Reelin mobilizes a VAMP7-dependent synaptic vesicle pool and selectively augments spontaneous neurotransmission

Somato-Dendritic Regulation of Raphe Serotonin Neurons; A Key to Antidepressant Action

Several lines of evidence implicate serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT)in regulating personality traits and mood control. Serotonergic neurons are classically thought to be tonic regular-firing, “clock-like” neurons. Neurotransmission by serotonin is tightly regulated by the serotonin transporter (SERT) and by autoreceptors (serotonin receptors expressed by serotonin neurons) through negative feedback inhibition at the cell bodies and dendrites (5-HT_1A receptors) of the dorsal raphe nuclei or at the axon terminals (5-HT_1B receptors). In dorsal raphe neurons, the release of serotonin from vesicles in the soma, dendrites, and/or axonal varicosities is independent of classical synapses and can be induced by neuron depolarization, by the stimulation of L-type calcium channels, by activation of glutamatergic receptors, and/or by activation of 5-HT₂ receptors. The resulting serotonin release displays a slow kinetic and a large diffusion. This process called volume transmission may ultimately affect the rate of discharge of serotonergic neurons, and their tonic activity. The therapeutic effects induced by serotonin-selective reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) antidepressants are initially triggered by blocking SERT but rely on consequences of chronic exposure, i.e., a selective desensitization of somatodendritic 5-HT_1A autoreceptors. Agonist stimulation of 5-HT_2B receptors mimicked behavioral and neurogenic SSRI actions, and increased extracellular serotonin in dorsal raphe. By contrast, a lack of effects of SSRIs was observed in the absence of 5-HT_2B receptors (knockout-KO), even restricted to serotonergic neurons (Htr2b^5-HTKO mice). The absence of 5-HT_2B receptors in serotonergic neurons is associated with a higher 5-HT_1A-autoreceptor reactivity and thus a lower firing activity of these neurons. In agreement, mice with overexpression of 5-HT_1A autoreceptor show decreased neuronal activity and increased depression-like behavior that is resistant to SSRI treatment. We propose thus that the serotonergic tone results from the opposite control exerted by somatodendritic (Gi-coupled) 5-HT_1A and (Gq-coupled) 5-HT_2B receptors on dorsal raphe neurons. Therefore, 5-HT_2B receptors may contribute to SSRI therapeutic effects by their positive regulation of adult raphe serotonergic neurons. Deciphering the molecular mechanism controlling extrasynaptic release of serotonin, and how autoreceptors interact in regulating the tonic activity of serotonergic neurons, is critical to fully understand the therapeutic effect of SSRIs.

Reversal of ApoE4-induced recycling block as a novel prevention approach for Alzheimer's disease

ApoE4 genotype is the most prevalent and also clinically most important risk factor for late-onset Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Available evidence suggests that the root cause for this increased risk is a trafficking defect at the level of the early endosome. ApoE4 differs from the most common ApoE3 isoform by a single amino acid that increases its isoelectric point and promotes unfolding of ApoE4 upon endosomal vesicle acidification. We found that pharmacological and genetic inhibition of NHE6, the primary proton leak channel in the early endosome, in rodents completely reverses the ApoE4-induced recycling block of the ApoE receptor Apoer2/Lrp8 and the AMPA- and NMDA-type glutamate receptors that are regulated by, and co-endocytosed in a complex with, Apoer2. Moreover, NHE6 inhibition restores the Reelin-mediated modulation of excitatory synapses that is impaired by ApoE4. Our findings suggest a novel potential approach for the prevention of late-onset AD.

Alzheimer’s disease is a degenerative condition that destroys connections between brain cells leading to memory loss, confusion and difficulties in thinking. Apolipoprotein E is a protein that carries fatty substances called lipids and cholesterol around the brain, and plays an important role in repair mechanisms. There are three major forms of Apolipoprotein E, and individuals who carry a version known as ApoE4 are up to 10 times more likely to develop Alzheimer’s disease than those who carry other variations.

In nerve cells, or neurons, Apolipoprotein E binds to a specific family of receptors. One of these receptors, called Apoer2, is found in the synaptic gap between neurons, where it regulates their activities. Both Apolipoprotein E and Apoer2 are taken into the cell within compartments known as endosomal vesicles. Usually, the Apoer2 receptor is quickly recycled back to the surface of the cell, but this recycling process is delayed in individuals with the ApoE4 version of Apolipoprotein E.

Apoer2 is just one of many different receptors on the surface of neurons that are taken into vesicles before being recycled back to the cell surface. The fluid inside these vesicles becomes progressively more acidic as they move through the cell. This process helps to control the interaction of these receptors with their binding partners and to regulate their movement and recycling. Here, Xian, Pohlkamp et al. investigated whether changing the acidity of vesicles in rat neurons could overcome the block in recycling Apoer2 – and other receptors that travel with Apoer2 in the same compartments – in the presence of ApoE4.

A protein called NHE6 is embedded in the membrane of vesicles called early endosomes and acts to make the vesicles less acidic. Xian, Pohlkamp et al. used drugs to block the activity of NHE6, which led to the vesicles becoming more acidic and allowed Apoer2 to be recycled faster. Using a genetic approach known as siRNA knockdown to decrease the amount of NHE6 produced in neurons also had a similar effect on Apoer2 recycling.

Together these findings suggest that drugs that make vesicles in neurons more acidic may have the potential to help prevent individuals that carry the ApoE4 protein from developing Alzheimer’s disease. Current drugs that target NHE6 also affect other molecules, which can often lead to side effects. A next step will be to develop tailor-made, small molecule drugs that can enter the brain efficiently and selectively block NHE6.

The Reelin Receptors Apolipoprotein E receptor 2 (ApoER2) and VLDL Receptor

Apolipoprotein E receptor 2 (ApoER2) and VLDL receptor belong to the low density lipoprotein receptor family and bind apolipoprotein E. These receptors interact with the clathrin machinery to mediate endocytosis of macromolecules but also interact with other adapter proteins to perform as signal transduction receptors. The best characterized signaling pathway in which ApoER2 and VLDL receptor (VLDLR) are involved is the Reelin pathway. This pathway plays a pivotal role in the development of laminated structures of the brain and in synaptic plasticity of the adult brain. Since Reelin and apolipoprotein E, are ligands of ApoER2 and VLDLR, these receptors are of interest with respect to Alzheimer's disease. We will focus this review on the complex structure of ApoER2 and VLDLR and a recently characterized ligand, namely clusterin.

Presynaptic origins of distinct modes of neurotransmitter release

Presynaptic nerve terminals release neurotransmitter synchronously, asynchronously or spontaneously. During synchronous neurotransmission release is precisely coupled to action potentials, in contrast, asynchronous release events show only loose temporal coupling to presynaptic activity whereas spontaneous neurotransmission occurs independent of presynaptic activity. The mechanisms that give rise to this diversity in neurotransmitter release modes are poorly understood. Recent studies have described several presynaptic molecular pathways controlling synaptic vesicle pool segregation and recycling, which in turn may dictate distinct modes of neurotransmitter release. In this article, we review this recent work regarding neurotransmitter release modes and their relationship to synaptic vesicle pool dynamics as well as the molecular machinery that establishes synaptic vesicle pool identity.

Copine-6 Binds to SNAREs and Selectively Suppresses Spontaneous Neurotransmission

Recent studies suggest that spontaneous and action potential-evoked neurotransmitter release processes are independently regulated. However, the mechanisms that uncouple the two forms of neurotransmission remain unclear. In cultured mouse and rat neurons, we show that the two C2 domain-containing protein copine-6 is localized to presynaptic terminals and binds to synaptobrevin2 as well as other SNARE proteins in a Ca²⁺-dependent manner. Ca²⁺-dependent interaction of copine-6 with synaptobrevin2 selectively suppresses spontaneous neurotransmission in a reaction that requires the tandem tryptophan residues at the C-terminal region of synaptobrevin2. Accordingly, copine-6 loss of function augmented presynaptic Ca²⁺ elevation-mediated neurotransmitter release. Intracellular Ca²⁺ chelation, on the other hand, occluded copine-6-mediated suppression of release. We also evaluated the molecular specificity of the copine-6-dependent regulation of spontaneous release and found that overexpression of copine-6 did not suppress spontaneous release in synaptobrevin2-deficient neurons. Together, these results suggest that copine-6 acts as a specific Ca²⁺-dependent suppressor of spontaneous neurotransmission.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Synaptic transmission occurs both in response to presynaptic action potentials and spontaneously, in the absence of stimulation. Currently, much more is understood about the mechanisms underlying action potential-evoked neurotransmission compared with spontaneous release. However, recent studies have shown selective modulation of spontaneous neurotransmission process by several neuromodulators, suggesting specific molecular regulation of spontaneous release. In this study, we identify copine-6 as a specific regulator of spontaneous neurotransmission. By both gain-of-function and loss-of-function experiments, we show that copine-6 functions as a Ca²⁺-dependent suppressor of spontaneous release. These results further elucidate the mechanisms underlying differential regulation of evoked and spontaneous neurotransmitter release.

Synapses in neurodegenerative diseases

Synapse is the basic structural and functional component for neural communication in the brain. The presynaptic terminal is the structural and functionally essential area that initiates communication and maintains the continuous functional neural information flow. It contains synaptic vesicles (SV) filled with neurotransmitters, an active zone for release, and numerous proteins for SV fusion and retrieval. The structural and functional synaptic plasticity is a representative characteristic; however, it is highly vulnerable to various pathological conditions. In fact, synaptic alteration is thought to be central to neural disease processes. In particular, the alteration of the structural and functional phenotype of the presynaptic terminal is a highly significant evidence for neural diseases. In this review, we specifically describe structural and functional alteration of nerve terminals in several neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer’s disease (AD), Parkinson’s disease (PD), Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), and Huntington’s disease (HD).

Reelin Regulates the Maturation of Dendritic Spines, Synaptogenesis and Glial Ensheathment of Newborn Granule Cells

Significance Statement

The extracellular protein Reelin has an important role in neurological diseases, including epilepsy, Alzheimer's disease and psychiatric diseases, targeting hippocampal circuits. Here we address the role of Reelin in the development of synaptic contacts in adult-generated granule cells (GCs), a neuronal population that is crucial for learning and memory and implicated in neurological and psychiatric diseases. We found that the Reelin pathway controls the shapes, sizes, and types of dendritic spines, the complexity of multisynaptic innervations and the degree of the perisynaptic astroglial ensheathment that controls synaptic homeostasis. These findings show a pivotal role of Reelin in GC synaptogenesis and provide a foundation for structural circuit alterations caused by Reelin deregulation that may occur in neurological and psychiatric disorders.

Visualizing endocytic recycling and trafficking in live neurons by subdiffractional tracking of internalized molecules

Our understanding of endocytic pathway dynamics is restricted by the diffraction limit of light microscopy. Although super-resolution techniques can overcome this issue, highly crowded cellular environments, such as nerve terminals, can also dramatically limit the tracking of multiple endocytic vesicles such as synaptic vesicles (SVs), which in turn restricts the analytical dissection of their discrete diffusional and transport states. We recently introduced a pulse-chase technique for subdiffractional tracking of internalized molecules (sdTIM) that allows the visualization of fluorescently tagged molecules trapped in individual signaling endosomes and SVs in presynapses or axons with 30- to 50-nm localization precision. We originally developed this approach for tracking single molecules of botulinum neurotoxin type A, which undergoes activity-dependent internalization and retrograde transport in autophagosomes. This method was then adapted to localize the signaling endosomes containing cholera toxin subunit-B that undergo retrograde transport in axons and to track SVs in the crowded environment of hippocampal presynapses. We describe (i) the construction of a custom-made microfluidic device that enables control over neuronal orientation; (ii) the 3D printing of a perfusion system for sdTIM experiments performed on glass-bottom dishes; (iii) the dissection, culturing and transfection of hippocampal neurons in microfluidic devices; and (iv) guidance on how to perform the pulse-chase experiments and data analysis. In addition, we describe the use of single-molecule-tracking analytical tools to reveal the average and the heterogeneous single-molecule mobility behaviors. We also discuss alternative reagents and equipment that can, in principle, be used for sdTIM experiments and describe how to adapt sdTIM to image nanocluster formation and/or tubulation in early endosomes during sorting events. The procedures described in this protocol take ∼1 week.

Cognitive Decline in Neuronal Aging and Alzheimer's Disease: Role of NMDA Receptors and Associated Proteins

Molecular changes associated with neuronal aging lead to a decrease in cognitive capacity. Here we discuss these alterations at the level of brain regions, brain cells, and brain membrane and cytoskeletal proteins with an special focus in NMDA molecular changes through aging and its effect in cognitive decline and Alzheimer disease. Here, we propose that some neurodegenerative disorders, like Alzheimer's disease (AD), are characterized by an increase and acceleration of some of these changes.

Regulation of hypothalamic corticotropin-releasing hormone neurone excitability by oxytocin

Oxytocin (OT) is a neuropeptide that exerts multiple actions throughout the brain and periphery. Within the brain, OT regulates diverse neural populations, including neural networks controlling responses to stress. Local release of OT within the paraventricular nucleus (PVN) of the hypothalamus has been suggested to regulate stress responses by modulating the excitability of neighbouring corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) neurones. However, the mechanisms by which OT regulates CRH neurone excitability are unclear. In the present study, we investigated the morphological relationship between OT and CRH neurones and determined the effects of OT on CRH neurone excitability. Morphological analysis revealed that the processes of OT and CRH neurones were highly intermingled within the PVN, possibly allowing for local cell-to-cell cross-talk. Whole-cell patch-clamp recordings from CRH neurones were used to study the impact of OT on postsynaptic excitability and synaptic innervation. Bath-applied OT did not alter CRH neurone holding current, spiking output or any action potential parameters. Recordings of evoked excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic currents (EPSCs/IPSCs) revealed no net effect of OT on current amplitude; however, subgroups of CRH neurones appeared to respond differentially to OT. Analysis of spontaneous EPSC events uncovered a significant reduction in spontaneous EPSC frequency but no change in spontaneous EPSC amplitude in response to OT. Together, these data demonstrate that OT exerts a subtle modulation of synaptic transmission onto CRH neurones providing one potential mechanism by which OT could suppress CRH neurone excitability and stress axis activity.

Activity-Dependence of Synaptic Vesicle Dynamics

The proper function of synapses relies on efficient recycling of synaptic vesicles. The small size of synaptic boutons has hampered efforts to define the dynamical states of vesicles during recycling. Moreover, whether vesicle motion during recycling is regulated by neural activity remains largely unknown. We combined nanoscale-resolution tracking of individual synaptic vesicles in cultured hippocampal neurons from rats of both sexes with advanced motion analyses to demonstrate that the majority of recently endocytosed vesicles undergo sequences of transient dynamical states including epochs of directed, diffusional, and stalled motion. We observed that vesicle motion is modulated in an activity-dependent manner, with dynamical changes apparent in ∼20% of observed boutons. Within this subpopulation of boutons, 35% of observed vesicles exhibited acceleration and 65% exhibited deceleration, accompanied by corresponding changes in directed motion. Individual vesicles observed in the remaining ∼80% of boutons did not exhibit apparent dynamical changes in response to stimulation. More quantitative transient motion analyses revealed that the overall reduction of vesicle mobility, and specifically of the directed motion component, is the predominant activity-evoked change across the entire bouton population. Activity-dependent modulation of vesicle mobility may represent an important mechanism controlling vesicle availability and neurotransmitter release.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Mechanisms governing synaptic vesicle dynamics during recycling remain poorly understood. Using nanoscale resolution tracking of individual synaptic vesicles in hippocampal synapses and advanced motion analysis tools we demonstrate that synaptic vesicles undergo complex sets of dynamical states that include epochs of directed, diffusive, and stalled motion. Most importantly, our analyses revealed that vesicle motion is modulated in an activity-dependent manner apparent as the reduction in overall vesicle mobility in response to stimulation. These results define the vesicle dynamical states during recycling and reveal their activity-dependent modulation. Our study thus provides fundamental new insights into the principles governing synaptic function.

The functions of Reelin in membrane trafficking and cytoskeletal dynamics: implications for neuronal migration, polarization and differentiation

Reelin is a large extracellular matrix protein with relevant roles in mammalian central nervous system including neurogenesis, neuronal polarization and migration during development; and synaptic plasticity with its implications in learning and memory, in the adult. Dysfunctions in reelin signaling are associated with brain lamination defects such as lissencephaly, but also with neuropsychiatric diseases like autism, schizophrenia and depression as well with neurodegeneration. Reelin signaling involves a core pathway that activates upon reelin binding to its receptors, particularly ApoER2 (apolipoprotein E receptor 2)/LRP8 (low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 8) and very low-density lipoprotein receptor, followed by Src/Fyn-mediated phosphorylation of the adaptor protein Dab1 (Disabled-1). Phosphorylated Dab1 (pDab1) is a hub in the signaling cascade, from which several other downstream pathways diverge reflecting the different roles of reelin. Many of these pathways affect the dynamics of the actin and microtubular cytoskeleton, as well as membrane trafficking through the regulation of the activity of small GTPases, including the Rho and Rap families and molecules involved in cell polarity. The complexity of reelin functions is reflected by the fact that, even now, the precise mode of action of this signaling cascade in vivo at the cellular and molecular levels remains unclear. This review addresses and discusses in detail the participation of reelin in the processes underlying neurogenesis, neuronal migration in the cerebral cortex and the hippocampus; and the polarization, differentiation and maturation processes that neurons experiment in order to be functional in the adult brain. In vivo and in vitro evidence is presented in order to facilitate a better understanding of this fascinating system.

Altered Development of Synapse Structure and Function in Striatum Caused by Parkinson's Disease-Linked LRRK2-G2019S Mutation

Mutations in the gene encoding leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) can cause Parkinson's disease (PD), and the most common disease-associated mutation, G2019S, increases kinase activity. Because LRRK2 expression levels rise during synaptogenesis and are highest in dorsal striatal spiny projection neurons (SPNs), we tested the hypothesis that the LRRK2-G2019S mutation would alter development of excitatory synaptic networks in dorsal striatum. To circumvent experimental confounds associated with LRRK2 overexpression, we used mice expressing LRRK2-G2019S or D2017A (kinase-dead) knockin mutations. In whole-cell recordings, G2019S SPNs exhibited a fourfold increase in sEPSC frequency compared with wild-type SPNs in postnatal day 21 mice. Such heightened neural activity was increased similarly in direct- and indirect-pathway SPNs, and action potential-dependent activity was particularly elevated. Excitatory synaptic activity in D2017A SPNs was similar to wild type, indicating a selective effect of G2019S. Acute exposure to LRRK2 kinase inhibitors normalized activity, supporting that excessive neural activity in G2019S SPNs is mediated directly and is kinase dependent. Although dendritic arborization and densities of excitatory presynaptic terminals and postsynaptic dendritic spines in G2019S SPNs were similar to wild type, G2019S SPNs displayed larger spines that were matched functionally by a shift toward larger postsynaptic response amplitudes. Acutely isolating striatum from overlying neocortex normalized sEPSC frequency in G2019S mutants, supporting that abnormal corticostriatal activity is involved. These findings indicate that the G2019S mutation imparts a gain-of-abnormal function to SPN activity and morphology during a stage of development when activity can permanently modify circuit structure and function.

SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT

Mutations in the kinase domain of leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) follow Parkinson's disease (PD) heritability. How such mutations affect brain function is poorly understood. LRRK2 expression levels rise after birth at a time when synapses are forming and are highest in dorsal striatum, suggesting that LRRK2 regulates development of striatal circuits. During a period of postnatal development when activity plays a large role in permanently shaping neural circuits, our data show how the most common PD-causing LRRK2 mutation dramatically alters excitatory synaptic activity and the shape of postsynaptic structures in striatum. These findings provide new insight into early functional and structural aberrations in striatal connectivity that may predispose striatal circuitry to both motor and nonmotor dysfunction later in life.

Synaptotagmin isoforms confer distinct activation kinetics and dynamics to chromaffin cell granules

Chromaffin cells release transmitters from populations of granules to which synaptotagmin-1 and synaptotagmin-7 are selectively sorted. Rao et al. characterize the functional properties of these granules and show that synaptotagmin-7 confers fast kinetics and high efficacy to the exocytotic event.

Adrenomedullary chromaffin cells respond to sympathetic nervous system activation by secreting a cocktail of potent neuropeptides and hormones into the circulation. The distinct phases of the chromaffin cell secretory response have been attributed to the progressive fusion of distinct populations of dense core granules with different activation kinetics. However, it has been difficult to define what distinguishes these populations at the molecular level. Functional segregation of granule pools may depend on selective sorting of synaptotagmin-1 (Syt-1) and synaptotagmin-7 (Syt-7), which our previous work showed are rarely cosorted to the same granule. Here we assess the consequences of selective sorting of Syt isoforms in chromaffin cells, particularly with respect to granule dynamics and activation kinetics. Upon depolarization of cells expressing fluorescent Syt isoforms using elevated K⁺, we find that Syt-7 granules fuse with faster kinetics than Syt-1 granules, irrespective of stimulation strength. Pharmacological blockade of Ca²⁺ channels reveals differential dependence of Syt-1 versus Syt-7 granule exocytosis on Ca²⁺ channel subtypes. Syt-7 granules also show a greater tendency to fuse in clusters than Syt-1 granules, and granules harboring Syt-1 travel a greater distance before fusion than those with Syt-7, suggesting that there is spatial and fusion-site heterogeneity among the two granule populations. However, the greatest functional difference between granule populations is their responsiveness to Ca²⁺. Upon introduction of Ca²⁺ into permeabilized cells, Syt-7 granules fuse with fast kinetics and high efficacy, even at low Ca²⁺ levels (e.g., when cells are weakly stimulated). Conversely, Syt-1 granules require a comparatively larger increase in intracellular Ca²⁺ for activation. At Ca²⁺ concentrations above 30 µM, activation kinetics are faster for Syt-1 granules than for Syt-7 granules. Our study provides evidence for functional specialization of chromaffin cell granules via selective expression of Syt isoforms with different Ca²⁺ sensitivities.

Cyclic Nucleotide Control of Microtubule Dynamics for Axon Guidance

Graded distribution of intracellular second messengers, such as Ca(2+) and cyclic nucleotides, mediates directional cell migration, including axon navigational responses to extracellular guidance cues, in the developing nervous system. Elevated concentrations of cAMP or cGMP on one side of the neuronal growth cone induce its attractive or repulsive turning, respectively. Although effector processes downstream of Ca(2+) have been extensively studied, very little is known about the mechanisms that enable cyclic nucleotides to steer migrating cells. Here, we show that asymmetric cyclic nucleotide signaling across the growth cone mediates axon guidance via modulating microtubule dynamics and membrane organelle transport. In embryonic chick dorsal root ganglion neurons in culture, contact of an extending microtubule with the growth cone leading edge induces localized membrane protrusion at the site of microtubule contact. Such a contact-induced protrusion requires exocytosis of vesicle-associated membrane protein 7 (VAMP7)-positive vesicles that have been transported centrifugally along the microtubule. We found that the two cyclic nucleotides counteractively regulate the frequency of microtubule contacts and targeted delivery of VAMP7 vesicles: cAMP stimulates and cGMP inhibits these events, thereby steering the growth cone in the opposite directions. By contrast, Ca(2+) signals elicit no detectable change in either microtubule contacts or VAMP7 vesicle delivery during Ca(2+)-induced growth cone turning. Our findings clearly demonstrate growth cone steering machinery downstream of cyclic nucleotide signaling and highlight a crucial role of dynamic microtubules in leading-edge protrusion for cell chemotaxis.

SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT

Developing neurons can extend long axons toward their postsynaptic targets. The tip of each axon, called the growth cone, recognizes extracellular guidance cues and navigates the axon along the correct path. Here we show that asymmetric cyclic nucleotide signaling across the growth cone mediates axon guidance through localized regulation of microtubule dynamics and resulting recruitment of specific populations of membrane vesicles to the growth cone's leading edge. Remarkably, cAMP stimulates microtubule growth and membrane protrusion, whereas cGMP promotes microtubule retraction and membrane senescence, explaining the opposite directional polarities of growth cone turning induced by these cyclic nucleotides. This study reveals a novel microtubule-based mechanism through which cyclic nucleotides polarize the growth cone steering machinery for bidirectional axon guidance.

Loss of Doc2-Dependent Spontaneous Neurotransmission Augments Glutamatergic Synaptic Strength

Action potential-evoked vesicle fusion comprises the majority of neurotransmission within chemical synapses, but action potential-independent spontaneous neurotransmission also contributes to the collection of signals sent to the postsynaptic cell. Previous work has implicated spontaneous neurotransmission in homeostatic synaptic scaling, but few studies have selectively manipulated spontaneous neurotransmission without substantial changes in evoked neurotransmission to study this function in detail. Here we used a quadruple knockdown strategy to reduce levels of proteins within the soluble calcium-binding double C2 domain (Doc2)-like protein family to selectively reduce spontaneous neurotransmission in cultured mouse and rat neurons. Activity-evoked responses appear normal while both excitatory and inhibitory spontaneous events exhibit reduced frequency. Excitatory miniature postsynaptic currents (mEPSCs), but not miniature inhibitory postsynaptic currents (mIPSCs), increase in amplitude after quadruple knockdown. This increase in synaptic efficacy correlates with reduced phosphorylation levels of eukaryotic elongation factor 2 and also requires the presence of elongation factor 2 kinase. Together, these data suggest that spontaneous neurotransmission independently contributes to the regulation of synaptic efficacy, and action potential-evoked and spontaneous neurotransmission can be segregated at least partially on a molecular level.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Action potential-evoked and spontaneous neurotransmission have been observed in nervous system circuits as long as methods have existed to measure them. Despite being well studied, controversy still remains about whether these forms of neurotransmission are regulated independently on a molecular level or whether they are simply a continuum of neurotransmission modes. In this study, members of the Doc2 family of presynaptic proteins were eliminated, which caused a reduction in spontaneous neurotransmission, whereas action potential-evoked neurotransmission remained relatively normal. This protein loss also caused an increase in synaptic strength, suggesting that spontaneous neurotransmission is able to communicate independently with the postsynaptic neuron and trigger downstream signaling cascades that regulate the synaptic state.

The de novo autism spectrum disorder RELN R2290C mutation reduces Reelin secretion and increases protein disulfide isomerase expression

Despite the recent identification of over 40 missense heterozygous Reelin gene (RELN) mutations in autism spectrum disorder (ASD), none of these has been functionally characterized. Reelin is an integral signaling ligand for proper brain development and post-natal synapse function - properties likely disrupted in ASD patients. We find that the R2290C mutation, which arose de novo in an affected ASD proband, and other analogous mutations in arginine-amino acid-arginine domains reduce protein secretion. Closer analysis of RELN R2290C heterozygous neurospheres reveals up-regulation of Protein Disulfide Isomerase A1, best known as an endoplasmic reticulum-chaperone protein, which has been linked to neuronal pathology. This effect is recapitulated in a heterozygous RELN mouse mutant that is characterized by defective Reelin secretion. These findings suggest that both a deficiency in Reelin signaling and pathologic impairment of Reelin secretion may contribute to ASD risk.

Intersectin 1 is a component of the Reelin pathway to regulate neuronal migration and synaptic plasticity in the hippocampus

Brain development and function depend on the directed and coordinated migration of neurons from proliferative zones to their final position. The secreted glycoprotein Reelin is an important factor directing neuronal migration. Loss of Reelin function results in the severe developmental disorder lissencephaly and is associated with neurological diseases in humans. Reelin signals via the lipoprotein receptors very low density lipoprotein receptor (VLDLR) and apolipoprotein E receptor 2 (ApoER2), but the exact mechanism by which these receptors control cellular function is poorly understood. We report that loss of the signaling scaffold intersectin 1 (ITSN1) in mice leads to defective neuronal migration and ablates Reelin stimulation of hippocampal long-term potentiation (LTP). Knockout (KO) mice lacking ITSN1 suffer from dispersion of pyramidal neurons and malformation of the radial glial scaffold, akin to the hippocampal lamination defects observed in VLDLR or ApoER2 mutants. ITSN1 genetically interacts with Reelin receptors, as evidenced by the prominent neuronal migration and radial glial defects in hippocampus and cortex seen in double-KO mice lacking ITSN1 and ApoER2. These defects were similar to, albeit less severe than, those observed in Reelin-deficient or VLDLR/ ApoER2 double-KO mice. Molecularly, ITSN1 associates with the VLDLR and its downstream signaling adaptor Dab1 to facilitate Reelin signaling. Collectively, these data identify ITSN1 as a component of Reelin signaling that acts predominantly by facilitating the VLDLR-Dab1 axis to direct neuronal migration in the cortex and hippocampus and to augment synaptic plasticity.

Synaptic Vesicle-Recycling Machinery Components as Potential Therapeutic Targets

Presynaptic nerve terminals are highly specialized vesicle-trafficking machines. Neurotransmitter release from these terminals is sustained by constant local recycling of synaptic vesicles independent from the neuronal cell body. This independence places significant constraints on maintenance of synaptic protein complexes and scaffolds. Key events during the synaptic vesicle cycle-such as exocytosis and endocytosis-require formation and disassembly of protein complexes. This extremely dynamic environment poses unique challenges for proteostasis at synaptic terminals. Therefore, it is not surprising that subtle alterations in synaptic vesicle cycle-associated proteins directly or indirectly contribute to pathophysiology seen in several neurologic and psychiatric diseases. In contrast to the increasing number of examples in which presynaptic dysfunction causes neurologic symptoms or cognitive deficits associated with multiple brain disorders, synaptic vesicle-recycling machinery remains an underexplored drug target. In addition, irrespective of the involvement of presynaptic function in the disease process, presynaptic machinery may also prove to be a viable therapeutic target because subtle alterations in the neurotransmitter release may counter disease mechanisms, correct, or compensate for synaptic communication deficits without the need to interfere with postsynaptic receptor signaling. In this article, we will overview critical properties of presynaptic release machinery to help elucidate novel presynaptic avenues for the development of therapeutic strategies against neurologic and neuropsychiatric disorders.

ApoE, ApoE Receptors, and the Synapse in Alzheimer's Disease

As the population ages, neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease (AD) are becoming a significant burden on patients, their families, and health-care systems. Neurodegenerative processes may start up to 15 years before outward signs and symptoms of AD, as evidenced by data from AD patients and mouse models. A major genetic risk factor for late-onset AD is the ɛ4 isoform of apolipoprotein E (ApoE4), which is present in almost 20% of the population. In this review we discuss the contribution of ApoE receptor signaling to the function of each component of the tripartite synapse - the axon terminal, the postsynaptic dendritic spine, and the astrocyte - and examine how these systems fail in the context of ApoE4 and AD.

The ApoE receptors Vldlr and Apoer2 in central nervous system function and disease

The LDL receptor (LDLR) family has long been studied for its role in cholesterol transport and metabolism; however, the identification of ApoE4, an LDLR ligand, as a genetic risk factor for late-onset Alzheimer's disease has focused attention on the role this receptor family plays in the CNS. Surprisingly, it was discovered that two LDLR family members, ApoE receptor 2 (Apoer2) and VLDL receptor (Vldlr), play key roles in brain development and adult synaptic plasticity, primarily by mediating Reelin signaling. This review focuses on Apoer2 and Vldlr signaling in the CNS and its role in human disease.

Optogenetic control of the Dab1 signaling pathway

The Reelin-Dab1 signaling pathway regulates development of the mammalian brain, including neuron migrations in various brain regions, as well as learning and memory in adults. Extracellular Reelin binds to cell surface receptors and activates phosphorylation of the intracellular Dab1 protein. Dab1 is required for most effects of Reelin, but Dab1-independent pathways may contribute. Here we developed a single-component, photoactivatable Dab1 (opto-Dab1) by using the blue light-sensitive dimerization/oligomerization property of A. thaliana Cryptochrome 2 (Cry2). Opto-Dab1 can activate downstream signals rapidly, locally, and reversibly upon blue light illumination. The high spatiotemporal resolution of the opto-Dab1 probe also allows us to control membrane protrusion, retraction and ruffling by local illumination in both COS7 cells and in primary neurons. This shows that Dab1 activation is sufficient to orient cell movement in the absence of other signals. Opto-Dab1 may be useful to study the biological functions of the Reelin-Dab1 signaling pathway both in vitro and in vivo.

Functional Roles of the Interaction of APP and Lipoprotein Receptors

The biological fates of the key initiator of Alzheimer’s disease (AD), the amyloid precursor protein (APP), and a family of lipoprotein receptors, the low-density lipoprotein (LDL) receptor-related proteins (LRPs) and their molecular roles in the neurodegenerative disease process are inseparably interwoven. Not only does APP bind tightly to the extracellular domains (ECDs) of several members of the LRP group, their intracellular portions are also connected through scaffolds like the one established by FE65 proteins and through interactions with adaptor proteins such as X11/Mint and Dab1. Moreover, the ECDs of APP and LRPs share common ligands, most notably Reelin, a regulator of neuronal migration during embryonic development and modulator of synaptic transmission in the adult brain, and Agrin, another signaling protein which is essential for the formation and maintenance of the neuromuscular junction (NMJ) and which likely also has critical, though at this time less well defined, roles for the regulation of central synapses. Furthermore, the major independent risk factors for AD, Apolipoprotein (Apo) E and ApoJ/Clusterin, are lipoprotein ligands for LRPs. Receptors and ligands mutually influence their intracellular trafficking and thereby the functions and abilities of neurons and the blood-brain-barrier to turn over and remove the pathological product of APP, the amyloid-β peptide. This article will review and summarize the molecular mechanisms that are shared by APP and LRPs and discuss their relative contributions to AD.

Selective molecular impairment of spontaneous neurotransmission modulates synaptic efficacy

Recent studies suggest that stimulus-evoked and spontaneous neurotransmitter release processes are mechanistically distinct. Here we targeted the non-canonical synaptic vesicle SNAREs Vps10p-tail-interactor-1a (vti1a) and vesicle-associated membrane protein 7 (VAMP7) to specifically inhibit spontaneous release events and probe whether these events signal independently of evoked release to the postsynaptic neuron. We found that loss of vti1a and VAMP7 impairs spontaneous high-frequency glutamate release and augments unitary event amplitudes by reducing postsynaptic eukaryotic elongation factor 2 kinase (eEF2K) activity subsequent to the reduction in N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) activity. Presynaptic, but not postsynaptic, loss of vti1a and VAMP7 occludes NMDAR antagonist-induced synaptic potentiation in an intact circuit, confirming the role of these vesicular SNAREs in setting synaptic strength. Collectively, these results demonstrate that spontaneous neurotransmission signals independently of stimulus-evoked release and highlight its role as a key regulator of postsynaptic efficacy.

Synaptotagmin-1- and Synaptotagmin-7-Dependent Fusion Mechanisms Target Synaptic Vesicles to Kinetically Distinct Endocytic Pathways

Synaptic vesicle recycling is essential for maintaining normal synaptic function. The coupling of exocytosis and endocytosis is assumed to be Ca²⁺ dependent, but the exact role of Ca²⁺ and its key effector synaptotagmin-1 (syt1) in regulation of endocytosis is poorly understood. Here, we probed the role of syt1 in single- as well as multi-vesicle endocytic events using high-resolution optical recordings. Our experiments showed that the slowed endocytosis phenotype previously reported after syt1 loss of function can also be triggered by other manipulations that promote asynchronous release such as Sr²⁺ substitution and complexin loss of function. The link between asynchronous release and slowed endocytosis was due to selective targeting of fused synaptic vesicles toward slow retrieval by the asynchronous release Ca²⁺ sensor synaptotagmin-7. In contrast, after single synaptic vesicle fusion, syt1 acted as an essential determinant of synaptic vesicle endocytosis time course by delaying the kinetics of vesicle retrieval in response to increasing Ca²⁺ levels.

Reelin: Neurodevelopmental Architect and Homeostatic Regulator of Excitatory Synapses

Over half a century ago, D. S. Falconer first reported a mouse with a reeling gate. Four decades later, the Reln gene was isolated and identified as the cause of the reeler phenotype. Initial studies found that loss of Reelin, a large, secreted glycoprotein encoded by the Reln gene, results in abnormal neuronal layering throughout several regions of the brain. In the years since, the known functions of Reelin signaling in the brain have expanded to include multiple postdevelopmental neuromodulatory roles, revealing an ever increasing body of evidence to suggest that Reelin signaling is a critical player in the modulation of synaptic function. In writing this review, we intend to highlight the most fundamental aspects of Reelin signaling and integrate how these various neuromodulatory effects shape and protect synapses.

Synaptic vesicle pool-specific modification of neurotransmitter release by intravesicular free radical generation

KEY POINTS

Synaptic transmission is mediated by the release of neurotransmitters from synaptic vesicles in response to stimulation or through the spontaneous fusion of a synaptic vesicle with the presynaptic plasma membrane. There is growing evidence that synaptic vesicles undergoing spontaneous fusion versus those fusing in response to stimuli are functionally distinct. In this study, we acutely probe the effects of intravesicular free radical generation on synaptic vesicles that fuse spontaneously or in response to stimuli. By targeting vesicles that preferentially release spontaneously, we can dissociate the effects of intravesicular free radical generation on spontaneous neurotransmission from evoked neurotransmission and vice versa. Taken together, these results further advance our knowledge of the synapse and the nature of the different synaptic vesicle pools mediating neurotransmission.

ABSTRACT

Earlier studies suggest that spontaneous and evoked neurotransmitter release processes are maintained by synaptic vesicles which are segregated into functionally distinct pools. However, direct interrogation of the link between this putative synaptic vesicle pool heterogeneity and neurotransmission has been difficult. To examine this link, we tagged vesicles with horseradish peroxidase (HRP) - a haem-containing plant enzyme - or antibodies against synaptotagmin-1 (syt1). Filling recycling vesicles in hippocampal neurons with HRP and subsequent treatment with hydrogen peroxide (H₂ O₂ ) modified the properties of neurotransmitter release depending on the route of HRP uptake. While strong depolarization-induced uptake of HRP suppressed evoked release and augmented spontaneous release, HRP uptake during mild activity selectively impaired evoked release, whereas HRP uptake at rest solely potentiated spontaneous release. Expression of a luminal HRP-tagged syt1 construct and subsequent H₂ O₂ application resulted in a similar increase in spontaneous release and suppression as well as desynchronization of evoked release, recapitulating the canonical syt1 loss-of-function phenotype. An antibody targeting the luminal domain of syt1, on the other hand, showed that augmentation of spontaneous release and suppression of evoked release phenotypes are dissociable depending on whether the antibody uptake occurred at rest or during depolarization. Taken together, these findings indicate that vesicles that maintain spontaneous and evoked neurotransmitter release preserve their identity during recycling and syt1 function in suppression of spontaneous neurotransmission can be acutely dissociated from syt1 function to synchronize synaptic vesicle exocytosis upon stimulation.

Single synapse evaluation of the postsynaptic NMDA receptors targeted by evoked and spontaneous neurotransmission

Recent studies indicate that within individual synapses spontaneous and evoked release processes are segregated and regulated independently. In the hippocampus, earlier electrophysiological recordings suggested that spontaneous and evoked glutamate release can activate separate groups of postsynaptic NMDA receptors with limited overlap. However, it is still unclear how this separation of NMDA receptors is distributed across individual synapses. In a previous paper (Reese and Kavalali, 2015) we showed that NMDA receptor mediated spontaneous transmission signals to the postsynaptic protein translation machinery through Ca²⁺-induced Ca²⁺ release. Here, we show that in rat hippocampal neurons although spontaneous and evoked glutamate release driven NMDA receptor mediated Ca2+ transients often occur at the same synapse, these two signals do not show significant correlation or cross talk.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.21170.001

Reelin and Neuropsychiatric Disorders

Proper neuronal migration and laminar formation during corticogenesis is essential for normal brain function. Disruption of these developmental processes is thought to be involved in the pathogenesis of some neuropsychiatric conditions. Especially, Reelin, a glycoprotein mainly secreted by the Cajal-Retzius cells and a subpopulation of GABAergic interneurons, has been shown to play a critical role, both during embryonic and postnatal periods. Indeed, animal studies have clearly revealed that Reelin is an essential molecule for proper migration of cortical neurons and finally regulates the cell positioning in the cortex during embryonic and early postnatal stages; by contrast, Reelin signaling is closely involved in synaptic function in adulthood. In humans, genetic studies have shown that the reelin gene (RELN) is associated with a number of psychiatric diseases, including Schizophrenia (SZ), bipolar disorder (BP) and autistic spectrum disorder. Indeed, Reln haploinsufficiency has been shown to cause cognitive impairment in rodents, suggesting the expression level of the Reelin protein is closely related to the higher brain functions. However, the molecular abnormalities in the Reelin pathway involved in the pathogenesis of psychiatric disorders are not yet fully understood. In this article, we review the current progress in the understanding of the Reelin functions that could be related to the pathogenesis of psychiatric disorders. Furthermore, we discuss the basis for selecting Reelin and molecules in its downstream signaling pathway as potential therapeutic targets for psychiatric illnesses.

Loss of Cdk5 function in the nucleus accumbens decreases wheel running and may mediate age-related declines in voluntary physical activity

KEY POINTS

Physical inactivity, which drastically increases with advancing age, is associated with numerous chronic diseases. The nucleus accumbens (the pleasure and reward 'hub' in the brain) influences wheel running behaviour in rodents. RNA-sequencing and subsequent bioinformatics analysis led us to hypothesize a potential relationship between the regulation of dendritic spine density, the molecules involved in synaptic transmission, and age-related reductions in wheel running. Upon completion of follow-up studies, we developed the working model that synaptic plasticity in the nucleus accumbens is central to age-related changes in voluntary running. Testing this hypothesis, inhibition of Cdk5 (comprising a molecule central to the processes described above) in the nucleus accumbens reduced wheel running. The results of the present study show that reductions in synaptic transmission and Cdk5 function are related to decreases in voluntary running behaviour and provide guidance for understanding the neural mechanisms that underlie age-dependent reductions in the motivation to be physically active.

ABSTRACT

Increases in age are often associated with reduced levels of physical activity, which, in turn, associates with the development of numerous chronic diseases. We aimed to assess molecular differences in the nucleus accumbens (NAc) (a specific brain nucleus postulated to influence rewarding behaviour) with respect to wheel running and sedentary female Wistar rats at 8 and 14 weeks of age. RNA-sequencing was used to interrogate transcriptomic changes between 8- and 14-week-old wheel running rats, and select transcripts were later analysed by quantitative RT-PCR in age-matched sedentary rats. Voluntary wheel running was greatest at 8 weeks and had significantly decreased by 12 weeks. From 619 differentially expressed mRNAs, bioinformatics suggested that cAMP-mediated signalling, dopamine- and cAMP-regulated neuronal phosphoprotein of 32 kDa feedback, and synaptic plasticity were greater in 8- vs. 14-week-old rats. In depth analysis of these networks showed significant (∼20-30%; P < 0.05) decreases in cell adhesion molecule (Cadm)4 and p39 mRNAs, as well as their proteins from 8 to 14 weeks of age in running and sedentary rats. Furthermore, Cadm4, cyclin-dependent kinase 5 (Cdk5) and p39 mRNAs were significantly correlated with voluntary running distance. Analysis of dendritic spine density in the NAc showed that wheel access increased spine density (P < 0.001), whereas spine density was lower in 14- vs. 8-week-old sedentary rats (P = 0.03). Intriguingly, intra-NAc injection of the Cdk5 inhibitor roscovitine, dose-dependently decreased wheel running. Collectively, these experiments suggest that an age-dependent loss in synaptic function and Cdk5/p39 activity in the NAc may be partially responsible for age-related declines in voluntary running behaviour.

Schizophrenia patient-derived olfactory neurosphere-derived cells do not respond to extracellular reelin

Reelin expression is reduced in various regions in the post-mortem brain of schizophrenia patients but the exact role of reelin function in the neurobiology of schizophrenia remains elusive. Absence of reelin in knockout mouse causes inverted lamination of the neocortex due to aberrant neuronal migration. The aim of this study was to utilize patient-derived olfactory neurosphere-derived (ONS) cells to investigate whether extracellular reelin alters cell motility in schizophrenia patient-derived cells. ONS cells from nine patients were compared with cells from nine matched healthy controls. Automated high-throughput imaging and analysis were used to track motility of individual living cells on reelin-coated surfaces produced from reelin secreted into the medium by HEK293FT cells transfected with the full-length reelin plasmid pCrl. Automated assays were used to quantify intracellular cytoskeleton composition, cell morphology, and focal adhesions. Expression of reelin and components of the reelin signaling pathway were measured by western blot and flow cytometry. Reelin inhibited the motility of control cells but not patient cells, and increased the number and size of focal adhesions in control cells but not patient cells. Patient and control cells expressed similar levels of the reelin receptors and the reelin signaling protein, Dab1, but patient cells expressed less reelin. Patient cells were smaller than control cells and had less actin and acetylated α-tubulin, components of the cytoskeleton. These findings are the first direct evidence that cellular responses to reelin are impaired in schizophrenia and are consistent with the role of reelin in cytoarchitectural deficits observed in schizophrenia patient brains.

Canonical and Non-canonical Reelin Signaling

Reelin is a large secreted glycoprotein that is essential for correct neuronal positioning during neurodevelopment and is important for synaptic plasticity in the mature brain. Moreover, Reelin is expressed in many extraneuronal tissues; yet the roles of peripheral Reelin are largely unknown. In the brain, many of Reelin's functions are mediated by a molecular signaling cascade that involves two lipoprotein receptors, apolipoprotein E receptor-2 (Apoer2) and very low density-lipoprotein receptor (Vldlr), the neuronal phosphoprotein Disabled-1 (Dab1), and members of the Src family of protein tyrosine kinases as crucial elements. This core signaling pathway in turn modulates the activity of adaptor proteins and downstream protein kinase cascades, many of which target the neuronal cytoskeleton. However, additional Reelin-binding receptors have been postulated or described, either as coreceptors that are essential for the activation of the "canonical" Reelin signaling cascade involving Apoer2/Vldlr and Dab1, or as receptors that activate alternative or additional signaling pathways. Here we will give an overview of canonical and alternative Reelin signaling pathways, molecular mechanisms involved, and their potential physiological roles in the context of different biological settings.

Reelin Exerts Structural, Biochemical and Transcriptional Regulation Over Presynaptic and Postsynaptic Elements in the Adult Hippocampus

Reelin regulates neuronal positioning and synaptogenesis in the developing brain, and adult brain plasticity. Here we used transgenic mice overexpressing Reelin (Reelin-OE mice) to perform a comprehensive dissection of the effects of this protein on the structural and biochemical features of dendritic spines and axon terminals in the adult hippocampus. Electron microscopy (EM) revealed both higher density of synapses and structural complexity of both pre- and postsynaptic elements in transgenic mice than in WT mice. Dendritic spines had larger spine apparatuses, which correlated with a redistribution of Synaptopodin. Most of the changes observed in Reelin-OE mice were reversible after blockade of transgene expression, thus supporting the specificity of the observed phenotypes. Western blot and transcriptional analyses did not show major changes in the expression of pre- or postsynaptic proteins, including SNARE proteins, glutamate receptors, and scaffolding and signaling proteins. However, EM immunogold assays revealed that the NMDA receptor subunits NR2a and NR2b, and p-Cofilin showed a redistribution from synaptic to extrasynaptic pools. Taken together with previous studies, the present results suggest that Reelin regulates the structural and biochemical properties of adult hippocampal synapses by increasing their density and morphological complexity and by modifying the distribution and trafficking of major glutamatergic components.

New Insights into Reelin-Mediated Signaling Pathways

Reelin, a multifunctional extracellular protein that is important for mammalian brain development and function, is secreted by different cell types in the prenatal or postnatal brain. The spatiotemporal regulation of Reelin expression and distribution during development relates to its multifaceted function in the brain. Prenatally Reelin controls neuronal radial migration and proper positioning in cortical layers, whereas postnatally Reelin promotes neuronal maturation, synaptic formation and plasticity. The molecular mechanisms underlying the distinct biological functions of Reelin during and after brain development involve unique and overlapping signaling pathways that are activated following Reelin binding to its cell surface receptors. Distinct Reelin ligand isoforms, such as the full-length protein or fragments generated by proteolytic cleavage differentially affect the activity of downstream signaling pathways. In this review, we discuss recent advances in our understanding of the signaling transduction pathways activated by Reelin that regulate different aspects of brain development and function. A core signaling machinery, including ApoER2/VLDLR receptors, Src/Fyn kinases, and the adaptor protein Dab1, participates in all known aspects of Reelin biology. However, distinct downstream mechanisms, such as the Crk/Rap1 pathway and cell adhesion molecules, play crucial roles in the control of neuronal migration, whereas the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway appears to be more important for dendrite and spine development. Finally, the NMDA receptor (NMDAR) and an unidentified receptor contribute to the activation of the MEK/Erk1/2 pathway leading to the upregulation of genes involved in synaptic plasticity and learning. This knowledge may provide new insight into neurodevelopmental or neurodegenerative disorders that are associated with Reelin dysfunction.

RELN Mutations in Autism Spectrum Disorder

RELN encodes a large, secreted glycoprotein integral to proper neuronal positioning during development and regulation of synaptic function postnatally. Rare, homozygous, null mutations lead to lissencephaly with cerebellar hypoplasia (LCH), accompanied by developmental delay and epilepsy. Until recently, little was known about the frequency or consequences of heterozygous mutations. Several lines of evidence from multiple studies now implicate heterozygous mutations in RELN in autism spectrum disorders (ASD). RELN maps to the AUTS1 locus on 7q22, and at this time over 40 distinct mutations have been identified that would alter the protein sequence, four of which are de novo. The RELN mutations that are most clearly consequential are those that are predicted to inactivate the signaling function of the encoded protein and those that fall in a highly conserved RXR motif found at the core of the 16 Reelin subrepeats. Despite the growing evidence of RELN dysfunction in ASD, it appears that these mutations in isolation are insufficient and that secondary genetic or environmental factors are likely required for a diagnosis.

Membrane traffic during axon development

Brain formation requires the establishment of complex neural circuits between a diverse array of neuronal subtypes in an intricate and ever changing microenvironment and yet with a large degree of specificity and reproducibility. In the last three decades, mounting evidence has established that neuronal development relies on the coordinated regulation of gene expression, cytoskeletal dynamics, and membrane trafficking. Membrane trafficking has been considered important in that it brings new membrane and proteins to the plasma membrane of developing neurons and because it also generates and maintains the polarized distribution of proteins into neuronal subdomains. More recently, accumulating evidence suggests that membrane trafficking may have an even more active role during development by regulating the distribution and degree of activation of a wide variety of proteins located in plasma membrane subdomains and endosomes. In this article the evidence supporting the different roles of membrane trafficking during axonal development, particularly focusing on the role of SNAREs and Rabs was reviewed. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Develop Neurobiol 76: 1185-1200, 2016.

Reelin-Related Disturbances in Depression: Implications for Translational Studies

The finding that reelin expression is significantly decreased in mood and psychotic disorders, together with evidence that reelin can regulate key aspects of hippocampal plasticity in the adult brain, brought our research group and others to study the possible role of reelin in the pathogenesis of depression. This review describes recent progress on this topic using an animal model of depression that makes use of repeated corticosterone (CORT) injections. This methodology produces depression-like symptoms in both rats and mice that are reversed by antidepressant treatment. We have reported that CORT causes a decrease in the number of reelin-immunopositive cells in the dentate gyrus subgranular zone (SGZ), where adult hippocampal neurogenesis takes place; that down-regulation of the number of reelin-positive cells closely parallels the development of a depression-like phenotype during repeated CORT treatment; that reelin downregulation alters the co-expression of reelin with neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS); that deficits in reelin might also create imbalances in glutamatergic and GABAergic circuits within the hippocampus and other limbic structures; and that co-treatment with antidepressant drugs prevents both reelin deficits and the development of a depression-like phenotype. We also observed alterations in the pattern of membrane protein clustering in peripheral lymphocytes in animals with low levels of reelin. Importantly, we found parallel changes in membrane protein clustering in depression patients, which differentiated two subpopulations of naïve depression patients that showed a different therapeutic response to antidepressant treatment. Here, we review these findings and develop the hypothesis that restoring reelin-related function could represent a novel approach for antidepressant therapies.

Molecular underpinnings of synaptic vesicle pool heterogeneity

Neuronal communication relies on chemical synaptic transmission for information transfer and processing. Chemical neurotransmission is initiated by synaptic vesicle fusion with the presynaptic active zone resulting in release of neurotransmitters. Classical models have assumed that all synaptic vesicles within a synapse have the same potential to fuse under different functional contexts. In this model, functional differences among synaptic vesicle populations are ascribed to their spatial distribution in the synapse with respect to the active zone. Emerging evidence suggests, however, that synaptic vesicles are not a homogenous population of organelles, and they possess intrinsic molecular differences and differential interaction partners. Recent studies have reported a diverse array of synaptic molecules that selectively regulate synaptic vesicles' ability to fuse synchronously and asynchronously in response to action potentials or spontaneously irrespective of action potentials. Here we discuss these molecular mediators of vesicle pool heterogeneity that are found on the synaptic vesicle membrane, on the presynaptic plasma membrane, or within the cytosol and consider some of the functional consequences of this diversity. This emerging molecular framework presents novel avenues to probe synaptic function and uncover how synaptic vesicle pools impact neuronal signaling.

VAMP4 Is an Essential Cargo Molecule for Activity-Dependent Bulk Endocytosis

The accurate formation of synaptic vesicles (SVs) and incorporation of their protein cargo during endocytosis is critical for the maintenance of neurotransmission. During intense neuronal activity, a transient and acute accumulation of SV cargo occurs at the plasma membrane. Activity-dependent bulk endocytosis (ADBE) is the dominant SV endocytosis mode under these conditions; however, it is currently unknown how ADBE mediates cargo retrieval. We examined the retrieval of different SV cargo molecules during intense stimulation using a series of genetically encoded pH-sensitive reporters in neuronal cultures. The retrieval of only one reporter, VAMP4-pHluorin, was perturbed by inhibiting ADBE. This selective recovery was confirmed by the enrichment of endogenous VAMP4 in purified bulk endosomes formed by ADBE. VAMP4 was also essential for ADBE, with a cytoplasmic di-leucine motif being critical for this role. Therefore, VAMP4 is the first identified ADBE cargo and is essential for this endocytosis mode to proceed.

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VAMP4 is the first identified ADBE cargo

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VAMP4 is essential for ADBE

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Most synaptic vesicle cargoes are not selectively recovered by ADBE

Rare genomic rearrangement in a boy with Williams-Beuren syndrome associated to XYY syndrome and intriguing behavior

Williams-Beuren syndrome (WBS) is caused by a hemizygous contiguous gene microdeletion of 1.55-1.84 Mb at 7q11.23 region. Approximately, 28 genes have been shown to contribute to classical phenotype of SWB with presence of dysmorphic facial features, supravalvular aortic stenosis (SVAS), intellectual disability, and overfriendliness. With the use of Microarray-based comparative genomic hybridization and other molecular cytogenetic techniques, is possible define with more accuracy partial or atypical deletion and refine the genotype-phenotype correlation. Here, we report on a rare genomic structural rearrangement in a boy with atypical deletion in 7q11.23 and XYY syndrome with characteristic clinical signs, but not sufficient for the diagnosis of WBS. Cytogenetic analysis of G-banding showed a karyotype 47,XYY. Analysis of DNA with the technique of MLPA (Multiplex Ligation-dependent Probe Amplification) using kits a combination of kits (P064, P036, P070, and P029) identified an atypical deletion on 7q11.23. In addition, high resolution SNP Oligonucleotide Microarray Analysis (SNP-array) confirmed the alterations found by MLPA and revealed others pathogenic CNVs, in the chromosomes 7 and X. The present report demonstrates an association not yet described in literature, between Williams-Beuren syndrome and 47,XYY. The identification of atypical deletion in 7q11.23 concomitant to additional pathogenic CNVs in others genomic regions allows a better comprehension of clinical consequences of atypical genomic rearrangements.

Ultrastructural and functional fate of recycled vesicles in hippocampal synapses

Efficient recycling of synaptic vesicles is thought to be critical for sustained information transfer at central terminals. However, the specific contribution that retrieved vesicles make to future transmission events remains unclear. Here we exploit fluorescence and time-stamped electron microscopy to track the functional and positional fate of vesicles endocytosed after readily releasable pool (RRP) stimulation in rat hippocampal synapses. We show that most vesicles are recovered near the active zone but subsequently take up random positions in the cluster, without preferential bias for future use. These vesicles non-selectively queue, advancing towards the release site with further stimulation in an actin-dependent manner. Nonetheless, the small subset of vesicles retrieved recently in the stimulus train persist nearer the active zone and exhibit more privileged use in the next RRP. Our findings reveal heterogeneity in vesicle fate based on nanoscale position and timing rules, providing new insights into the origins of future pool constitution.

Two cellular hypotheses explaining the initiation of ketamine's antidepressant actions: Direct inhibition and disinhibition

A single, low dose of ketamine evokes antidepressant actions in depressed patients and in patients with treatment-resistant depression (TRD). Unlike classic antidepressants, which regulate monoamine neurotransmitter systems, ketamine is an antagonist of the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) family of glutamate receptors. The effectiveness of NMDAR antagonists in TRD unveils a new set of targets for therapeutic intervention in major depressive disorder (MDD) and TRD. However, a better understanding of the cellular mechanisms underlying these effects is required for guiding future therapeutic strategies, in order to minimize side effects and prolong duration of efficacy. Here we review the evidence for and against two hypotheses that have been proposed to explain how NMDAR antagonism initiates protein synthesis and increases excitatory synaptic drive in corticolimbic brain regions, either through selective antagonism of inhibitory interneurons and cortical disinhibition, or by direct inhibition of cortical pyramidal neurons. This article is part of the Special Issue entitled 'Synaptopathy--from Biology to Therapy'.

Imipramine protects against the deleterious effects of chronic corticosterone on depression-like behavior, hippocampal reelin expression, and neuronal maturation

We have hypothesized that a downregulation of reelin and deficient maturation of adult-born hippocampal neurons are important factors in the pathogenesis of depression. This hypothesis is based on previous work showing that depression-like behavior in rats treated with protracted corticosterone develops in concert with decreased dendritic complexity in newborn hippocampal granule neurons and decreased reelin expression in the proliferative subgranular zone of the dentate gyrus. In addition, heterozygous reeler mice with approximately 50% of normal brain levels of reelin are more vulnerable to the depressogenic effects of corticosterone than wild-type mice. The purpose of this experiment was to provide pharmacological validation for the link between reelin, neuronal maturation, and depression by examining whether the deleterious effects of corticosterone on these measures could be prevented by co-administration of the antidepressant imipramine. Rats received corticosterone injections, corticosterone injections plus either 10 or 15mg/kg imipramine injections, or vehicle injections for 21 consecutive days. They were then subjected to the forced swim test to assess depression-like behavior and sacrificed for immunohistochemical examination of immature neuron number and dendritic complexity and the presence of reelin+cells. We found that corticosterone increases depression-like behavior, decreases the number of reelin+cells in the subgranular zone, and decreases the number and complexity of immature neurons in the granule cell layer. All of these behavioral and cellular phenotypes were prevented by imipramine, providing further support for the idea that reelin is involved in the pathogenesis of depression.

Synaptic vesicle exocytosis and increased cytosolic calcium are both necessary but not sufficient for activity-dependent bulk endocytosis

Activity‐dependent bulk endocytosis (ADBE) is the dominant synaptic vesicle (SV) endocytosis mode in central nerve terminals during intense neuronal activity. By definition this mode is triggered by neuronal activity; however, key questions regarding its mechanism of activation remain unaddressed. To determine the basic requirements for ADBE triggering in central nerve terminals, we decoupled SV fusion events from activity‐dependent calcium influx using either clostridial neurotoxins or buffering of intracellular calcium. ADBE was monitored both optically and morphologically by observing uptake of the fluid phase markers tetramethylrhodamine‐dextran and horse radish peroxidase respectively. Ablation of SV fusion with tetanus toxin resulted in the arrest of ADBE, but had no effect on other calcium‐dependent events such as activity‐dependent dynamin I dephosphorylation, indicating that SV exocytosis is necessary for triggering. Furthermore, the calcium chelator EGTA abolished ADBE while leaving SV exocytosis intact, demonstrating that ADBE is triggered by intracellular free calcium increases outside the active zone. Activity‐dependent dynamin I dephosphorylation was also arrested in EGTA‐treated neurons, consistent with its proposed role in triggering ADBE. Thus, SV fusion and increased cytoplasmic free calcium are both necessary but not sufficient individually to trigger ADBE.

Activity‐dependent bulk endocytosis (ADBE) is the dominant synaptic vesicle (SV) endocytosis mode in central nerve terminals during intense neuronal activity. To determine the minimal requirements for ADBE triggering, we decoupled SV fusion events from activity‐dependent calcium influx using either clostridial neurotoxins or buffering of intracellular calcium. We found that SV fusion and increased cytoplasmic free calcium are both necessary but not sufficient to trigger ADBE.

Reelin expression in brain endothelial cells: an electron microscopy study

Background

Reelin expression and function have been extensively studied in the brain, although its expression has been also reported in other tissues including blood. This raises the possibility that reelin might be able to cross the blood-brain barrier, which could be functionally relevant. Up-to-date no studies have been conducted to assess if reelin is present in the blood-brain barrier, which is mainly constituted by tightly packed endothelial cells. In this report we assessed the expression of reelin in brain capillaries using immunocytochemistry and electron microscopy.

Results

At the light microscope, reelin immunolabeling appeared in specific endothelial cells in brain areas that presented abundant diffuse labeling for this protein (e.g., layer I of the cortex, or the stratum lacunosum moleculare of the hippocampus), while it was mostly absent from capillaries in other brain areas (e.g., deeper cortical layers, or the CA1 layer of the hippocampus). As expected, at the electron microscope reelin labeling was observed in neurons of the cortex, where most of the labeling was associated with the rough endoplasmic reticulum. Importantly, reelin was also observed in some endothelial cells located in small capillaries, which confirmed the findings obtained at the light microscope. In these cells, reelin labeling was located primarily in caveolae (i.e., vesicles of transcytosis), and associated with the plasma membrane of the luminal side of endothelial cells. In addition, some scarce labeling was observed in the nuclear membrane.

Conclusions

The presence of reelin immunolabeling in brain endothelial cells, and particularly in caveolar vesicles within these cells, suggests that reelin and/or reelin peptides may be able to cross the blood-brain barrier, which could have important physiological, pathological, and therapeutic implications.

Exome sequencing to detect rare variants associated with general cognitive ability: a pilot study

Variation in human cognitive ability is of consequence to a large number of health and social outcomes and is substantially heritable. Genetic linkage, genome-wide association, and copy number variant studies have investigated the contribution of genetic variation to individual differences in normal cognitive ability, but little research has considered the role of rare genetic variants. Exome sequencing studies have already met with success in discovering novel trait-gene associations for other complex traits. Here, we use exome sequencing to investigate the effects of rare variants on general cognitive ability. Unrelated Scottish individuals were selected for high scores on a general component of intelligence (g). The frequency of rare genetic variants (in n = 146) was compared with those from Scottish controls (total n = 486) who scored in the lower to middle range of the g distribution or on a proxy measure of g. Biological pathway analysis highlighted enrichment of the mitochondrial inner membrane component and apical part of cell gene ontology terms. Global burden analysis showed a greater total number of rare variants carried by high g cases versus controls, which is inconsistent with a mutation load hypothesis whereby mutations negatively affect g. The general finding of greater non-synonymous (vs. synonymous) variant effects is in line with evolutionary hypotheses for g. Given that this first sequencing study of high g was small, promising results were found, suggesting that the study of rare variants in larger samples would be worthwhile.

The mechanisms and functions of spontaneous neurotransmitter release

Fast synaptic communication in the brain requires synchronous vesicle fusion that is evoked by action potential-induced Ca(2+) influx. However, synaptic terminals also release neurotransmitters by spontaneous vesicle fusion, which is independent of presynaptic action potentials. A functional role for spontaneous neurotransmitter release events in the regulation of synaptic plasticity and homeostasis, as well as the regulation of certain behaviours, has been reported. In addition, there is evidence that the presynaptic mechanisms underlying spontaneous release of neurotransmitters and their postsynaptic targets are segregated from those of evoked neurotransmission. These findings challenge current assumptions about neuronal signalling and neurotransmission, as they indicate that spontaneous neurotransmission has an autonomous role in interneuronal communication that is distinct from that of evoked release.