Nano-enabled biosensing systems for intelligent healthcare: towards COVID-19 management

Antibacterial and antiviral high-performance nanosystems to mitigate new SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern

The increased severity of the COVID-19 infection due to new SARS-CoV-2 variants has resonated pandemic impact which made health experts to re-evaluate the effectiveness of pandemic management strategies. This becomes critical owing to the infection in large population and shortcomings in the existing global healthcare system worldwide. The designing of high-performance nanosystems (NS) with tunable performances seems to be the most efficient method to tackle infectious SARS-CoV-2 variants including recently emerged omicron mutation. In this direction, experts projects the versatile functionalized NS and their capabilities to mitigate SARS-CoV-2 propagation pathways by sensitization, antipathogenicity, photocatalysis, photothermal effects, immune response, developing efficient diagnostics assays or associated, selective biomarkers detection, and targeted drug delivery systems. To achieve these tasks, this opinion article project the importance of the fabrication of nano-enabled protective gear, masks, gloves, sheets, filtration units, nano-emulsified disinfectants, antiviral/bacterial paints, and therangostics to facilitate quarantine strategies via protection, detection, and treatment needed to manage COVID-19 pandemic in personalized manners. These functional protective high-performance antibacterial and antiviral NS can efficiently tackle the SARS-CoV-2 variants transmission through respiratory fluids and pollutants within water droplets, aerosols, air, and particulates along with their severe infection via neutralizing or eradicating the virus.

Potentialities of graphene and its allied derivatives to combat against SARS-CoV-2 infection

Graphene is a two-dimensional material with sp2 hybridization that has found its broad-spectrum potentialities in various domains like electronics, robotics, aeronautics, etc.; it has recently gained its utilities in the biomedical domain. The unique properties of graphene and its derivatives of graphene have helped them find their utilities in the biomedical domain. Additionally, the sudden outbreak of SARS-CoV-2 has immensely expanded the research field, which has also benefitted graphene and its derivatives. Currently, the world is facing a global pandemic due to the sudden outbreak of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2), also known as COVID-19, from its major onset in Wuhan city, China, in December 2019. Presently, many new variants and mutants appear, which is more harmful than previous strains. However, researchers and scientists are focused on understanding the target structure of coronavirus, mechanism, causes and transmission mode, treatment, and alternatives to cure these diseases in this critical pandemic situation; many findings are achieved, but much more is unknown and pending to be explored. This review paper is dedicated to exploring the utilities of graphene and its derivatives in combating the SARS-CoV-2 by highlighting their mechanism and applications in the fabrication of biosensors, personal protection equipment (PPE) kits, 3-D printing, and antiviral coatings. Further, the paper also covers the cytotoxicity caused by graphene and its derivatives and highlights the graphene-based derivatives market aspects in biomedical domains. Thus, graphene and graphene-derived materials are our new hope in this pandemic time, and this review helps acquire broad knowledge about them.

Rapid detection of SARS-CoV-2 using graphene-based IoT integrated advanced electrochemical biosensor

Unique characteristics like large surface area, excellent conductivity, functionality, ease of fabrication, etc., of graphene and its derivatives, have been extensively studied as potential candidates in healthcare applications. They have been utilized as a potential nanomaterial in biosensor fabrication for commercialized point-of-care (POC) devices. This review concisely provided innovative graphene and its derivative-based-IoT (Internet-of-Things) integrated electrochemical biosensor for accurate and advanced high-throughput testing of SARS-CoV-2 in POC setting.

Rapid detection of SARS-CoV-2 using graphene-based IoT integrated advanced electrochemical biosensor

Unique characteristics like large surface area, excellent conductivity, functionality, ease of fabrication, etc., of graphene and its derivatives, have been extensively studied as potential candidates in healthcare applications. They have been utilized as a potential nanomaterial in biosensor fabrication for commercialized point-of-care (POC) devices. This review concisely provided innovative graphene and its derivative-based-IoT (Internet-of-Things) integrated electrochemical biosensor for accurate and advanced high-throughput testing of SARS-CoV-2 in POC setting.

Biosensors as Nano-Analytical Tools for COVID-19 Detection

Selective, sensitive and affordable techniques to detect disease and underlying health issues have been developed recently. Biosensors as nanoanalytical tools have taken a front seat in this context. Nanotechnology-enabled progress in the health sector has aided in disease and pandemic management at a very early stage efficiently. This report reflects the state-of-the-art of nanobiosensor-based virus detection technology in terms of their detection methods, targets, limits of detection, range, sensitivity, assay time, etc. The article effectively summarizes the challenges with traditional technologies and newly emerging biosensors, including the nanotechnology-based detection kit for COVID-19; optically enhanced technology; and electrochemical, smart and wearable enabled nanobiosensors. The less explored but crucial piezoelectric nanobiosensor and the reverse transcription-loop mediated isothermal amplification (RT-LAMP)-based biosensor are also discussed here. The article could be of significance to researchers and doctors dedicated to developing potent, versatile biosensors for the rapid identification of COVID-19. This kind of report is needed for selecting suitable treatments and to avert epidemics.

Tattoo Inks for Optical Biosensing in Interstitial Fluid

The persistence of traditional tattoo inks presents an advantage for continuous and long-term health monitoring in point of care devices. The replacement of tattoo pigments with optical biosensors aims a promising alternative for monitoring blood biomarkers. Tattoo inks functionalization enables the control of interstitial biomarkers with correlated concentrations in plasma, to diagnose diseases, evaluate progression, and prevent complications associated with physio pathological disorders or medication mismatches. The specific biomarkers in interstitial fluid provide a new source of information, especially for skin diseases. The study of tattoo inks displays insufficient regulation in their composition, a lack of reports of the related complications, and a need for further studies on their degradation kinetics. This review focuses on tattoo optical biosensors for monitoring dermal interstitial biomarkers and discusses the clinical advantages and main challenges for in vivo implantation. Tattoo functionalization provides a minimally invasive, reversible, biocompatible, real-time sensing with long-term permanence and multiplexing capabilities for the control, diagnosis, and prevention of illness; it enables self-controlling management by the patient, but also the possibility of sending the records to the doctor.

The nano-based theranostics for respiratory complications of COVID-19

High morbidity and mortality caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has made coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) the leading challenge for health experts all over the world. Currently, there is no specific treatment for COVID-19; however, thanks to worldwide intense attempts, novel vaccines such as mRNA-1273 (Moderna TX, Inc.) and BNT162b2 (Biontech/Pfizer) were developed very fast and FDA approved them for emergency use. Nanomedicine-based drug delivery can be an advanced therapeutic strategy to deal with clinical complications of COVID-19. Given the fact that SARS-CoV-2 typically affects the respiratory tract, application of inhalable nanoparticles (NPs) for targeted drug delivery to the alveolar space appears to be an effective and promising therapeutic strategy. Loading the medicinal components into NPs enhances the stability, bioavailability, solubility and sustained release of them. This approach can circumvent major challenges in efficient drug delivery such as solubility and any adverse impact of medicinal components due to off-targeted delivery and resulting systemic complications. Inhalable NPs could be delivered through nasal sprays, inhalers, and nebulizers. NPs also could interfere in virus attachment to host cells and prevent infection. Moreover, nanomedicine-based technologies can facilitate accurate and rapid detection of virus compared to the conventional methods. In this review, the nano-based theranostics modalities for the management of respiratory complications of COVID-19 were discussed.

Metal Nanoparticles and Carbon-Based Nanomaterials for Improved Performances of Electrochemical (Bio)Sensors with Biomedical Applications

Monitoring human health for early detection of disease conditions or health disorders is of major clinical importance for maintaining a healthy life. Sensors are small devices employed for qualitative and quantitative determination of various analytes by monitoring their properties using a certain transduction method. A "real-time" biosensor includes a biological recognition receptor (such as an antibody, enzyme, nucleic acid or whole cell) and a transducer to convert the biological binding event to a detectable signal, which is read out indicating both the presence and concentration of the analyte molecule. A wide range of specific analytes with biomedical significance at ultralow concentration can be sensitively detected. In nano(bio)sensors, nanoparticles (NPs) are incorporated into the (bio)sensor design by attachment to the suitably modified platforms. For this purpose, metal nanoparticles have many advantageous properties making them useful in the transducer component of the (bio)sensors. Gold, silver and platinum NPs have been the most popular ones, each form of these metallic NPs exhibiting special surface and interface features, which significantly improve the biocompatibility and transduction of the (bio)sensor compared to the same process in the absence of these NPs. This comprehensive review is focused on the main types of NPs used for electrochemical (bio)sensors design, especially screen-printed electrodes, with their specific medical application due to their improved analytical performances and miniaturized form. Other advantages such as supporting real-time decision and rapid manipulation are pointed out. A special attention is paid to carbon-based nanomaterials (especially carbon nanotubes and graphene), used by themselves or decorated with metal nanoparticles, with excellent features such as high surface area, excellent conductivity, effective catalytic properties and biocompatibility, which confer to these hybrid nanocomposites a wide biomedical applicability.

SARS-CoV-2 and approaches for a testing and diagnostic strategy

The COVID-19 pandemic has led to an unprecedented global health challenge, creating sudden, massive demands for diagnostic testing, treatment, therapies, and vaccines. In particular, the development of diagnostic assays for SARS-CoV-2 has been pursued as they are needed for quarantine, disease surveillance, and patient treatment. One of the major lessons the pandemic highlighted was the need for fast, cheap, scalable and reliable diagnostic methods, such as paper-based assays. Furthermore, it has previously been suggested that paper-based tests may be more suitable for settings with lower resource availability and may help alleviate some supply chain challenges which arose during the COVID-19 pandemic. Therefore, we explore how such devices may fit in a comprehensive diagnostic strategy and how some of the challenges to the technology, e.g. low sensitivity, may be addressed. We discuss the properties of the SARS-CoV-2 virus itself, the COVID-19 disease pathway, and the immune response. We then describe the different diagnostic strategies that have been pursued, focusing on molecular strategies for viral genetic material, antigen tests, and serological assays, and innovations for improving the diagnostic sensitivity and capabilities. Finally, we discuss pressing issues for the future, and what needs to be addressed for the ongoing pandemic and future outbreaks.

Novel application of electrochemical bipolar exfoliated graphene for highly sensitive disposable label-free cancer biomarker aptasensors

Label-free aptasensors can be a promising point-of-care biosensor for detecting various cancer diseases due to their selectivity, sensitivity, and lower cost of production and operation. In this study, a highly sensitive aptasensor based on gold-covered polyethylene terephthalate electrodes (PET/Au) decorated with bipolar exfoliated graphene is proposed as a possible contender for disposable label-free aptasensor applications. Bipolar electrochemical exfoliation enables simultaneous exfoliation, reduction, and deposition of graphene nanosheets on prospective electrodes. Our comparative study confirms that the bipolar exfoliated graphene deposited on the negative feeding electrode (i.e., reduced graphene oxide) possesses better electrochemical properties for aptasensing. The optimized aptasensor based on bipolar exfoliated graphene deposited on PET/Au electrodes exhibits a highly sensitive response of 4.07 μA log c -1 (unit of c, pM) which is linear in the range of 0.0007-20 nM, and has a low limit of detection of 0.65 pM (S/N = 3). The aptasensor establishes highly selective performance with a stability of 91.2% after 6 days. This study demonstrates that bipolar electrochemistry is a simple yet efficient technique that could provide high-quality graphene for biosensing applications. Considering its simplicity and efficiency, the BPE technique promises the development of feasible and affordable lab-on-chip and point-of-care cancer diagnosis technologies.

Nanotechnology based solutions to combat zoonotic viruses with special attention to SARS, MERS, and COVID 19: Detection, protection and medication

Zoonotic viruses originate from birds or animal sources and responsible for disease transmission from animals to people through zoonotic spill over and presents a significant global health concern due to lack of rapid diagnostics and therapeutics. The Corona viruses (CoV) were known to be transmitted in mammals. Early this year, SARS-CoV-2, a novel strain of corona virus, was identified as the causative pathogen of an outbreak of viral pneumonia in Wuhan, China. The disease later named corona virus disease 2019 (COVID-19), subsequently spread across the globe rapidly. Nano-particles and viruses are comparable in size, which serves to be a major advantage of using nano-material in clinical strategy to combat viruses. Nanotechnology provides novel solutions against zoonotic viruses by providing cheap and efficient detection methods, novel, and new effective rapid diagnostics and therapeutics. The prospective of nanotechnology in COVID 19 is exceptionally high due to their small size, large surface-to-volume ratio, susceptibility to modification, intrinsic viricidal activity. The nano-based strategies address the COVID 19 by extending their role in i) designing nano-materials for drug/vaccine delivery, ii) developing nano-based diagnostic approaches like nano-sensors iii) novel nano-based personal protection equipment to be used in prevention strategies.This review aims to bring attention to the significant contribution of nanotechnology to mitigate against zoonotic viral pandemics by prevention, faster diagnosis and medication point of view.

From Nanosystems to a Biosensing Prototype for an Efficient Diagnostic: A Special Issue in Honor of Professor Bansi D. Malhotra

It has been proven that rapid bioinformatics analysis according to patient health profiles, in addition to biomarker detection at a low level, is emerging as essential to design an analytical diagnostics system to manage health intelligently in a personalized manner. Such objectives need an optimized combination of a nano-enabled sensing prototype, artificial intelligence (AI)-supported predictive analysis, and Internet of Medical Things (IoMT)-based bioinformatics analysis. Such a developed system began with a prototype demonstration of efficient diseases diagnostics performance is the future diseases management approach. To explore these aspects, the Special Issue planned for the nano-and micro-technology section of MDPI's Biosensors journal will honor and acknowledge the contributions of Prof. B.D. Malhotra, Ph.D., FNA, FNASc has made in the field of biosensors.

Ultrasensitive and Reusable Graphene Oxide-Modified Double-Interdigitated Capacitive (DIDC) Sensing Chip for Detecting SARS-CoV-2

This research reveals the promising functionalization of graphene oxide (GrO)-glazed double-interdigitated capacitive (DIDC) biosensing platform to detect severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) spike (S1) proteins with enhanced selectivity and rapid response. The DIDC bioactive surface consisting of Pt/Ti featured SiO₂ substrate was fabricated using GrO/EDC-NHS/anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies (Abs) which is having layer-by-layer interface self-assembly chemistry method. This electroactive immune-sensing platform exhibits reproducibility and sensitivity with reference to the S1 protein of SARS-CoV-2. The outcomes of analytical studies confirm that GrO provided a desired engineered surface for Abs immobilization and amplified capacitance to achieve a wide detection range (1.0 mg/mL to 1.0 fg/mL), low limit of detection (1 fg/mL) within 3 s of response time, good linearity (18.56 nF/g), and a high sensitivity of 1.0 fg/mL. Importantly, the unique biochip was selective against blood-borne antigens and standby for 10 days at 5 °C. Our developed DIDC-based SARS-CoV-2 biosensor is suitable for point-of-care (POC) diagnostic applications due to portability and scaling-up ability. In addition, this sensing platform can be modified for the early diagnosis of severe viral infections using real samples.

Bio-inspired graphene-based nano-systems for biomedical applications

The increasing demands of environmentally sustainable, affordable, and scalable materials have inspired researchers to explore greener nanosystems of unique properties which can enhance the performance of existing systems. Such nanosystems, extracted from nature, are state-of-art high-performance nanostructures due to intrinsic hierarchical micro/nanoscale architecture and generous interfacial interactions in natural resources. Among several, bio-inspired nanosystems graphene nanosystems have emerged as an essential nano-platform wherein a highly electroactive, scalable, functional, flexible, and adaptable to a living being is a key factor. Preliminary investigation project bio-inspired graphene nanosystems as a multi-functional nano-platform suitable for electronic devices, energy storage, sensors, and medical sciences application. However, a broad understanding of bio-inspired graphene nanosystems and their projection towards applied application is not well-explored yet. Considering this as a motivation, this mini-review highlights the following; the emergence of bio-inspired graphene nanosystems, over time development to make them more efficient, state-of-art technology, and potential applications, mainly biomedical including biosensors, drug delivery, imaging, and biomedical systems. The outcomes of this review will certainly serve as a guideline to motivate scholars to design and develop novel bio-inspired graphene nanosystems to develop greener, affordable, and scalable next-generation biomedical systems.

Implementation of an efficient SARS-CoV-2 specimen pooling strategy for high throughput diagnostic testing

The rapid identification and isolation of infected individuals remains a key strategy for controlling the spread of SARS-CoV-2. Frequent testing of populations to detect infection early in asymptomatic or presymptomatic individuals can be a powerful tool for intercepting transmission, especially when the viral prevalence is low. However, RT-PCR testing-the gold standard of SARS-CoV-2 diagnosis-is expensive, making regular testing of every individual unfeasible. Sample pooling is one approach to lowering costs. By combining samples and testing them in groups the number of tests required is reduced, substantially lowering costs. Here we report on the implementation of pooling strategies using 3-d and 4-d hypercubes to test a professional sports team in South Africa. We have shown that infected samples can be reliably detected in groups of 27 and 81, with minimal loss of assay sensitivity for samples with individual Ct values of up to 32. We report on the automation of sample pooling, using a liquid-handling robot and an automated web interface to identify positive samples. We conclude that hypercube pooling allows for the reliable RT-PCR detection of SARS-CoV-2 infection, at significantly lower costs than lateral flow antigen (LFA) tests.

Co-infections observed in SARS-CoV-2 positive patients using a rapid diagnostic test

Rapid diagnostic tests are tools of paramount impact both for improving patient care and in antimicrobial management programs. Particularly in the case of respiratory infections, it is of great importance to quickly confirm/exclude the involvement of pathogens, be they bacteria or viruses, while obtaining information about the presence/absence of a genetic target of resistance to modulate antibiotic therapy. In this paper, we present our experiences with the use of the Biofire® FilmArray® Pneumonia Panel Plus (FAPP; bioMérieux; Marcy l'Etoile, France) to assess coinfection in COVID-19 patients. A total of 152 respiratory samples from consecutive patients were examined, and 93 (61%) were found to be FAPP positive, with the detection of bacteria and/or viruses. The patients were 93 males and 59 females with an average age of 65 years who were admitted to our hospital due to moderate/severe acute respiratory symptoms. Among the positive samples were 52 from sputum (SPU) and 41 from bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL). The most representative species was S. aureus (most isolates were mecA positive; 30/44, 62%), followed by gram-negative pathogens such as P. aeruginosa, K. pneumoniae, and A. baumannii. Evidence of a virus was rare. Cultures performed from BAL and SPU samples gave poor results. Most of the discrepant negative cultures were those in which FAPP detected pathogens with a microbial count ≤ 105 CFU/mL. H. influenzae was one of the most common pathogens lost by the conventional method. Despite the potential limitations of FAPP, which detects a defined number of pathogens, its advantages of rapid detection combined with predictive information regarding the antimicrobial resistance of pathogens through the detection of some relevant markers of resistance could be very useful for establishing empirical targeted therapy for the treatment of patients with respiratory failure. In the COVID era, we understand the importance of using antibiotics wisely to curb the phenomenon of antibiotic resistance.

Deciphering the role of nanostructured materials in the point-of-care diagnostics for COVID-19: a comprehensive review

The infamous COVID-19 outbreak has left a crippling impact on the economy, healthcare infrastructure, and lives of the general working class, with all the scientists determined to find suitable and efficient diagnostic techniques and therapies to contain its ramifications. This article presents the complete outline of the diagnostic platforms developed using nanoparticles in the detection of SARS-CoV-2, delineating the direct and indirect use of nanomaterials in COVID-19 diagnosis. The properties of nanostructured materials and their relevance in the development of novel point-of-care diagnostic approaches for COVID-19 are highlighted. More importantly, the advantages of nanotechnologies over conventional reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction technique and few other methods used in the detection of SARS-CoV-2 along with the viewpoints are discussed. Also, the future perspectives highlighting the commercial aspects of the nanotechnology-based diagnostic tools developed to combat the COVID-19 pandemic are presented.

Influence of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic: a review from the climate change perspective

Ever since the global outbreak of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19) in the early part of 2020, there is no doubt that the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic has placed great tension globally and has affected almost all aspects of human endeavors. There are presently several research studies on the atmospheric environmental and economic effects of this dreaded virus. Supposedly, the responses ought to have also present innovations that would advance scientific research to mitigate its impacts since most of the ensuing consequences impact the atmospheric climatic conditions. Even when it appears that economic events would possibly return in no time, the circumstances will change. Specifically, from the existing literature, it appears that not much has been done to study the influence of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic on climate change. Hence, this present review article will explore the possible connection between the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic and climate change. The utilization of various scientific domains for climate change studies during the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic and exploring the positive influences of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic and measures to avoid the negative impacts on climate change owing to SARS-CoV-2 have also been discussed.

Ultrasensitive Immunosensor Based on Langmuir-Blodgett Deposited Ordered Graphene Assemblies for Dengue Detection

In this manuscript partially reduced graphene oxide (RGO) nanosheet-based electrodes have been utilized for quantification of the NS1 protein and subsequently for dengue detection. NS1 is the biomarker found circulating in the body of dengue-infected persons on or after first day of the appearance of disease symptoms. Graphene oxide (GO) has been synthesized using a modified Hummer's method, and its ordered nanostructured films have been electrophoretically deposited on indium tin oxide (ITO)-coated glass substrates using Langmuir-Blodgett (LB) deposition. Deposited LB films of GO have been reduced with hydrazine vapors to obtain RGO-coated ITO electrodes. NS1 antibodies have been grafted onto the ordered thin films using covalent linking, and the bioelectrodes have been utilized for the specific detection of NS1 antigen. The electrochemical performance of the fabricated bioelectrodes for NS1 antigen detection has been explored in standard and spiked sera samples. The limit of detection for the standard samples and spiked serum samples is found to be 0.069 ng mL^-1 and 0.081 ng mL^-1, respectively, with a sensitivity of 8.41 and 36.75 Ω per ng mL, respectively, in the detection range of 10¹ to 10⁷ ng mL^-1.

Nanotechnology Integration for SARS-CoV-2 Diagnosis and Treatment: An Approach to Preventing Pandemic

The SARS-CoV-2 outbreak is the COVID-19 disease, which has caused massive health devastation, prompting the World Health Organization to declare a worldwide health emergency. The corona virus infected millions of people worldwide, and many died as a result of a lack of particular medications. The current emergency necessitates extensive therapy in order to stop the spread of the coronavirus. There are various vaccinations available, but no validated COVID-19 treatments. Since its outbreak, many therapeutics have been tested, including the use of repurposed medications, nucleoside inhibitors, protease inhibitors, broad spectrum antivirals, convalescence plasma therapies, immune-modulators, and monoclonal antibodies. However, these approaches have not yielded any outcomes and are mostly used to alleviate symptoms associated with potentially fatal adverse drug reactions. Nanoparticles, on the other hand, may prove to be an effective treatment for COVID-19. They can be designed to boost the efficacy of currently available antiviral medications or to trigger a rapid immune response against COVID-19. In the last decade, there has been significant progress in nanotechnology. This review focuses on the virus's basic structure, pathogenesis, and current treatment options for COVID-19. This study addresses nanotechnology and its applications in diagnosis, prevention, treatment, and targeted vaccine delivery, laying the groundwork for a successful pandemic fight.

Impedimetric and Plasmonic Sensing of Collagen I Using a Half-Antibody-Supported, Au-Modified, Self-Assembled Monolayer System

This research presents an electrochemical immunosensor for collagen I detection using a self-assembled monolayer (SAM) of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) and covalently immobilized half-reduced monoclonal antibody as a receptor; this allowed for the validation of the collagen I concentration through two different independent methods: electrochemically by Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS), and optically by Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR). The high unique advantage of the proposed sensor is based on the performance of the stable covalent immobilization of the AuNPs and enzymatically reduced half-IgG collagen I antibodies, which ensured their appropriate orientation onto the sensor's surface, good stability, and sensitivity properties. The detection of collagen type I was performed in a concentration range from 1 to 5 pg/mL. Moreover, SPR was utilized to confirm the immobilization of the monoclonal half-antibodies and sensing of collagen I versus time. Furthermore, EIS experiments revealed a limit of detection (LOD) of 0.38 pg/mL. The selectivity of the performed immunosensor was confirmed by negligible responses for BSA. The performed approach of the immunosensor is a novel, innovative attempt that enables the detection of collagen I with very high sensitivity in the range of pg/mL, which is significantly lower than the commonly used enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA).

Rapid diagnostic methods for SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) detection: an evidence-based report

Since December 2019, the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) has been a global health concern. The transmission method is human-to-human. Since this second wave of SARS-CoV-2 is more aggressive than the first wave, rapid testing is warranted to use practical diagnostics to break the transfer chain. Currently, various techniques are used to diagnose SARS-CoV-2 infection, each with its own set of advantages and disadvantages. A full review of online databases such as PubMed, EMBASE, Web of Science, and Google Scholar was analyzed to identify relevant articles focusing on SARS-CoV-2 and diagnosis and therapeutics. The most recent article search was on May 10, 2021. We summarize promising methods for detecting the novel Coronavirus using sensor-based diagnostic technologies that are sensitive, cost-effective, and simple to use at the point of care. This includes loop-mediated isothermal amplification and several laboratory protocols for confirming suspected 2019-nCoV cases, as well as studies with non-commercial laboratory protocols based on real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction and a field-effect transistor-based bio-sensing device. We discuss a potential discovery that could lead to the mass and targeted SARS-CoV-2 detection needed to manage the COVID-19 pandemic through infection succession and timely therapy.

Emerging DNA-based multifunctional nano-biomaterials towards electrochemical sensing applications

DNA is known to be ubiquitous in nature as it is the controlling unit for genetic information storage in most living organisms. Lately, there has been a surge in studies relating to the use of DNA as a biomaterial for various biomedical applications such as biosensing, therapeutics, and drug delivery. The role of DNA as a bioreceptor in biosensors has been known for a long time. DNA-based biosensors are gradually evolving into highly sophisticated and sensitive molecular devices. The current realization of DNA-based biosensors embraces the unique structural and functional properties of DNA in the form of a biopolymer. The interesting properties of DNA, such as self-assembly, programmability, catalytic activity, dynamic behavior, and precise molecular recognition, have led to the emergence of innovative DNA assembly based electrochemical biosensors. This review article aims to cover the recent progress in the field of DNA-based electrochemical (EC) biosensors. It commences with an introduction to electrochemical biosensors and elucidates the advantages of integrating DNA-based materials into them. Besides this, we discuss the principles of EC biosensors based on different types of DNA-based materials. The article concludes by highlighting the outlook and importance of this interesting field for biomedical developments.

High-performance antiviral nano-systems as a shield to inhibit viral infections: SARS-CoV-2 as a model case study

Despite significant accomplishments in developing efficient rapid sensing systems and nano-therapeutics of higher efficacy, the recent coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic is not under control successfully because the severe acute respiratory syndrome virus (SARS-CoV-2, original and mutated) transmits easily from human to -human and causes life-threatening respiratory disorders. Thus, it has become crucial to avoid this transmission through precautions and keep premises hygienic using high-performance anti-viral nanomaterials to trap and eradicate SARS-CoV-2. Such an antiviral nano-system has successfully demonstrated useful significant contribution in COVID-19 pandemic/endemic management effectively. However, their projection with potential sustainable prospects still requires considerable attention and efforts. With this aim, the presented review highlights various severe life-threatening viral infections and the role of multi-functional anti-viral nanostructures with manipulative properties investigated as an efficient precative shielding agent against viral infection progression. The salient features of such various nanostructures, antiviral mechanisms, and high impact multi-dimensional roles are systematically discussed in this review. Additionally, the challenges associated with the projection of alternative approaches also support the demand and significance of this selected scientific topic. The outcomes of this review will certainly be useful to motivate scholars of various expertise who are planning future research in the field of investigating sustainable and affordable high-performance nano-systems of desired antiviral performance to manage not only COVID-19 infection but other targeted viral infections as well.

2D materials as a diagnostic platform for the detection and sensing of the SARS-CoV-2 virus: a bird's-eye view

Worldwide infections and fatalities caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus and its variants responsible for COVID-19 have significantly impeded the economic growth of many nations. People in many nations have lost their livelihoods, it has severely impacted international relations and, most importantly, health infrastructures across the world have been tormented. This pandemic has already left footprints on human psychology, traits, and priorities and is certainly going to lead towards a new world order in the future. As always, science and technology have come to the rescue of the human race. The prevention of infection by instant and repeated cleaning of surfaces that are most likely to be touched in daily life and sanitization drives using medically prescribed sanitizers and UV irradiation of textiles are the first steps to breaking the chain of transmission. However, the real challenge is to develop and uplift medical infrastructure, such as diagnostic tools capable of prompt diagnosis and instant and economic medical treatment that is available to the masses. Two-dimensional (2D) materials, such as graphene, are atomic sheets that have been in the news for quite some time due to their unprecedented electronic mobilities, high thermal conductivity, appreciable thermal stability, excellent anchoring capabilities, optical transparency, mechanical flexibility, and a unique capability to integrate with arbitrary surfaces. These attributes of 2D materials make them lucrative for use as an active material platform for authentic and prompt (within minutes) disease diagnosis via electrical or optical diagnostic tools or via electrochemical diagnosis. We present the opportunities provided by 2D materials as a platform for SARS-CoV-2 diagnosis.

Screen-Printed Graphene/Carbon Electrodes on Paper Substrates as Impedance Sensors for Detection of Coronavirus in Nasopharyngeal Fluid Samples

Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS-CoV-2), the causative agent of the global pandemic, which has resulted in more than one million deaths with tens of millions reported cases, requires a fast, accurate, and portable testing mechanism operable in the field environment. Electrochemical sensors, based on paper substrates with portable electrochemical devices, can prove an excellent alternative in mitigating the economic and public health effects of the disease. Herein, we present an impedance biosensor for the detection of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein utilizing the IgG anti-SARS-CoV-2 spike antibody. This label-free platform utilizing screen-printed electrodes works on the principle of redox reaction impedance of a probe and can detect antigen spikes directly in nasopharyngeal fluid as well as virus samples collected in the universal transport medium (UTM). High conductivity graphene/carbon ink is used for this purpose so as to have a small background impedance that leads to a wider dynamic range of detection. Antibody immobilization onto the electrode surface was conducted through a chemical entity or a biological entity to see their effect; where a biological immobilization can enhance the antibody loading and thereby the sensitivity. In both cases, we were able to have a very low limit of quantification (i.e., 0.25 fg/mL), however, the linear range was 3 orders of magnitude wider for the biological entity-based immobilization. The specificity of the sensor was also tested against high concentrations of H1N1 flu antigens with no appreciable response. The most optimized sensors are used to identify negative and positive COVID-19 samples with great accuracy and precision.

The perspectives of biomarker-based electrochemical immunosensors, artificial intelligence and the Internet of Medical Things toward COVID-19 diagnosis and management

The World Health Organization (WHO) has declared the COVID-19 an international health emergency due to the severity of infection progression, which became more severe due to its continuous spread globally and the unavailability of appropriate therapy and diagnostics systems. Thus, there is a need for efficient devices to detect SARS-CoV-2 infection at an early stage. Nowadays, the reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) technique is being applied for detecting this virus around the globe; however, factors such as stringent expertise, long diagnostic times, invasive and painful screening, and high costs have restricted the use of RT-PCR methods for rapid diagnostics. Therefore, the development of cost-effective, portable, sensitive, prompt and selective sensing systems to detect SARS-CoV-2 in biofluids at fM/pM/nM concentrations would be a breakthrough in diagnostics. Immunosensors that show increased specificity and sensitivity are considerably fast and do not imply costly reagents or instruments, reducing the cost for COVID-19 detection. The current developments in immunosensors perhaps signify the most significant opportunity for a rapid assay to detect COVID-19, without the need of highly skilled professionals and specialized tools to interpret results. Artificial intelligence (AI) and the Internet of Medical Things (IoMT) can also be equipped with this immunosensing approach to investigate useful networking through database management, sharing, and analytics to prevent and manage COVID-19. Herein, we represent the collective concepts of biomarker-based immunosensors along with AI and IoMT as smart sensing strategies with bioinformatics approach to monitor non-invasive early stage SARS-CoV-2 development, with fast point-of-care (POC) diagnostics as the crucial goal. This approach should be implemented quickly and verified practicality for clinical samples before being set in the present times for mass-diagnostic research.

Point-of-care testing detection methods for COVID-19

COVID-19 is an acute respiratory disease caused by SARS-CoV-2, which has high transmissibility. People infected with SARS-CoV-2 can develop symptoms including cough, fever, pneumonia and other complications, which in severe cases could lead to death. In addition, a proportion of people infected with SARS-CoV-2 may be asymptomatic. At present, the primary diagnostic method for COVID-19 is reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), which tests patient samples including nasopharyngeal swabs, sputum and other lower respiratory tract secretions. Other detection methods, e.g., isothermal nucleic acid amplification, CRISPR, immunochromatography, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and electrochemical sensors are also in use. As the current testing methods are mostly performed at central hospitals and third-party testing centres, the testing systems used mostly employ large, high-throughput, automated equipment. Given the current situation of the epidemic, point-of-care testing (POCT) is advantageous in terms of its ease of use, greater approachability on the user's end, more timely detection, and comparable accuracy and sensitivity, which could reduce the testing load on central hospitals. POCT is thus conducive to daily epidemic control and achieving early detection and treatment. This paper summarises the latest research advances in POCT-based SARS-CoV-2 detection methods, compares three categories of commercially available products, i.e., nucleic acid tests, immunoassays and novel sensors, and proposes the expectations for the development of POCT-based SARS-CoV-2 detection including greater accessibility, higher sensitivity and lower costs.

Nanotechnology-based approaches for emerging and re-emerging viruses: Special emphasis on COVID-19

In recent decades, the major concern of emerging and re-emerging viral diseases has become an increasingly important area of public health concern, and it is of significance to anticipate future pandemic that would inevitably threaten human lives. The novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is a newly emerged virus that causes mild to severe pneumonia. Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) became a very much concerned issue worldwide after its super-spread across the globe and emerging viral diseases have not got specific and reliable diagnostic and treatments. As the COVID-19 pandemic brings about a massive life-loss across the globe, there is an unmet need to discover a promising and typically effective diagnosis and treatment to prevent super-spreading and mortality from being decreased or even eliminated. This study was carried out to overview nanotechnology-based diagnostic and treatment approaches for emerging and re-emerging viruses with the current treatment of the disease and shed light on nanotechnology's remarkable potential to provide more effective treatment and prevention to a special focus on recently emerged coronavirus.

SERS Based Lateral Flow Immunoassay for Point-of-Care Detection of SARS-CoV-2 in Clinical Samples

The current scenario, an ongoing pandemic of COVID-19, places a dreadful burden on the healthcare system worldwide. Subsequently, there is a need for a rapid, user-friendly, and inexpensive on-site monitoring system for diagnosis. The early and rapid diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2 plays an important role in combating the outbreak. Although conventional methods such as PCR, RT-PCR, and ELISA, etc., offer a gold-standard solution to manage the pandemic, they cannot be implemented as a point-of-care (POC) testing arrangement. Moreover, surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) having a high enhancement factor provides quantitative results with high specificity, sensitivity, and multiplex detection ability but lacks in POC setup. In contrast, POC devices such as lateral flow immunoassay (LFIA) offer rapid, simple-to-use, cost-effective, reliable platform. However, LFIA has limitations in quantitative and sensitive analyses of SARS-CoV-2 detection. To resolve these concerns, herein we discuss a unique modality that is an integration of SERS with LFIA for quantitative analyses of SARS-CoV-2. The miniaturization ability of SERS-based devices makes them promising in biosensor application and has the potential to make a better alternative of conventional diagnostic methods. This review also demonstrates the commercially available and FDA/ICMR approved LFIA kits for on-site diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2.

Face masks and nanotechnology: Keep the blue side up

Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) is one of the biggest challenges of the 21st century. While researchers are working on vaccine development and elucidating the mechanism of action and evolution of the harmful SARS-CoV-2, the current most important public health measure, second only to social distancing, is the obligatory wearing of facial protection. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommended in April 2020 that the public wear face coverings in areas with high rates of transmission based on epidemiological evidence on the strong relationship between mask wearing and pandemic control. This protection against SARS-CoV-2 and other airborne pathogens, boost the design and production of innovative solutions by industry stakeholders. Nanoparticles, nanofibers, and other pioneering technologies based on nanomaterials have been introduced in mask production chains to improve performance and confer antiviral properties. During an emergency like COVID-19, these products directly available to the public should be carefully analyzed in terms of efficacy and possible long-term effects on the wearers' skin and lungs as well as on the environment. This opinion paper provides a wealth of information on the role of nanotechnologies in improving the performance of facial masks and on possible future consequences caused by a poorly regulated use of nanotechnology in textiles.

Recent advances in nanomaterials based biosensors for point of care (PoC) diagnosis of Covid-19 - A minireview

Early diagnosis and ultrahigh sample throughput screening are the need of the hour to control the geological spread of the COVID-19 pandemic. Traditional laboratory tests such as enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and computed tomography are implemented for the detection of COVID-19. However, they are limited by the laborious sample collection and processing procedures, longer wait time for test results and skilled technicians to operate sophisticated facilities. In this context, the point of care (PoC) diagnostic platform has proven to be the prospective approach in addressing the abovementioned challenges. This review emphasizes the mechanism of viral infection spread detailing the host-virus interaction, pathophysiology, and the recent advances in the development of affordable PoC diagnostic platforms for rapid and accurate diagnosis of COVID-19. First, the well-established optical and electrochemical biosensors are discussed. Subsequently, the recent advances in the development of PoC biosensors, including lateral flow immunoassays and other emerging techniques, are highlighted. Finally, a focus on integrating nanotechnology with wearables and smartphones to develop smart nanobiosensors is outlined, which could promote COVID-19 diagnosis accessible to both individuals and the mass population at patient care.

Microfluidic-based virus detection methods for respiratory diseases

With the recent SARS-CoV-2 outbreak, the importance of rapid and direct detection of respiratory disease viruses has been well recognized. The detection of these viruses with novel technologies is vital in timely prevention and treatment strategies for epidemics and pandemics. Respiratory viruses can be detected from saliva, swab samples, nasal fluid, and blood, and collected samples can be analyzed by various techniques. Conventional methods for virus detection are based on techniques relying on cell culture, antigen-antibody interactions, and nucleic acids. However, these methods require trained personnel as well as expensive equipment. Microfluidic technologies, on the other hand, are one of the most accurate and specific methods to directly detect respiratory tract viruses. During viral infections, the production of detectable amounts of relevant antibodies takes a few days to weeks, hampering the aim of prevention. Alternatively, nucleic acid-based methods can directly detect the virus-specific RNA or DNA region, even before the immune response. There are numerous methods to detect respiratory viruses, but direct detection techniques have higher specificity and sensitivity than other techniques. This review aims to summarize the methods and technologies developed for microfluidic-based direct detection of viruses that cause respiratory infection using different detection techniques. Microfluidics enables the use of minimal sample volumes and thereby leading to a time, cost, and labor effective operation. Microfluidic-based detection technologies provide affordable, portable, rapid, and sensitive analysis of intact virus or virus genetic material, which is very important in pandemic and epidemic events to control outbreaks with an effective diagnosis.

Biosensing surfaces and therapeutic biomaterials for the central nervous system in COVID-19

COVID-19 can affect the central nervous system (CNS) indirectly by inflammatory mechanisms and even directly enter the CNS. Thereby, COVID-19 can evoke a range of neurosensory conditions belonging to infectious, inflammatory, demyelinating, and degenerative classes. A broad range of non-specific options, including anti-viral agents and anti-inflammatory protocols, is available with varying therapeutic. Due to the high mortality and morbidity in COVID-19-related brain damage, some changes to these general protocols, however, are necessary for ensuring the delivery of therapeutic(s) to the specific components of the CNS to meet their specific requirements. The biomaterials approach permits crossing the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and drug delivery in a more accurate and sustained manner. Beyond the BBB, drugs can protect neural cells, stimulate endogenous stem cells, and induce plasticity more effectively. Biomaterials for cell delivery exist, providing an efficient tool to improve cell retention, survival, differentiation, and integration. This paper will review the potentials of the biomaterials approach for the damaged CNS in COVID-19. It mainly includes biomaterials for promoting synaptic plasticity and modulation of inflammation in the post-stroke brain, extracellular vesicles, exosomes, and conductive biomaterials to facilitate neural regeneration, and artificial nerve conduits for treatment of neuropathies. Also, biosensing surfaces applicable to the first sensory interface between the host and the virus that encourage the generation of accelerated anti-viral immunity theoretically offer hope in solving COVID-19.

A short review on nanotechnology interventions against COVID-19

The COVID-19 has affected all major aspects of the society in a global perspective. The role of nanotechnology is much sought after in fighting this pandemic. Advanced materials based on nanotechnology are the basis of several technologies starting from masks and personal protection equipment to specific diagnostic tools that could diminish the impact of COVID-19. Development of nanotechnology-based products is therefore an absolute necessity for fight against COVID-19. We examine the fundamental concepts related to virology, histopathologic findings and how nanotechnology can help in fighting the disease. In this review we discuss the state of the art and ongoing nanotechnology-based strategies like antiviral coatings, 3D printing and therapeutics to fight against this deadly disease. The importance of using nanoparticles in point of care tests and biosensors is also highlighted.

Developments in biosensors for CoV detection and future trends

This review summarizes the state of art of biosensor technology for Coronavirus (CoV) detection, the current challenges and the future perspectives. Three categories of affinity-based biosensors (ABBs) have been developed, depending on their transduction mechanism, namely electrochemical, optical and piezoelectric biosensors. The biorecognition elements include antibodies and DNA, which undergo important non-covalent binding interactions, with the formation of antigen-antibody and ssDNA/oligonucleotide-complementary strand complexes in immuno- and DNA-sensors, respectively. The analytical performances, the advantages and drawbacks of each type of biosensor are highlighted, discussed, and compared to traditional methods. It is hoped that this review will encourage scientists and academics to design and develop new biosensing platforms for point-of-care (POC) diagnostics to manage the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, providing interesting reference for future studies.

Nanomedicine for the SARS-CoV-2: State-of-the-Art and Future Prospects

The newly emerged ribonucleic acid (RNA) enveloped human beta-coronavirus, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection caused the COVID-19 pandemic, severely affects the respiratory system, and may lead to death. Lacking effective diagnostics and therapies made this pandemic challenging to manage since the SARS-CoV-2 transmits via human-to-human, enters via ACE2 and TMPSSR2 receptors, and damages organs rich in host cells, spreads via symptomatic carriers and is prominent in an immune-compromised population. New SARS-CoV-2 informatics (structure, strains, like-cycles, functional sites) motivated bio-pharma experts to investigate novel therapeutic agents that act to recognize, inhibit, and knockdown combinations of drugs, vaccines, and antibodies, have been optimized to manage COVID-19. However, successful targeted delivery of these agents to avoid off-targeting and unnecessary drug ingestion is very challenging. To overcome these obstacles, this mini-review projects nanomedicine technology, a pharmacologically relevant cargo of size within 10 to 200 nm, for site-specific delivery of a therapeutic agent to recognize and eradicate the SARS-CoV-2, and improving the human immune system. Such combinational therapy based on compartmentalization controls the delivery and releases of a drug optimized based on patient genomic profile and medical history. Nanotechnology could help combat COVID-19 via various methods such as avoiding viral contamination and spraying by developing personal protective equipment (PPE) to increase the protection of healthcare workers and produce effective antiviral disinfectants surface coatings capable of inactivating and preventing the virus from spreading. To quickly recognize the infection or immunological response, design highly accurate and sensitive nano-based sensors. Development of new drugs with improved activity, reduced toxicity, and sustained release to the lungs, as well as tissue targets; and development of nano-based immunizations to improve humoral and cellular immune responses. The desired and controlled features of suggested personalized therapeutics, nanomedicine, is a potential therapy to manage COVID-19 successfully. The state-of-the-art nanomedicine, challenges, and prospects of nanomedicine are carefully and critically discussed in this report, which may serve as a key platform for scholars to investigate the role of nanomedicine for higher efficacy to manage the COVID-19 pandemic.

SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2: A Diagnostic Challenge

The highly pathogenic MERS-CoV, SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2 cause acute respiratory syndrome and are often fatal. These new viruses pose major problems to global health in general and primarily to infection control and public health services. Accurate and selective assessment of MERS-CoV, SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2 would assist in the effective diagnosis of infected individual, offer clinical guidance and aid in assessing clinical outcomes. In this mini-review, we review the literature on various aspects, including the history and diversity of SARS-CoV-2, SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV, their detection methods in effective clinical diagnosis, clinical assessment of COVID-19, safety guidelines recommended by World Health Organization and legal regulations. This review article also deals with existing challenges and difficulties in the clinical diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2. Developing alternative diagnostic platforms by spotting the shortcomings of the existing point-of-care diagnostic devices would be useful in preventing future outbreaks.

Aspects of Point-of-Care Diagnostics for Personalized Health Wellness

Advancements in analytical diagnostic systems for point-of-care (POC) application have gained considerable attention because of their rapid operation at the site required to manage severe diseases, even in a personalized manner. The POC diagnostic devices offer easy operation, fast analytical outcome, and affordable cost, which promote their advanced research and versatile adoptability. Keeping advantages in view, considerable efforts are being made to design and develop smart sensing components such as miniaturized transduction, interdigitated electrodes-based sensing chips, selective detection at low level, portable packaging, and sustainable durability to promote POC diagnostics according to the needs of patient care. Such effective diagnostics systems are in demand, which creates the challenge to make them more efficient in every aspect to generate a desired bio-informatic needed for better health access and management. Keeping advantages and scope in view, this mini review focuses on practical scenarios associated with miniaturized analytical diagnostic devices at POC application for targeted disease diagnostics smartly and efficiently. Moreover, advancements in technologies, such as smartphone-based operation, paper-based sensing assays, and lab-on-a-chip (LOC) which made POC more sensitive, informative, and suitable for major infectious disease diagnosis, are the main focus here. Besides, POC diagnostics based on automated patient sample integration with a sensing platform is continuously improving therapeutics interventions against specific infectious disease. This review also discussed challenges associated with state-of-the-art technology along with future research opportunities to design and develop next generation POC diagnostic systems needed to manage infectious diseases in a personalized manner.

Rapid SARS-CoV-2 Detection Using Electrochemical Immunosensor

The outbreak of the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic caused by the novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) has been declared an international public health crisis. It is essential to develop diagnostic tests that can quickly identify infected individuals to limit the spread of the virus and assign treatment options. Herein, we report a proof-of-concept label-free electrochemical immunoassay for the rapid detection of SARS-CoV-2 virus via the spike surface protein. The assay consists of a graphene working electrode functionalized with anti-spike antibodies. The concept of the immunosensor is to detect the signal perturbation obtained from ferri/ferrocyanide measurements after binding of the antigen during 45 min of incubation with a sample. The absolute change in the [Fe(CN)6]3-/4- current upon increasing antigen concentrations on the immunosensor surface was used to determine the detection range of the spike protein. The sensor was able to detect a specific signal above 260 nM (20 µg/mL) of subunit 1 of recombinant spike protein. Additionally, it was able to detect SARS-CoV-2 at a concentration of 5.5 × 105 PFU/mL, which is within the physiologically relevant concentration range. The novel immunosensor has a significantly faster analysis time than the standard qPCR and is operated by a portable device which can enable on-site diagnosis of infection.

Functionalized terahertz plasmonic metasensors: Femtomolar-level detection of SARS-CoV-2 spike proteins

Effective and efficient management of human betacoronavirus severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)-CoV-2 virus infection i.e., COVID-19 pandemic, required sensitive and selective sensors with short sample-to-result durations for performing desired diagnostics. In this direction, one appropriate alternative approach to detect SARS-CoV-2 virus protein at low level i.e., femtomolar (fM) is exploring plasmonic metasensor technology for COVID-19 diagnostics, which offers exquisite opportunities in advanced healthcare programs, and modern clinical diagnostics. The intrinsic merits of plasmonic metasensors stem from their capability to squeeze electromagnetic fields, simultaneously in frequency, time, and space. However, the detection of low-molecular weight biomolecules at low densities is a typical drawback of conventional metasensors that has recently been addressed using toroidal metasurface technology. This research is focused on the fabrication of a miniaturized plasmonic immunosensor based on toroidal electrodynamics concept that can sustain robustly confined plasmonic modes with ultranarrow lineshapes in the terahertz (THz) frequencies. By exciting toroidal dipole mode using our quasi-infinite metasurface and a judiciously optimized protocol based on functionalized gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) conjugated with the specific monoclonal antibody specific to spike protein (S1) of SARS-CoV-2 virus onto the metasurface, the resonance shifts for diverse concentrations of the spike protein are monitored. Possessing molecular weight around ~76 kDa allowed to detect the presence of SARS-CoV-2 virus protein with significantly low as limit of detection (LoD) was achieved as ~4.2 fM. We envisage that outcomes of this research will pave the way toward the use of toroidal metasensors as practical technologies for rapid and precise screening of SARS‐CoV‐2 virus carriers, symptomatic or asymptomatic, and spike proteins in hospitals, clinics, laboratories, and site of infection.

Ultra-sensitive viral glycoprotein detection NanoSystem toward accurate tracing SARS-CoV-2 in biological/non-biological media

Rapid person-to-person transfer of viruses such as SARS-CoV-2 and their occasional mutations owing to the human activity and climate/ecological changes by the mankind led to creation of wrecking worldwide challenges. Such fast transferable pathogens requiring practical diagnostic setups to control their transfer chain and stop sever outbreaks in early stages of their appearance. Herein, we have addressed this urgent demand by designing a rapid electrochemical diagnostic kit composed of fixed/screen printed electrodes that can detect pathogenic viruses such as SARS-CoV-2 and/or animal viruses through the differentiable fingerprint of their viral glycoproteins at different voltage positions. The working electrode of developed sensor is activated upon coating a layer of coupled graphene oxide (GO) with sensitive chemical compounds along with gold nanostars (Au NS) that can detect the trace of viruses in any aquatic biological media (e.g., blood, saliva and oropharyngeal/nasopharyngeal swab) through interaction with active functional groups of their glycoproteins. The method do not require any extraction and/or biomarkers for detection of target viruses and can identify trace of different pathogenic viruses in about 1 min. The nanosensor also demonstrated superior limit of detection (LOD) and sensitivity of 1.68 × 10-22 μg mL-1 and 0.0048 μAμg.mL-1. cm-2, respectively, toward detection of SARS-CoV-2 in biological media, while blind clinical evaluations of 100 suspected samples furtherly confirmed the superior sensitivity/specificity of developed nanosystem toward rapid identification of ill people even at incubation and prodromal periods of illness.

Towards safe and sustainable innovation in nanotechnology: State-of-play for smart nanomaterials

The European Green Deal, the European Commission's new Action Plan for a Circular Economy, the new European Industrial Strategy and the Chemicals Strategy for Sustainability launched in October 2020 are ambitious plans to achieve a sustainable, fair and inclusive European Union's economy. In line with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals 2030, these policies require that any new material or product should be not only functional and cost-effective but also safe and sustainable to ensure compliance with regulation and acceptance by consumers. Nanotechnology is one of the technologies that could enable such a green growth. This paper focuses on advanced nanomaterials that actively respond to external stimuli, also known as 'smart nanomaterials', and which are already on the market or in the research and development phase for non-medical applications such as in agriculture, food, food packaging and cosmetics. A review shows that smart nanomaterials and enabled products may present new challenges for safety and sustainability assessment due to their complexity and dynamic behaviour. Moreover, existing regulatory frameworks, in particular in the European Union, are probably not fully prepared to address them. What is missing today is a systematic and comprehensive approach that allows for considering sustainability aspects hand in hand with safety considerations very early on at the material design stage. We call on innovators, scientists and authorities to further develop and promote the 'Safe- and Sustainable-by-Design' concept in nanotechnology and propose some initiatives to go into this direction.

Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) prevention and treatment methods and effective parameters: A systematic literature review

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak was first identified in Wuhan in December 2019, which was declared a pandemic virus by the world health organization on March 11 in 2020. COVID-19 is an infectious disease and almost leads to acute respiratory distress syndrome. Therefore, the virus epidemic is a big problem for humanity healthy and can lead die in special people with background diseases such as chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases, chronic heart failure, diabetes mellitus, and kidney failure. Different medical, social, and engineering methods have been proposed to face the disease include treatment, detection, prevention, and prediction approaches.

METHODS

We propose a taxonomy tree to investigate the disease confronting methods and their negative and positive effects. Our work consists of a case study and systematic literature review (SLR) to evaluate the proposed methods against the virus outbreak and disease epidemic.

RESULTS

Our experimental results and observations demonstrate the impact of the proposed medical, prevention, detection, prediction, and social methods for facing the spread of COVID-19 from December 2019 to July 2020.

CONCLUSION

Our case study can help people have more information about the disease and its impact on humanity healthy and illustrate effective self-caring methods and therapies.

Role of Nanomedicine in Management and Prevention of COVID-19

COVID-19, or the Coronavirus disease 2019, caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has become a pandemic. At the time of writing this (July 28, 2020), more than 17 million people have become affected and 0.7 million people have died across the world. Remdesivir has shown glimpses of insight into how to fight the virus, but as of yet remain far from victory. Nanotechnology has proven its role in medicine to deliver the drug at the target site with minimal side effects, particularly in the anticancer domain. Most specifically, a range of nanotechnology-based products, such as nanosilver, are currently on the market because they have demonstrated the potential to combat viruses. This article provides an overview of the role of nanomedicine, including polymeric and inorganic materials, and its future capabilities in the management of the disease outbreak. Taking all this into account, an attempt has been made to educate readers in the simplest way of the role of nanomedicine, which can play a pivotal role in the management of diseases.

Nanomedicine & Nanotoxicology Future Could Be Reshaped Post-COVID-19 Pandemic

Since its first emergence in December 2019, the coronavirus-2 infection has quickly spread around the world and the severity of the pandemic has already re-shaped our lives. This review highlights the role of nanotechnology in the fight against this pandemic with a focus on the design of effective nano-based prevention and treatment options that overcome the limitations associated with conventional vaccines and other therapies. How nanotechnology could be utilized to understand the pathology of the ongoing pandemic is also discussed as well as how our knowledge about SARS-CoV-2 cellular uptake and toxicity could influence future nanotoxicological considerations and nanomedicine design of safe yet effective nanomaterials.

Biosensors for the Detection of Bacterial and Viral Clinical Pathogens

Biosensors are measurement devices that can sense several biomolecules, and are widely used for the detection of relevant clinical pathogens such as bacteria and viruses, showing outstanding results. Because of the latent existing risk of facing another pandemic like the one we are living through due to COVID-19, researchers are constantly looking forward to developing new technologies for diagnosis and treatment of infections caused by different bacteria and viruses. Regarding that, nanotechnology has improved biosensors' design and performance through the development of materials and nanoparticles that enhance their affinity, selectivity, and efficacy in detecting these pathogens, such as employing nanoparticles, graphene quantum dots, and electrospun nanofibers. Therefore, this work aims to present a comprehensive review that exposes how biosensors work in terms of bacterial and viral detection, and the nanotechnological features that are contributing to achieving a faster yet still efficient COVID-19 diagnosis at the point-of-care.

Emerging diagnostic tools for detection of COVID-19 and perspective

The COVID-19 caused by a novel coronavirus, named Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Corona Virus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has taken a great toll of life affecting lakhs of people around the globe. It was detected initially in Wuhan, China and has spread rapidly to more than 208 countries to date. A range of molecular and immunoassay-based techniques ranging from central laboratory testing to point-of-care tests is urgently needed for the diagnosis and management of COVID-19 patients. Intensive research is going on for the rapid and highly sensitive detection of COVID 19 using varied approach. Hence, this review will focus on the structure of SARS-CoV-2 and recent progress of different detection tool for the detection of COVID-19. This review will also stimulate academics and researcher to update their current technology. Additionally, we also state about the future revolving around the detection of the novel coronavirus. Lately, the way ahead for better management are also put forward.

Industry 5.0: Potential Applications in COVID-19

Industry 5.0, the fifth industrial revolution, consists of smart digital information and manufacturing technologies. This industrial revolution generates effective processes and makes rapid improvement in industries and healthcare. Solutions to challenges posed by COVID-19 pandemic can be identified with the deployment of Industry 5.0-based technologies. It helps to provide personalized therapy and treatment processes to the COVID-19 patients if a detailed patient’s information is available. The aim of Industry 5.0 technologies is to create a smart healthcare environment with real-time capabilities. During the COVID-19 pandemic, these technologies can provide a remote monitoring system in healthcare. This paper identifies and studies major technologies of Industry 5.0 helpful for the COVID-19 pandemic. The supportive features of Industry 5.0 for the COVID-19 pandemic are discussed diagrammatically. Finally, we identified and studied significant challenges faced in the context of Industry 5.0 technologies for the COVID-19 pandemic. The literature revealed that this technological innovation allows a high personalization level to fulfill personal specific demands of the patient and doctors. These technologies play a significant role in making the life of doctors better. Further, doctors can use this technology to focus on critically infected patients and provide proper appropriate information regarding their better treatment. Moreover, Industry 5.0 technologies can help doctors and medical students for required medical training during this COVID-19 outbreak.