Discrimination between Synthetically Administered and Endogenous Thiouracil Based on Monitoring of Urine, Muscle, and Thyroid Tissue: An in Vivo Study in Young and Adult Bovines

Thiouracil (TU), synthesized for its thyroid-regulating capacities and alternatively misused in livestock for its weight-gaining effects, is acknowledged to have an endogenous origin. Discrimination between low-level abuse and endogenous occurrence is challenging and unexplored in an experimental setting. Therefore, cows (n = 16) and calves (n = 18) were subjected to a rapeseed-supplemented diet or treated with synthetic TU. Significant higher urinary TU levels were recorded after TU administration (<CC_α, 15 642 μg L^-1) compared to rapeseed supplementation (<CC_α, 65.8 μg L^-1), however, with overlapping values. TU was not detected in the edible meat; however, concentrations between the CC_α and 10 μg kg^-1 were noted in thyroid tissue of calves and cows following rapeseed supplementation. The latter concentrations were significantly higher in thyroid tissue of calves (22.9-41.8 μg kg^-1) and cows (16.9-36.7 μg kg^-1) after synthetic TU administration. These results strongly point toward thyroid analysis as a discriminatory tool.

Toward a new European threshold to discriminate illegally administered from naturally occurring thiouracil in livestock

Thiouracil is a thyrostat inhibiting the thyroid function, resulting in fraudulent weight gain if applied in the fattening of livestock. The latter abuse is strictly forbidden and monitored in the European Union. Recently, endogenous sources of thiouracil were identified after frequently monitoring low-level thiouracil positive urine samples and a "recommend concentration" (RC) of 10 μg/L was suggested by the EURL to facilitate decision-making. However, the systematic occurrence of urine samples exceeding the RC led to demands for international surveys defining an epidemiologic threshold. Therefore, six European member states (France, Poland, The Netherlands, United Kingdom, Norway, and Belgium) have shared their official thiouracil data (2010-2012) collected from bovines, porcines, and small livestock with 95 and 99% percentiles of 8.1 and 18.2 μg/L for bovines (n = 3894); 7.4 and 13.5 μg/L for porcines (n = 654); and 7.4 μg/L (95% only) for small livestock (n = 85), respectively. Bovine percentiles decreased with the animal age (nonadults had significantly higher levels for bovines), and higher levels were observed in male bovines compared to female bovines.

Excretion profile of corticosteroids in bovine urine compared with tissue residues after therapeutic and growth-promoting administration of dexamethasone

The illicit use of dexamethasone as growth-promoting agent in animal breeding is still practiced within the EU constituting a health risk for meat consumers. An experimental study was developed to assess dexamethasone urinary excretion and tissue distribution (liver, kidney, and muscle) in male calves after therapeutic and growth-promoting administration. Urine and tissue samples collected from treated and untreated bovines were also investigated for the presence of other natural and synthetic corticosteroids (prednisolone, prednisone, hydrocortisone, and cortisone), in order to study a possible correlation with dexamethasone administration and to clarify prednisolone origin. Analyses were performed by a multi-residue LC-MS/MS method developed and validated according to the Commission Decision 2002/657/EC. The results confirm the rapid rate of dexamethasone urinary excretion, irrespective of the dosage, the duration and the route of administration, and the disappearance of cortisone and hydrocortisone during the treatment. Dexamethasone was distributed to the tissues where the elimination rate proceeded relatively slower as suggested by the presence of residues one month after the withdrawal of the therapeutic treatment. An increase in the number of positive findings for prednisolone, in association with higher levels of cortisone and hydrocortisone, was observed in urine samples collected from slaughterhouse rather than those collected at the farm. Prednisone residues were found only in one urine sample that showed the highest levels of prednisolone, hydrocortisone, and cortisone. The occurrence of prednisolone residues in urine and even in tissue samples confirms the endogenous nature of this molecule.

METABOLISM, PHARMACOKINETICS, TISSUE DISTRIBUTION, AND EXCRETION OF [14C]CP-424391 IN RATS

CP-424391, 2-amino-N-[3aR-benzyl-2-methyl-3-oxo-2,3,3a,4,6,7-hexahydro-pyrazolo[4,3-c]pyridin-5-yl)-1R-benzyloxymethyl-2-oxoethyl]-isobutyramide, is an orally active growth hormone secretagogue currently being developed. In this study, we investigated the metabolic fate and disposition of radiolabeled CP-424391 in rats. Following 15 mg/kg single oral administration to Sprague-Dawley rats, 91% of the radiolabeled dose was recovered. Feces was the major route of excretion: 77% of the dose recovered in feces of the female rat and 84% in the male. Excretion in the urine was 15% in the female rat compared with 7% in the male. Both fecal and urinary metabolic profiles were consistent in both genders. The metabolic pathways of CP-424391 were oxidation at the benzyl group of the O-benzylserine moiety, N-demethylation of pyrazolidine, and/or O-debenzylation. In circulation, CP-424391 was absorbed within the first hour to an average apparent C(max) of 1.44 microg/ml. CP-424391 accounts for about 40% of radioactivity area under the plasma concentration-time curve and C(max) in circulation. The plasma terminal elimination half-life of CP-424391 was 2.4 h and for total radioactivity was 2.8 h. The radioactivity was widely distributed in all tissues except for the central nervous system. [(14)C]CP-424391 radioactivity was eliminated from most tissues by 9 h with the exception of liver, skin, and uvea. By 168 h, [(14)C]CP-424391 radioactivity remained localized only in the uvea.

Detection and Confirmation of Ractopamine and Its Metabolites in Horse Urine After Paylean® Administration*

We have investigated the detection, confirmation, and metabolism of the beta-adrenergic agonist ractopamine administered as Paylean to the horse. A Testing Components Corporation enzyme-linked imunosorbent assay (ELISA) kit for ractopamine displayed linear response between 1.0 and 100 ng/mL with an I-50 of 10 ng/mL and an effective screening limit of detection of 50 ng/mL. The kit was readily able to detect ractopamine equivalents in unhydrolyzed urine up to 24 h following a 300-mg oral dose. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) confirmation comprised glucuronidase treatment, solid-phase extraction, and trimethylsilyl derivatization, with selected-ion monitoring of ractopamine-tris(trimethylsilane) (TMS) m/z 267, 250, 179, and 502 ions. Quantitation was elaborated in comparison to a 445 Mw isoxsuprine-bis(TMS) internal standard monitored simultaneously. The instrumental limit of detection, defined as that number of ng on column for which signal-to-noise ratios for one or more diagnostic ions fell below a value of three, was 0.1 ng, corresponding to roughly 5 ng/mL in matrix. Based on the quantitation ions for ractopamine standards extracted from urine, standard curves showed a linear response for ractopamine concentrations between 10 and 100 ng/mL with a correlation coefficient r > 0.99, whereas standards in the concentration range of 10-1000 ng/mL were fit to a second-order regression curve with r > 0.99. The lower limit of detection for ractopamine in urine, defined as the lowest concentration at which the identity of ractopamine could be confirmed by comparison of diagnostic MS ion ratios, ranged between 25 and 50 ng/mL. Urine concentration of parent ractopamine 24 h post-dose was measured at 360 ng/mL by GC-MS after oral administration of 300 mg. Urinary metabolites were identified by electrospray ionization (+) tandem quadrupole mass spectrometry and were shown to include glucuronide, methyl, and mixed methyl-glucuronide conjugates. We also considered the possibility that an unusual conjugate added 113 amu to give an observed m/z 415 [M+H] species or two times 113 amu to give an m/z 528 [M+H] species with a daughter ion mass spectrum related to the previous one. Sulfate and mixed methyl-sulfate conjugates were revealed following glucuronidase treatment, suggesting that sulfation occurs in combination with glucuronidation. We noted a paired chromatographic peak phenomenon of apparent ractopamine metabolites appearing as doublets of equivalent intensity with nearly identical mass spectra on GC-MS and concluded that this phenomenon is consistent with Paylean being a mixture of RR, RS, SR, and SS diastereomers of ractopamine. The results suggest that ELISA-based screening followed by glucuronide hydrolysis, parent drug recovery, and TMS derivatization provide an effective pathway for detection and GC-MS confirmation of ractopamine in equine urine.

Histopathological Effects of Boldenone in Cattle

Histopathology of male cattle previously found positive for béta-boldenone in urine in the Netherlands and in Italy was studied. The animals were derived from practice and several weeks had passed after the finding of béta-boldenone before the animals were examined. The animals consisted of 34 male veal calves and one finishing bull. In the prostate gland hypersecretion, cyst formation (45%) and hyperplasia of the urethral epithelium was observed, in the bulbo-urethral gland similar alterations were present. The testis showed reduced development and degeneration of the germinal epithelium (70%), leading to debris and syncytial cell formation in the lumina. Stromal proliferation was evident. In some animals the liver was sampled and showed periportal fibrosis, bile duct proliferation and sometimes necrosis. The bull also showed degeneration of the germinal epithelium of the testis and absence of sperm production, the prostate gland showed some secretion and had an atrophic appearance. It is concluded that béta-boldenone may lead to degeneration of the germinal epithelium of the testis and hypersecretion and cyst formation in the prostate and bulbo-urethral gland, which alterations may heal in time.

Sequential changes in pancreatic markers in acute pancreatitis

BACKGROUND

Trypsinogen activation within acinar cells plays a crucial role in the pathogenesis of acute pancreatitis (AP). Our aim was to characterize temporal changes of trypsinogen-1, trypsinogen-2, complexes of trypsin-1-alpha1-antitrypsin (T1-AAT) and trypsin-2-alpha1-antitrypsin (T2-AAT), trypsinogen activation peptide (TAP) and pancreatic secretory trypsin inhibitor (PSTI) in patients with AP.

METHODS

The study comprised 64 consecutive patients with AP (19 with severe disease) and 32 controls. The concentrations of trypsinogen-1 and -2, PSTI, T1-AAT and T2-AAT were determined by time-resolved immunofluorometric assays (IFMA), and TAP was measured using a competitive enzyme immunoassay from serum and urine.

RESULTS

The concentrations of trypsinogen-1 and -2 in serum reflected similar patterns, but excretion of trypsinogen-1 into urine was markedly lower than that of trypsinogen-2, the concentration of which correlated strongly with disease severity. The concentrations of T1-AAT were no higher in severe AP than in mild AP, while T2-AAT concentrations were significantly higher in severe than in mild disease. PSTI increased over the course of several days, showing strong correlation with disease severity. The concentrations of plasma and urinary TAP decreased rapidly to undetectable levels. During the early phase of AP, TAP correlated with the disease severity in plasma and urine but there was no difference between controls and patients with mild AP.

CONCLUSION

More pronounced changes in trypsinogen-2 and its complex with AAT than in those of trypsinogen-1 were demonstrated, suggesting that trypsinogen-2 might play a more important role in the pathogenesis of AP than earlier believed. Urinary PSTI showed features warranting further investigations as a marker of disease severity.

Leptin measurement in urine in children and its relationship to other growth peptides in serum and urine

OBJECTIVE

Leptin has been implicated in the interaction between nutrition, energy balance and sexual maturation in humans. A non-invasive method of measuring leptin would greatly facilitate longitudinal studies of changes in leptin in normal children. The aim of this study was to evaluate the use of urinary leptin as a surrogate for serum leptin measurements.

DESIGN

We have modified and validated a serum immunoradiometric assay (IRMA) kit for the measurement of leptin in urine, and subsequently investigated the relationship between urinary leptin and other growth-related proteins.

METHODS

Cross-sectional study: urinary leptin, measured in the first morning urine voided and expressed as ng excreted overnight, and serum concentrations of leptin, IGF-I, IGF-II, IGFBP-3 and IGFBP-1 were determined in a cohort of 188 healthy schoolchildren aged 5-19 years (88 males, 100 females). Height, weight and pubertal status were assessed in all children. Longitudinal study: urinary levels of leptin, IGF-I and GH were measured daily in two adults (one male, one female) over a period of 6 weeks.

RESULTS

The detection limit of this modified assay was 0.59 ng/L. The intra- and interassay coefficients of variation range was 4-8% and 4-9%, respectively. The recovery of recombinant leptin added to urine was 98-108%, and the assay had a recovery rate for serial dilution in the range of 106-112%. Urinary leptin correlated significantly with serum leptin (r = +0.65, P < 0.01). Urinary leptin showed similar changes through puberty to those of serum leptin, with levels rising in females throughout puberty, whereas in males levels peaked at G2/G3 then decreased. BMI SDS was the main determinant of urinary leptin, as it was for serum leptin. In the cross-sectional study urinary leptin correlated significantly with serum IGF-I (r = +0.41, P = 0.001), IGF-II (r = +0.19, P = 0.05), IGFBP-3 (r = +0.29, P = 0.001) and IGFBP-1 (r = -0.25, P = 0.001). In the adult study, leptin was also detected in urine with similar night-to-night variability to that found for IGF-I and GH.

CONCLUSION

Urinary leptin is a valid marker of serum leptin concentrations, and therefore this non-invasive assay would be a useful tool for longitudinal assessment of changes in leptin in children.

A comparison of multiple urine markers for interstitial cystitis

PURPOSE

We measured several urine markers in 24-hour specimens from patients with interstitial cystitis and healthy controls. For each marker we determined whether the urine level was significantly different in interstitial cystitis and control cases, and whether the marker level correlated with the symptom score.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Study participants included 36 female patients with interstitial cystitis and 36 age matched female volunteers. Multiple urine aliquots were obtained to measure the various markers.

RESULTS

Certain markers were significantly increased in interstitial cystitis, including anti-proliferative factor, epidermal growth factor, insulin-like growth factor (IGF) binding protein-3 and interleukin (IL)-6. Markers significantly decreased in interstitial cystitis were heparin-binding epidermal growth factor-like growth factor, cyclic guanosine monophosphate and methylhistamine. Other markers were not significantly different in the interstitial cystitis and control groups, including total glycosaminoglycans, epitectin, hyaluronic acid, IL-8, IL-1 and nitrates plus nitrites. IGF-1 was undetectable in 24-hour urine samples but spot voided samples from the same interstitial cystitis population had IGF-1 levels similar to previously reported levels. The only significant association of marker with symptom score was a positive correlation of IL-6 with nocturia. For all markers the conclusions were the same whether the marker was normalized to creatinine or to 24 hours.

CONCLUSIONS

This study confirmed several previously reported urine alterations in interstitial cystitis, including increased anti-proliferative factor, epidermal growth factor, IGF binding protein-3 and IL-6, and decreased heparin-binding epidermal growth factor-like growth factor and cyclic guanosine monophosphate. Of all markers studied anti-proliferative factor had the least overlap in the interstitial cystitis and control groups, and so it is the most likely candidate to become a diagnostic test.

Sensitivity and specificity of antiproliferative factor, heparin-binding epidermal growth factor-like growth factor, and epidermal growth factor as urine markers for interstitial cystitis

We previously determined that the urine of interstitial cystitis (IC) patients specifically contains a factor (antiproliferative factor [APF]) that inhibits primary bladder epithelial cell proliferation, and that it has significantly decreased levels of heparin-binding epidermal growth factor-like growth factor (HB-EGF) and increased levels of epidermal growth factor (EGF) compared with urine from asymptomatic controls and patients with bacterial cystitis. We sought to confirm the specificity of these findings for IC using a larger patient population, including control patients with a variety of urogenital disorders. Clean catch urine specimens were collected from 219 symptomatic IC patients, 113 asymptomatic controls without bladder disease, and 211 patients with various urogenital diseases including acute bacterial cystitis, vulvovaginitis, chronic nonbacterial prostatitis, overactive bladder, hematuria, stress incontinence, neurogenic bladder, benign prostatic hyperplasia, bladder or pelvic pain without voiding symptoms, bladder cancer, prostate cancer, or miscellaneous diagnoses including anatomic disorders. APF activity was determined by (3)H-thymidine incorporation into primary normal adult human bladder epithelial cells. HB-EGF and EGF levels were determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. APF activity was present significantly more often in IC than control urine specimens (P <0.005 for IC vs any control group; sensitivity = 94%, specificity = 95%, P <10(-82) for IC vs all controls). HB-EGF levels were also significantly lower and EGF levels significantly higher in IC urine than in specimens from controls (P <10(-84) and P <10(-36), respectively). These findings confirm the utility of APF, HB-EGF, and EGF as markers for IC. Understanding the reasons for altered levels of these markers may lead to understanding the pathogenesis of this disorder.

Chemotactic activity of CXC chemokines interleukin-8, growth-related oncogene-alpha, and epithelial cell-derived neutrophil-activating protein-78 in urine of patients with urosepsis

CXC chemokines are chemotactic cytokines that specifically act on neutrophils. To obtain insight into the extent of local production of CXC chemokines during acute pyelonephritis, interleukin (IL)-8, growth-related oncogene (GRO)-alpha, and epithelial cell-derived neutrophil-activating protein (ENA)-78 were measured in urine and plasma samples from patients with culture-proven urosepsis (n=33), healthy human control subjects with sterile urine (n=31), and human volunteers intravenously injected with endotoxin (n=11). Patients had profoundly elevated urine concentrations of chemokines with no (GRO-alpha and ENA-78) or little (IL-8) elevation in plasma. Endotoxin-challenged subjects demonstrated transient increases in plasma chemokine concentrations, with no (GRO-alpha) or little (IL-8 and ENA-78) elevation in urine. Urine from patients exerted chemotactic activity toward neutrophils, which was partially inhibited by neutralizing antibodies against IL-8, GRO-alpha, or ENA-78. During urosepsis, CXC chemokines are predominantly produced within the urinary tract, where they are involved in the recruitment of neutrophils to the urinary compartment.

Mitogenic action of lysophosphatidic acid in proximal tubular epithelial cells obtained from voided human urine

Focal tubular cell multiplication at sites on an injured nephron is a critical event in the recovery phase following acute tubular necrosis. During this process, numerous viable tubular cells exfoliate and are shed into the urine. Lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) is generated in the plasma membrane of injured cells and acts as an intercellular mediator of various biological processes, including inflammation, proliferation and repair. In the present study, exfoliated proximal tubule (PT) cells were isolated from human urine and the mitogenic effects of LPA were investigated as a model of repair and proliferation following renal injury. LPA stimulated a 23. 5% increase in DNA synthesis, a 29.4% increase in cell number and an 86.6% decrease in cAMP content. All of these responses were pertussis toxin sensitive, indicating the involvement of G(i)-type G-proteins in LPA signalling. Conversely, the LPA-induced DNA synthesis and the decrease in intracellular cAMP content were insensitive to wortmannin, an inhibitor of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K), suggesting a mitogenic response via PI3K-independent mechanisms. Furthermore, we detected specific mRNA transcripts for the recently cloned human LPA-receptors, endothelial differentiation gene (Edg)-2 and Edg-4 (Edg-2>>Edg-4) by reverse transcription-PCR in PT cells. Our data suggest that LPA may behave as a local growth factor in PT cells following tubular injury.

Urinary markers of malignancy

Transitional cell carcinoma (TCC) is the second most common malignancy in the genitourinary tract. The majority of urothelial tumors are superficial when the patient first presents, but despite adequate resection of the primary lesion the recurrence rate is particularly high. In a small but significant group of patients the tumor is primary invasive or subsequently can progress and leads to death. Voided urine can be easily obtained and therefore diagnostic urine tests would be ideal for screening or follow up of TCC. Although many urinary markers have been described, none of them is used routinely in clinical practice. Promising tumor markers still need to be evaluated in multi-center clinical studies. Larger prospective trials are necessary in order to identify prognostic indicators that would help to predict disease progression or response to different treatment modalities (BCG, chemo-, radiotherapy, etc.). Hopefully, new diagnostic urine tests will allow to identify patients who will most benefit from early cystectomy with or without adjuvant treatment, bladder sparing protocols or systemic treatment. In this paper we have reviewed the literature and discuss, from the clinician's point of view, the current status of various diagnostic tests for urinary markers. [Lee SJ, Lee WE, Chang SG, Lee CH, Kim JI. A comparative study of telomerase, Lewis X, BTA, NMP22 and urinary cytology in bladder tumor. J Urol 1999;161(suppl):152.]

Bladder stretch alters urinary heparin-binding epidermal growth factor and antiproliferative factor in patients with interstitial cystitis

PURPOSE

The etiology of interstitial cystitis is unknown. Urine from patients with interstitial cystitis has been shown to inhibit urothelial proliferation through a putative antiproliferative factor and to contain decreased levels of heparin-binding epidermal growth factor-like growth factor (HB-EGF) compared to controls. Stretch of detrusor smooth muscle cells is known to stimulate HB-EGF production. Because bladder hydrodistention sometimes alleviates the symptoms of interstitial cystitis, we determined whether the stretch stimulus of hydrodistention alters antiproliferative factor activity and/or HB-EGF in interstitial cystitis urine specimens.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Urine was collected immediately before, and 2 to 4 hours and 2 weeks after hydrodistention from 15 patients with symptoms and cystoscopic findings compatible with interstitial cystitis and 13 controls. Hydrodistention was performed with the subject under general or regional anesthesia and bladders were distended to 80 cm. water 3 times. Urinary HB-EGF was measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and urinary antiproliferative factor activity was determined by measuring 3H-thymidine uptake by normal human bladder urothelial cells.

RESULTS

Hydrodistention significantly increased urinary HB-EGF in patients with interstitial cystitis toward normal control values (before distention p = 0.003, 2 weeks after distention p = 0.67). Urine antiproliferative factor activity decreased significantly after hydrodistention in patients with interstitial cystitis. However, antiproliferative factor activity in interstitial cystitis and control specimens was still statistically different 2 weeks after distention (before distention p = 0.0000004, 2 weeks after distention p = 0.04).

CONCLUSIONS

Bladder stretch increased HB-EGF and conversely reduced antiproliferative factor activity in urine from patients with interstitial cystitis but not controls up to 2 weeks after distention. These results provide additional evidence for the possible role of antiproliferative factor and decreased HB-EGF in the pathophysiology of interstitial cystitis. To our knowledge this is also the first human study to show that in vivo bladder stretch can alter urinary factors that regulate cell growth.

Kinetics and disposition of hexarelin, a peptidic growth hormone secretagogue, in rats

To document the disposition of hexarelin, a peptidyl growth hormone secretagogue, male Sprague-Dawley rats received a 5-microg/kg bolus i.v. dose or three single s.c. doses of 5, 10, and 50 microg/kg. To assess hexarelin tissue distribution and excretion, rats were given 1 microg/kg of [(3)H]hexarelin (9.4 Ci/mmol). Metabolism of [(3)H]hexarelin was assessed in bile duct-exteriorized rats given 50 microg/kg where radiolabeled hexarelin biliary and urinary excretion was quantified. After its i.v. injection, hexarelin displayed a half-life of 75.9 +/- 9.3 min, a systemic clearance of 7.6 +/- 0.7 ml/min/kg, and a volume of distribution at steady state of 744 +/- 81 ml/kg. After s.c. administration, the area under the curve (477-3826 pmol.min/ml) estimated with increasing doses confirmed the absence of hexarelin accumulation. Clearance/F (12-15 ml/min/kg) and volume of distribution/F (1208-1222 ml/kg) were dose independent. Hexarelin bioavailability given s.c. was 64%. The highest radioactivity levels were detected in the kidney, liver, and duodenum. The pattern of hexarelin excretion was similar after i.v. or s.c. administrations. Total radioactivity in bile, urine, and feces corresponded to 60, 22, and 10% of the dose, respectively. Of the radioactivity excreted in bile and urine, 90 and 71% was unchanged hexarelin, respectively. These results suggest that: 1) the kinetics of hexarelin appear to be first order up to 50 microg/kg; 2) hexarelin is rapidly absorbed after s.c. administration; 3) biliary excretion is the primary route of hexarelin elimination; and 4) the high recovery of unchanged peptide in bile and urine demonstrates hexarelin stability toward proteolytic enzymes.

The future of doping control in athletes. Issues related to blood sampling

When current antidoping programmes were developed, the most frequently used doping agents were xenobiotics, such as stimulants and anabolic steroids, that are readily detectable in urine with the use of gas chromatography and mass spectrometry. As control of traditional doping agents became effective, some athletes turned to other means to improve performance, including blood doping and the application of recombinant peptide hormones such as erythropoietin and growth hormone. Doping with these agents is not easily detected in urine samples, and therefore new strategies must be developed as a supplement to those already in use. Such strategies will probably include analysing blood samples, as several of the most promising methods that are able to detect modern doping agents use blood as the analytical matrix. Non-autologous blood doping results in an admixture of self and foreign red blood cells that can be detected in a blood sample with the methods available. Methods to indicate doping with erythropoietin include the indirect finding of an elevated level of soluble transferrin receptor in serum, or a direct demonstration of a shift from the normal to an abnormal spectrum of erythropoietin isoforms. To indicate doping with growth hormone, a set of serum parameters including insulin growth factors and their binding proteins are under investigation as indirect evidence. A direct method using isotopic differences between endogenous and recombinant growth hormones is being investigated. A similar method has been established to detect the administration of testosterone esters. Several legal and ethical questions must be solved before blood sampling can become a part of routine doping control, but the major ethical question is whether sport can continue as today without proper methods to detect many modern doping agents.

Alpha 1-acid glycoprotein affinity columns for the clean-up of adrenergic drugs

alpha 1-Acid glycoproteins (AAGs) have a structure resembling beta-adrenergic receptors and bind several basic drugs in plasma. Chromatographic columns were prepared by linking epsilon-NH2 groups of AAG lysines to a Sepharose 4B support, in order to purify by affinity chromatography adrenergic drugs of possible use in animal production. Loading capacities, binding efficiency, memory effects and matrix interferences from urine samples were studied. The method developed involves sample application in buffered media (pH 7.4), washing with 5 ml of PBS, and elution with 4 ml of 1% v/v acetic acid. Under these conditions no memory effect was observed. Loading capacity is correlated with the physiological plasma binding rate (PB) of the drug. For clenbuterol (PB 50%) and anilino-like related drugs, 5 mg of AAG were able to bind about 15 x 10(-6) g of drug, with a 100% recovery from the column. Repeatability and reproducibility, expressed as RSD, were 4.2 and 5.4%, respectively. The calculated AAG: drug molar ratio was 4.5:1, indicating 22% of the AAG bound to the column retained drug affinity. Among phenolic-like agonists, salbutamol (PB 5%), fenoterol and isoxsuprine hardly interacted, whereas nylidrin, ritodrine and bamethan showed more effective binding. We also checked binding of other drugs of possible use in veterinary medicine. Application of the AAG column to spiked bovine urine revealed a mean recovery of 97.8%; no matrix interferences were observed.

Use of biosensors for rapid drug residue analysis without sample deconjugation or clean-up: a possible way forward

The drug salbutamol (SBL) is a beta-agonist that may be used illegally as an animal growth promoter. SBL is also a good example of a drug which is excreted in the form of glucuronides and sulfates. Such metabolites cause complexities in analysing for the presence of drug residues. In the majority of cases a process of deconjugation and sample clean-up is required prior to analysis. This is both time consuming and causes some loss of accuracy. In this study, the urine of calves treated with SBL orally for 3 d was collected during and after medication. Samples were assayed before and after hydrolysis by two different methods, radioimmunoassay (RIA) and a newly developed biosensor immunoassay (BIA). Some samples were also analysed by GC-MS. The results clearly showed that both screening assays (RIA and BIA) found high concentrations of SBL residues throughout the study. This was especially true in the BIA method. It was also demonstrated that urine sample analysis without the need for deconjugation or clean-up could be achieved. Results obtained by GC-MS tended to be an order of magnitude lower than the corresponding screening test results. This work showed that biosensor based veterinary drug residue testing procedures can be developed which can generate results in real time without the need for time consuming sample preparation.

Isolation and N-terminal sequence of multiple forms of granulins in human urine

Three molecular forms of granulins (also known as epithelins) were isolated, for the first time, in human urine. Their N-terminal sequences, which have also been determined, are identical to those of granulins A and B, previously isolated from human leukocytes, and of granulin F, never isolated before but whose primary structure is known on the basis of the cDNA sequence. The urinary molecules, which show a molecular weight of about 6.5 kDa, are most likely produced by a posttranslational proteolytic processing occurring at the level of the kidney, which appears to be the organ richest in granulin precursor mRNA. The molecular events underlying the precursor processing are unknown, even though the involvement of the protease kallikrein, an enzyme thought to be responsible for the processing of several polypeptidic growth factor precursors, could be hypothesized. Granulins, however, do not show antikallikrein activity. The presence in human urine of isoform F, previously not identified from other human sources, seems to support the hypothesis that mature forms of granulins are generated by an organ-specific precursor processing, on the basis of particular physiological requirements, and to suggest also that this isoform may play "in vivo" an important and specific role in the epithelial cells of the human kidney.

GRO alpha in the fetomaternal and amniotic fluid compartments during pregnancy and parturition

PROBLEM

GRO alpha/MGSA is a new member of the chemokine superfamily CXC(alpha) and is produced by a variety of cells including macrophages, fibroblasts, epithelial, and endothelial cells, and keratinocytes. This chemokine has chemoattractant activity and may participate in neutrophil recruitment and activation during the course of intrauterine infection. This study was conducted to investigate the effect of labor and microbial invasion of the amniotic cavity (MIAC) on amniotic fluid, fetal, and maternal plasma GRO alpha concentrations.

METHOD

A cross-sectional study was designed using parameters that included gestational age, results of amniotic fluid (AF) cultures, and labor status at the time of amniocentesis. Fluid was retrieved by transabdominal amniocentesis. MIAC was defined as a positive amniotic fluid culture for bacteria. Umbilical cord blood was retrieved at the time of delivery. Amniotic fluid, maternal and fetal plasma GRO alpha concentrations were measured with a sensitive and specific ELISA (Quantikine, R&D Systems, Minneapolis, MN).

RESULTS

1) GRO alpha was detectable in amniotic fluid, umbilical cord, and maternal plasma samples; 2) GRO alpha concentrations in amniotic fluid increased with advancing gestational age; 3) Both term and preterm gestations with MIAC were associated with higher amniotic fluid GRO alpha concentrations than those with sterile amniotic fluid, independent of the labor status (term, MIAC, labor: median 2.7 ng/ml, range 1.4-12.7 vs. term, no MIAC, labor: median 2.1 ng/ml, range 0.7-3.4, vs term, no MIAC, no labor: median 1.9 ng/ml, range 1.8-4.2; P < 0.005; preterm: MIAC median 5 ng/ml, range 0.6-47.9 vs. no MIAC: median 2.3 ng/ml, range 0.5-10; P < 0.008); 4) A strong correlation was found between umbilical cord plasma GRO alpha concentrations and neonatal neutrophil count, and between GRO alpha concentrations and white blood cell count in the amniotic fluid (r = 0.67, P < 0.0005 and r = 0.38, P < 0.001, respectively).

CONCLUSION

GRO alpha is a physiologic constituent of amniotic fluid and cord blood. Amniotic fluid GRO alpha concentrations increase with gestational age. Intrauterine infection both preterm and at term is associated with an increase in GRO alpha concentrations of amniotic fluid, suggesting that GRO alpha may play an important role in recruitment of neutrophils into the amniotic cavity.

Gas chromatographic/electron impact mass spectrometric selective confirmatory analysis of clenbuterol in human and bovine urine

A method for the confirmatory analysis of clenbuterol in human and bovine urine was developed. After a double washing of the acidified sample with tert-butyl methyl ether (only for bovine urine), and a solid-phase extraction with Bond-Elut Certify columns, derivatization was performed with trimethylboroxine. The extract was then analysed by gas chromatography/electron impact mass spectrometry. The advantages of the methylboronate derivative with respect to other derivatives are discussed in terms of chromatographic properties and, above all, of specificity of the electron impact mass spectrum. The method was successfully used for the confirmatory analyses of clenbuterol during the XXV Olympic Games of Barcelona.

A Mr 43,000 epidermal growth factor-related protein purified from the urine of breast cancer patients

A tumor-associated epidermal growth factor (EGF)-like activity was detected in the urine of breast cancer patients by means of an EGF radioreceptor assay and an anchorage-independent growth assay. The clonogenic growth factor activity of pooled void volume eluate fractions from a Bio-Gel P-30 column was completely neutralized by an anti-human epidermal growth factor antiserum but not by an anti-transforming growth factor alpha antiserum. This activity was determined in the urine of 71 breast cancer patients. A statistically significant correlation was found between EGF-like clonogenic activity and axillary lymph node status, tumor size, stage of disease, and grade of differentiation of the primary tumor. The Bio-Gel P-30 void volume fraction was used to purify the EGF-related polypeptide to apparent homogeneity by subsequent binding to and elution from A431 cells followed by isoelectric focusing. A polypeptide of a pI of approximately 3.4 was identified to be related to EGF by neutralization and immunoprecipitation experiments with anti-human epidermal growth factor antisera. This polypeptide migrated as a single band of Mr 43,000 in sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis.

Mechanisms contributing to the sex difference in levels of granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor in the urine of GM-CSF transgenic mice

Levels of granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) were 30- to 40-fold higher in the urine of male GM-CSF transgenic mice than in female transgenic mice, despite uniform elevations in both sexes of serum GM-CSF levels. Male transgenic bladder tissue produced two to four times more GM-CSF in vitro than female transgenic or control bladder tissue, but no sex differences were observed in the production of GM-CSF in vitro by kidney tissue. No sex differences were observed in the serum half-lives of native or recombinant GM-CSF in C57BL or littermate control mice, and the half-lives of recombinant GM-CSF were shorter than those of native GM-CSF. The studies indicated that some GM-CSF in urine can represent plasma GM-CSF cleared by the kidney, and native GM-CSF was cleared to the urine more efficiently than recombinant GM-CSF. Female transgenic mice exhibited a subnormal capacity to clear injected native GM-CSF to the urine. Although granulomas were present in the bladder wall of some transgenic mice, their presence did not correlate with the GM-CSF levels in the urine.

Quantitation and identification of human monocytic colony-stimulating factor in human serum by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay

An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) system for the quantitation of human monocytic colony-stimulating factor (hM-CSF) was established, which was based on the "dual antibody immunometric sandwich" principle using horse and rabbit polyvalent antibodies against human urinary colony-stimulating factor (CSF-HU). The minimal detectable level of hM-CSF was 10 U/mL, and the assays showed good reproducibility. As measured by this method, the average serum hM-CSF level of 20 normal adults was 540 +/- 110 U/mL (range, 300 to 800 U/mL). The peak of hM-CSF measured by ELISA was identical to that measured by bioassay when semipurified CSF-HU was fractionated by reversed-phase high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). This method detected two types of hM-CSF, which had approximate molecular weights of 85 Kd (CSF-HU) and 45 Kd in human serum and urine; the ratio of 85:45 Kd was very high in serum and the amounts of the two types were nearly equal in urine. After anticancer chemotherapy, the serum hM-CSF level of one half of the patients with hematological malignancy was elevated according to the reduction in neutrophil number, while it was almost in the normal range in the other half of the patients, indicating the possibility that anticancer chemotherapy damaged the hM-CSF-producing cells. This ELISA method may be useful for monitoring the serum hM-CSF level after anticancer chemotherapy.

Increased levels of fibroblast growth factor-like activity in urine from patients with bladder or kidney cancer

Growth factor activity was partially purified from human renal tumors and a human bladder cancer cell line by heparin-Sepharose chromatography. This activity stimulated bovine capillary endothelial cell proliferation and DNA synthesis in BALB/c 3T3 cells. Partially purified growth factor preparations from these tumors contained a protein with an approximate molecular weight of 17,000 which was recognized by a polyclonal antiserum raised against a peptide fragment of basic fibroblast growth factor (FGF). This growth factor activity appears to be related to basic fibroblast growth factor. Measurement of FGF-like activity in 50 urine samples from 32 adult males showed that 55% (6 of 11) of the urine samples from patients with bladder cancer and 100% (7 of 7) of the urine samples from patients with kidney cancer contained activity equivalent to more than 20 ng of basic FGF/h of urine production. In contrast, only 6% (2 of 32) of the urine samples from controls, patients with a benign disease, or patients with a history of bladder or kidney cancer contained this level of growth factor activity. These results suggest that patients with bladder or kidney cancer release an FGF-like factor into urine which may be used as a marker for these tumors.

Transferrin as a growth factor for rat bladder carcinoma cells in culture

Using the heterotopically transplanted rat urinary bladder system, we previously showed that normal urine has a tumor-enhancing effect on carcinogen-initiated urothelium. In an attempt to isolate a urinary growth-stimulating (tumor-enhancing) factor(s), urine was first fractionated by Bio-Gel P-100 column chromatography, and each fraction was tested for inducibility of ornithine decarboxylase (ODC) and growth-stimulatory activity in a target rat bladder carcinoma cell line, 804G. ODC inducibility was chosen as a marker for tumor-enhancing effect because it is a key characteristic of tumor promoters. There was a single peak demonstrating a strong growth-stimulatory activity as measured by [3H]thymidine incorporation. There were two ODC-inducible peaks, one located at a high molecular weight region and partly overlapped with the growth-stimulatory peak. The other was located at a lower molecular weight region. CM-Sephadex chromatography and subsequent high performance liquid chromatography successfully separated the high molecular weight-ODC activity from the growth-stimulatory activity. The latter component was found to contain transferrin (TF) by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and immunodiffusion with anti-rat TF antibody and was designated as urinary transferrin fraction. The urinary TF fraction and authentic rat TF stimulated growth of several rat bladder carcinoma cells maintained in a serum-free as well as a serum-deficient medium. The response was proportional to the concentration of TF ranging from 0.2 to 5 microgram/ml. Preincubation of the urinary TF fraction or TF with an anti-rat TF significantly reduced their growth-stimulatory effects in 804G cells. The high molecular weight-ODC also stimulated cell growth but to a lesser extent. These results when combined with our previous observations suggest that TF and possibly also ODC-inducible substances may be important urinary components participating in the tumor promotion by urine.

Presence of heparin binding growth factor in mouse bladder tumors and urine from mice with bladder cancer

Heparin affinity chromatography has been used to partially purify angiogenic factors from normal and neoplastic tissue. The same technique was used to partially purify angiogenic-like factors from two mouse bladder tumors and urine from mice with bladder cancer. Both MBT-2 and MB49 tumors contained heparin-binding 3T3 cell growth factor activity that was eluted by 1.2 to 1.4 M salt. The growth factor isolated from MBT-2 tumor was mitogenic for capillary endothelial cells. Analysis of the 1.2 M heparin eluate by high-pressure liquid chromatography showed that it consisted of two 3T3 cell growth factors with molecular weights of 16,000 and 26,000. The growth factor activity isolated from MB49 tumors had an affinity for Bio-rex 70 which was similar to other cationic heparin binding growth factors. Analysis of urine pooled from tumor-bearing mice by heparin-Sepharose chromatography demonstrated 3T3 cell growth factor activity in fractions eluted with 1 to 1.4 and 2.5 M dsalt, whereas no significant growth factor activity was detected in pooled urine from control mice. The growth factor activity found in mouse bladder tumors differed from epidermal growth factor, transforming growth factor-alpha, and platelet-derived growth factor in terms of affinity for heparin-Sepharose and molecular weight. The observation that urine from tumor-bearing mice contains increased concentrations of this growth factor compared to normal urine suggests that a similar relationship may exist for human urine.

The heterotopically transplanted rat urinary bladder as a model for detection of tumor-promoting urinary growth factor(s)

The heterotopically transplanted rat urinary bladder (HTB) was developed in our laboratory as a model to study the role of urine in urinary bladder carcinogenesis. With this model, normal urine was found to enhance urinary bladder carcinogenesis initiated by N-methyl-N-nitrosourea or N-butyl-N-(4-hydroxybutyl)nitrosamine. Two crude urinary components (Fractions I and II) were obtained by gel filtration chromatography; they stimulated ornithine decarboxylase (ODC) in a test bladder carcinoma cell line 804G, and promoted carcinogenesis in the HTB system. Fraction I was found to stimulate growth of 804G cells in vitro. Preliminary data indicate that Fraction I contains at least one, and possibly two heat-stable ODC-inducible and mitogenic components. Further characterization of these components is in progress. The HTB system has been demonstrated to be useful for other investigations; for example, alpha-difluoromethylornithine, an enzyme-activated irreversible inhibitor of ODC, when instilled repeatedly to the bladder lumen, inhibited tumorigenesis in HTBs.

Regulation of human B lymphopoiesis: effect of a urinary activity associated with cyclic neutropenia

Urine from a patient with cyclic neutropenia was found to contain a lymphopoietic activity that acts as a growth factor for human pre-B cells. This biologic activity was detectable during the week preceding, but not during, the period of neutropenia. This corresponded with a periodic excessive accumulation of pre-B cells in the marrow of this patient. Urine preparations were added to cultures of normal human bone marrow that had been depleted of B cells. Pre-B cells were generated in these cultures but not in cultures containing urine preparations from normal donors. Pre-B cells were also generated from bone marrow that had been depleted of 177.17+ cells and the majority of pre-B cells. This is the first report of a hemopoietic activity which affects human pre-B cells. This activity may represent a normal regulatory molecule that is periodically produced in excess in this patient.

Distinct high-performance liquid chromatography pattern of transforming growth factor activity in urine of cancer patients as compared with that of normal individuals

Reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) performed on urine from cancer patients and normal controls revealed the presence of seven chromatographically distinct peaks of transforming growth factor (TGF) activity, as measured by colony formation of normal rat kidney cells in soft agar. Comparison of urines from normal donors and cancer patients showed no differences in EGF (epidermal growth factor)-dependent beta-TGF-like activity but did reveal distinct patterns of EGF-related, EGF-independent alpha-TGF-like activity. All urine samples contained at least two chromatographically distinguishable forms of EGF-dependent TGF activity, eluting from HPLC as broad peaks with 30 and 43% acetonitrile. The remaining five TGFs eluted as sharp peaks with 32, 34, 35, 37, and 38% acetonitrile, demonstrated EGF-competing activity, and thus were functionally related to EGF. Two of the five EGF-related TGFs were consistently elevated only in the urine of cancer patients and eluted with 32% (TGFA) and 37% (TGFD) acetonitrile Two of the other EGF-related TGFs, eluting with 34% (TGFB) and 35% (TGFC) acetonitrile, were commonly found in both normals and cancer patients. The fifth EGF-related TGF, TGFE, eluting with 38% acetonitrile, was found only in normal donor specimens. TGFA corresponded to the unique Mr 30,000 TGF activity previously identified only in the urine of cancer patients. These observations demonstrate that cancer patients produce high levels of EGF-related TGF activities which can be readily distinguished, using reverse-phase HPLC, from EGF-related TGFs produced by normal individuals. Using a solid-phase competitive radioreceptor binding assay for EGF, we demonstrated that quantitation of EGF-competing activity is as sensitive and effective as the soft-agar colony formation assay for distinguishing HPLC profiles of urinary TGF from cancer patients versus that from normal individuals.

Demonstration of a proliferation regulatory factor (PRF) in normal human urine, and its purification

A material(s) affecting the proliferation of eukaryotic cells, such as C3H2K cells, and prokaryotic cells, such as E. coli, was found in the urine of normal healthy men and was concentrated in a certain fraction, "lysin-Sepharose eluate," of the urine. The material was named proliferation regulatory factor, PRF. With increase in the concentration of PRF, the proliferation rate of normal eukaryotes and prokaryotes increased to maxima of no more than twice those of untreated cells. On further increase in the concentration of PRF the growth rates of these cells decreased to the rates of untreated cells. PRF enhanced the rates of synthesis of DNA and RNA in C3H2K cells about 2-fold, but strongly suppressed the rates of growth, DNA synthesis, and RNA synthesis of cancerous cells, such as HeLa and MH134/M cells. PRF was purified from the "lysine-Sepharose eluate" by DEAE-cellulose column chromatography and gel filtration on a Sephadex G-100 column. PRF consisted of three molecules with molecular weights of 41,000, 7,800, and 5,100, which were named PRF-I, II, and III, respectively. The lysine-Sepharose eluate and purified PRF's had similar effects on the proliferation of eukaryotes and prokaryotes.

Urinary mutagenicity assays: a problem arising from the presence of histidine associated growth factors in XAD-2 prepared urine concentrates, with particular relevance to assays carried out using the bacterial fluctuation test

The appearance of mutagenic activity in urine samples from a group of nurses and from unexposed individuals has been investigated using the bacterial fluctuation test. Apparent mutagenic activity was seen in samples from all subjects and did not appear to be related to any specific occupational or environmental exposure. This activity seems to be related to the presence of histidine or histidine-related auxotrophic growth factors in the urine concentrates, not completely removed by the recommended XAD-2 column procedure. It is suggested that the reliance on XAD-2 columns for the removal of histidine may produce spurious results when using this assay to screen populations for exposure to mutagenic chemicals.

Renotrophic factors in urine

Our previous observations of increased renal protein synthesis in rats subjected to the constant intravenous reinfusion of half their urine output has suggested that the circulatory retention of renotrophic factors in urine is capable of stimulating renal growth. In the present studies, using this same model of "half-urine-reinfusion," which is designed to produce a selective halving of renal excretory function, we have demonstrated significant increases in total DNA content and the incorporation of tritiated thymidine in renal DNA. In addition, a bioassay method was developed in which an assay rat, given an intravenous infusion of urine from another rat, exhibited increases in the incorporation of thymidine into renal DNA and the incorporation of radiolabelled choline into renal phospholipid. This renotrophic activity in the urine was only minimally decreased by heating to 100 degrees C for 30 min and was confined to ultrafiltration fractions retained on a membrane with a nominal 10,000-dalton solute rejection. Removal of one kidney from the rats from which the urine was obtained led to only a modest and transient reduction in the excretion of renotrophic activity, suggesting that the urinary renotrophic factors are of circulatory, not renal, origin. Isolated renal cortical fragments incubated with an ultrafiltration retentate of urine displayed a dose-dependent increase in choline incorporation into phospholipid, suggesting a direct action of the factors on kidney tissue. Finally, no evidence of stimulation of either DNA or phospholipid synthesis could be seen in hepatic tissue.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Epidermal growth factor: identification of a new hormone in human urine

Epidermal growth factor is a polypeptide hormone that was previously identified only in mice. It causes proliferation and keratinization of epidermal tissues. An immune affinity column extraction technique was used to purify partially a substance from human urine which was similar to the mouse hormone in both its biological activity and immunoreactivity.