Bottle feeding and ideology in colonial Malaya: the production of change

Considerable attention has been paid to the correlation between high infant morbidity and mortality rates and the increased incidence of bottle feeding. The shift from prolonged breast feeding to a mixed regime or the exclusive use of sweetened condensed milk or infant formula has been related to the promotional activities of milk companies, and typically has been presented as a relatively recent development in Third World countries. However, the marketing of tinned and powdered milk only partially explains the increased use of these products. In colonial Malaya, condensed milk was marketed from the late 19th century. Infant formula was available from the turn of the century and was widely advertised, first in the English-language press and later also in the vernacular presses. At the same time, other social and cultural factors served to discourage breast feeding. There were changes in ideas regarding ideal body weight for both women and infants, and regarding infant care and diet; these ideas were presented in the mass media. In addition, maternal and child health clinics, established in the 1920s to reduce the high infant mortality rate, both propagated popular beliefs about infant weight and supplied milk and educated women to artificially feed their infants. Industry, the media, and health services all promoted, if not always intentionally, bottle feeding rather than breast feeding. Bottle feeding as an ideal, if not a reality, was thus well established before the intensive promotion of milk products by multinational corporations that followed the political independence of the colony.

Psychological factors in breast feeding versus bottle feeding in the Third World

Some readers may be aware of the sociopolitical and moral issues associated with the theme of Brenda Meldrum's article (Bulletin, June 1982) about breast and bottle feeding in the 3rd world. For over a decade many groups (e.g. War on Want; World Development Movement) have been concerned that unnecessary bottle feeding has almost certainly resulted in considerable infant disease and mortality in the 3rd world. Morever, such groups have been well aware of the high psychological value of formula foods; and have attributed this mainly to the aggressive and fundamentally dishonest way in which food companies promote their breastmilk substitutes. In 1979, in response to the bad publicity resulting from the campaigning of 3rd world agencies, Nestle and others agreed to adopt a voluntary code of practice proposed by World Health Organization and UNICEF. However, commercial interests have prevailed--baby food sales in 3rd world account for 2 1/2% of 1 transnational group's turnover--and the malpractices have continued. In view of this we feel that it is appropriate to amend Brenda Meldrum's conclusion to: While transnational corporations continue to actively promote their baby food products in the 3rd world, there can be no reversal to the old, exclusive breastfeeding of traditional practice, and that infants that would otherwise have lived will continue to die. The boycott campaign is continuing and might we suggest that BPS members who organize conferences give some thought to the possibility of requesting that their caterers do not use products of these companies. A list of companies may be obtained from New Internationalist (February 1982) or from us.

The influence of infant food advertising on infant feeding practices in St. Vincent

A survey designed to examine the extent to which infant food advertising could be shown measurably to influence infant feeding practices was carried out in St. Vincent in the eastern Caribbean. A questionnaire was administered to mothers of about 200 children one to two years old, nearly a complete sample in each of two towns. Infant food advertising was found to be uncommon. The typical infant feeding pattern, largely a combination of both breast feeding and bottle feeding, had existed for decades. Despite the fact that this was not a very appropriate setting for such a study and that there were a number of methodological constraints, the results of two multiple regression analyses suggested that the more a mother was influenced by infant food advertising, the sooner she began to bottle feed and the sooner she stopped breastfeeding. The cessation of all promotion of commercial infant foods, to the public as well as to health professionals, is called for.

Tobacco smoking in Papua New Guinea

The consumption of cigarettes in Papua New Guinea appears to have increased tenfold over the past twenty years, largely as a result of massive advertising campaigns. It is recommended that legislation be introduced to enforce restrictions on the levels of tar and nicotine in cigarettes sold here, and to make it compulsory to print health warnings on cigarette packets. It is also recommended that the advertising of tobacco products be restricted or banned.

Smoking, health, and survival: prospects in Bangladesh

Smoking is an increasingly prevalent habit in Bangladesh, particularly among men. In the past 10-15 years cigarette consumption has more than doubled. Over 100000 acres (405 Km2) of land that could produce food are planted with tobacco, and cereal imports making up for these production losses generally do not reach the below-subsistence cultivator and landless. Cancer of the lung is already the third commonest cancer among males, and annual deaths from this cause can be expected to increase by 12000 within 15 years. At present respiratory disease is the best-recognised direct health consequence of smoking. However, a more important health risk may be the reduction in nutritional status of young children which results from expenditure on smoking in households whose income for food purchase is already marginal. Smoking of only 5 cigarettes a day in poor household in Bangladesh might lead to a monthly dietary deficit of 8000 calories (33.5 MJ). The existence of young children in Bangladesh is already precarious owing to poor nutrition. If, as seems likely, expenditure on smoking means that they get even less food, then the survival of a large number of children is being seriously endangered.

Bottle-feeding legislation in Papua New Guinea

Research in Papua New Guinea and elsewhere in the developing world has indicted the dangers of bottle feeding infants. Following a failure to obtain the voluntary agreement of shopkeepers to restrict sales of infant-feeding bottles and teats, legislation was passed which placed these items on prescription. In order to obtain a prescription certain conditions have to be satisfied. A follow-up survey which was carried out in Port Moresby two years after the introduction of legislation indicated a significant decline in the extent of bottle feeding.

Population education and China: prospects for the one child family

Abstract

We must conscientiously carry out ideological, educational and technical work as well as child care and health work throughout the country so that people can practise family planning willingly, safely and effectively, practical measures should be taken to reward couples who limit themselves to a single child and gradually to institute social insurance for aged people who are childless ... This year, we must do everything we can to lower the country's population growth rate to about 10 per thousand and we must continue to lower it year by year in the future. By 1985, it should drop to 5 per thousand. * Premier Hua Guofeng: Report on the Work of the Government, Beijing, June 25, 1979.

The infant food industry and international child health

Declining breast-feeding, with accompanying increased marasmus and diarrhea, has occurred in developing countries because of many factors, including inappropriate health services, new urban life styles, and so forth. The infant food industry must bear a considerable burden of blame as a result of "unethical" advertising. Responses have most recently included various journalistic and legal actions. There is a need for revised roles for the infant food industry, and for mechanisms to monitor intrinsically harmful practices.

Social marketing: an approach to planned social change

Can marketing concepts and techniques be effectively applied to the promotion of social objectives such as brotherhood, safe driving, and family planning? The applicability of marketing concepts to such social problems is examined in this article. The authors show how social causes can be advanced more successfully through applying principles of marketing analysis, planning, and control to problems of social change.