations.Methods: In the BMQ (Breast-Milk-Quality) study, we recruited 18 healthy women (aged 18-26 y) in Dhaka, Bangladesh, at 2-4 mo of lactation for a 3-d supplementation study. On day 1, no supplements were given; on days 2 and 3, participants consumed ∼1 time and 2 times, respectively, the US-Canadian Recommended Dietary Allowances for vitamins at breakfast (0800-0859). Milk was collected during every feeding from the same breast over 24 h. Milk expressed in the first 2 min (aliquot I) was collected separately from the remainder (aliquot II); a third aliquot (aliquot III) was saved by combining aliquots I and II. Thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, and vitamins B-6, B-12, A, and E and fat were measured in each sample.Results: Significant but small differences (14-18%) between aliquots were found for all vitamins except for vitamins B-6 and B-12. Circadian variance was significant except for fat-adjusted vitamins A and E, with a higher contribution to total variance with supplementation. Between-subject variability accounted for most of the total variance. Afternoon and evening samples best reflected daily vitamin concentrations for all study days. Acute supplementation effects were found for thiamin, riboflavin, and vitamins B-6 and A at 2-4 h postdosing, with 0.1-6.17% passing into milk. Supplementation was reflected in fasting, 24-h postdose samples for riboflavin and vitamin B-6. Maximum amounts of dose-responding vitamins in 1 feeding ranged from 4.7% to 21.8% (day 2) and 8.2% to 35.0% (day 3) of Adequate Intake.Conclusions: In the milk of Bangladeshi mothers, differences in vitamin concentrations between aliquots within feedings and by circadian variance were significant but small. Afternoon and evening collection provided the most-representative samples. Supplementation acutely affects some breast-milk micronutrient concentrations. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT02756026.

Pseudothrombocytopenia with multiple anticoagulant sample collection tubes

The knowledge of pseudothrombocytopenia (PTCP) is important for the accuracy of a clinical assessment and for avoiding unnecessary treatment. An elderly patient was hospitalized with left lung pneumonia. Severe thrombocytopenia [platelet (PLT) number: 18 × 10⁹/L] without any clinical bleeding was found in ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid blood collection tube. PLT measurement was repeated in various anticoagulant [sodium citrate, lithium heparin, disodium oxalate, hirudin, and magnesium sulfate (Mg-sulfate)] sample collection tubes and all of them showed thrombocytopenia except with Mg-sulfate. To the best of our knowledge, PTCP with five anticoagulant sample collection tubes has not been reported earlier.

Sample Management: Recommendation for Best Practices and Harmonization from the Global Bioanalysis Consortium Harmonization Team

The importance of appropriate sample management in regulated bioanalysis is undeniable for clinical and non-clinical study support due to the fact that if the samples are compromised at any stage prior to analysis, the study results may be affected. Health authority regulations do not contain specific guidance on sample management; therefore, as part of the Global Bioanalysis Consortium (GBC), the A5 team was established to discuss sample management requirements and to put forward recommendations. The recommendations from the team concern the entire life span of the sample and include the following: 1. Sampling procedures should be described in the protocol or within the laboratory manual. This information should include the volume of the sample to be collected, the required anticoagulant, light sensitivity, collection and storage containers, and labeling with a unique identifier. 2. The correct procedures for processing and then storing the samples after collection at the clinical/non-clinical testing site and during shipment are also very important to ensure the analyte(s) stability and should be documented. 3. Chain of custody for the samples must be maintained throughout the complete life span of each sample. This is typically maintained via paper and electronic data systems, including Laboratory Information Management Systems (LIMS) where available. 4. Pre- and post-analysis storage location and conditions must also be clearly defined at the analytical laboratory. The storage temperature of the samples must be traceable and controlled by monitoring and warning alerts. The team suggests moving away from using temperatures and to adopt standard terminology of "room temperature," "refrigerator," "freezer," and "ultra-freezer" that have defined and industry-wide accepted temperature ranges. 5. At the end of the study, documentation of the samples' disposal is required.

Sample Collection Method Bias Effects in Quantitative Phosphoproteomics

Current advances in selective enrichment, fractionation, and MS detection of phosphorylated peptides allowed identification and quantitation of tens of thousands phosphosites from minute amounts of biological material. One of the major challenges in the field is preserving the in vivo phosphorylation state of the proteins throughout the sample preparation workflow. This is typically achieved by using phosphatase inhibitors and denaturing conditions during cell lysis. Here we determine if the upstream cell collection techniques could introduce changes in protein phosphorylation. To evaluate the effect of sample collection protocols on the global phosphorylation status of the cell, we compared different sample workflows by metabolic labeling and quantitative mass spectrometry on Saccharomyces cerevisiae cell cultures. We identified highly similar phosphopeptides for cells harvested in ice cold isotonic phosphate buffer, cold ethanol, trichloroacetic acid, and liquid nitrogen. However, quantitative analyses revealed that the commonly used phosphate buffer unexpectedly activated signaling events. Such effects may introduce systematic bias in phosphoproteomics measurements and biochemical analysis.

African Swine Fever Diagnosis Adapted to Tropical Conditions by the Use of Dried-blood Filter Papers

The performance of Whatman 3-MM filter papers for the collection, drying, shipment and long-term storage of blood at ambient temperature, and for the detection of African swine fever virus and antibodies was assessed. Conventional and real-time PCR, viral isolation and antibody detection by ELISA were performed on paired samples (blood/tissue versus dried-blood 3-MM filter papers) collected from experimentally infected pigs and from farm pigs in Madagascar and Côte d'Ivoire. 3-MM filter papers were used directly in the conventional and real-time PCR without previous extraction of nucleic acids. Tests that performed better with 3-MM filter papers were in descending order: virus isolation, real-time UPL PCR and conventional PCR. The analytical sensitivity of real-time UPL PCR on filter papers was similar to conventional testing (virus isolation or conventional PCR) on organs or blood. In addition, blood-dried filter papers were tested in ELISA for antibody detection and the observed sensitivity was very close to conventional detection on serum samples and gave comparable results. Filter papers were stored up to 9 months at 20-25°C and for 2 months at 37°C without significant loss of sensitivity for virus genome detection. All tests on 3-MM filter papers had 100% specificity compared to the gold standards. Whatman 3-MM filter papers have the advantage of being cheap and of preserving virus viability for future virus isolation and characterization. In this study, Whatman 3-MM filter papers proved to be a suitable support for the collection, storage and use of blood in remote areas of tropical countries without the need for a cold chain and thus provide new possibilities for antibody testing and virus isolation.

Microbial monitoring and methods of sample collection: a GITMO survey (Gruppo Trapianto di Midollo Osseo)

The collection of microbiological samples represents an important aspect of care both for doctors as well as nurses. It is important to recognise and identify some key points, to avoid performing ‘unnecessary’ or ‘incorrect’ sampling, which may give useless or even misleading results, these are: the moment at which the sample is collected, the collection method and timing (if indicated). The comparison between the various nursing members of the Italian National bone marrow transplant group (GITMO), showed diversity of practice across all fields. A formal survey was therefore conducted within GITMO centres looking at the methods of microbiological sample collection. These results were compared with the literature, and in addition to the lack of homogeneity of practice within the centres, a lack of compliance with the recommendations was also observed. To evaluate the effectiveness of this survey in highlighting awareness of this issue and the presence of relevant guidelines, the questionnaire was repeated (with the same centres responding), which demonstrated no major changes in care practices.

Major odorants released as urinary volatiles by urinary incontinent patients

In this study, volatile urinary components were collected using three different types of samples from patients suffering from urinary incontinence (UI): (1) urine (A); (2) urine + non-used pad (B); and (3) urine + used pad (C). In addition, urine + non-used pad (D) samples from non-patients were also collected as a reference. The collection of urinary volatiles was conducted with the aid of a glass impinger-based mini-chamber method. Each of the four sample types (A through D) was placed in a glass impinger and incubated for 4 hours at 37 °C. Ultra pure air was then passed through the chamber, and volatile urine gas components were collected into Tedlar bags at the other end. These bag samples were then analyzed for a wide range of VOCs and major offensive odorants (e.g., reduced sulfur compounds (RSCs), carbonyls, trimethylamine (TMA), ammonia, etc.). Among the various odorants, sulfur compounds (methanethiol and hydrogen sulfide) and aldehydes (acetaldehyde, butylaldehyde, and isovaleraldehyde) were detected above odor threshold and predicted to contribute most effectively to odor intensity of urine incontinence.

Conceptual and methodological issues relevant to cytokine and inflammatory marker measurements in clinical research

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

To provide clinical investigators with an understanding of factors to consider when wishing to add cytokine and inflammatory marker measurements to their studies.

RECENT FINDINGS

Inflammation involves complex and coordinated responses of the immune system to tissue damage. In the absence of tools to routinely assess inflammation within living tissues, measurements of humoral factors such as cytokines and other inflammatory mediators or markers can provide predictive clinical information and insights into disease mechanisms. Historically, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) became the gold standard, yet this approach of measuring a single protein in each sample limits the amount of information which can be obtained from limited amounts of human sample. In recent years, commercially available multiplex technologies which detect large numbers of proteins in a limited volume have provided investigators with opportunities to begin addressing the complexity of inflammatory responses. Nevertheless, great attention needs to be paid to many aspects of study design, sample collection, sample measurement and data analysis. These considerations are especially significant when using technologies for which experience remains limited.

SUMMARY

Whereas measurements of peripheral levels of inflammatory markers can add important mechanistic elements to human subject research, careful attention to conceptual and methodological considerations is essential, especially when using novel technologies.

The current status of IGF-I assays--a 2009 update

For almost three decades, the measurement of circulating IGF-I has constituted a highly important biochemical tool in the management of GH disorders. In fact, in acromegaly the importance of circulating IGF-I has increased following the introduction of the GH receptor antagonist pegvisomant, as the use of this drug makes it impossible to use circulating GH as a monitor of disease activity. In addition, determination of circulating IGF-I constitutes a valuable scientific tool in various research areas, from epidemiological investigations through clinical trials and experimental studies. The multiple facets of IGF-I physiology and patho-physiology may explain why numerous endocrine laboratories have invested in IGF-I assays, by means of either in-house assays or commercial kits. However, despite its widespread use, the measurement of IGF-I is by no means trivial. On the contrary, the pronounced binding of IGF-I to the high-affinity IGF-binding proteins (IGFBPs) constitutes a notorious source of error, which has necessitated the development of methods that more or less successfully circumvent interference from the IGFBPs. Furthermore, there are some unsolved issues with the international standardization of the different IGF-I assays and there is no consensus regarding the procedures used when collecting and storing samples for measurement of circulating IGF-I. The aim of this review is to discuss the current state of the art of IGF-I immunoassays and to present the current analytical problems with IGF-I measurements. Finally, we would like to suggest an agenda that may be used when trying to produce internationally accepted uniform requirements for future IGF-I assays.