Multispecific myeloid defensins

Human defensins and LL-37 in mucosal immunity

Defensins are widespread in nature and have activity against a broad range of pathogens. Defensins have direct antimicrobial effects and also modulate innate and adaptive immune responses. We consider the role of human defensins and the cathelicidin LL-37 in defense of respiratory, gastrointestinal, and genitourinary tracts and the oral cavity, skin, and eye. Human beta-defensins (hBDs) and human defensins 5 and 6 (HD5 and -6) are involved most obviously in mucosal responses, as they are produced principally by epithelial cells. Human alpha-defensins 1-4 (or HNPs 1-4) are produced principally by neutrophils recruited to the mucosa. Understanding the biology of defensins and LL-37 is the beginning to clarify the pathophysiology of mucosal inflammatory and infectious diseases (e.g., Crohn's disease, atopic dermatitis, lung or urinary infections). Challenges for these studies are the redundancy of innate defense mechanisms and the presence and interactions of many innate defense proteins in mucosal secretions.

Susceptibility to infectious diseases based on antimicrobial peptide production

In the last few years, the great impact of antimicrobial peptides on infectious disease susceptibility and natural resistance has been reported. In some cases, susceptibility to diseases is related to antimicrobial peptide polymorphisms and gene copy numbers, but for the vast majority of infectious diseases, these phenomena need to be elucidated. This review is focused on the current knowledge about susceptibility and resistance conferred by genetic variations in antimicrobial peptide expression in infectious diseases.

Schizophrenia susceptibility genes directly implicated in the life cycles of pathogens: cytomegalovirus, influenza, herpes simplex, rubella, and Toxoplasma gondii

Many genes implicated in schizophrenia can be related to glutamatergic transmission and neuroplasticity, oligodendrocyte function, and other families clearly related to neurobiology and schizophrenia phenotypes. Others appear rather to be involved in the life cycles of the pathogens implicated in the disease. For example, aspartylglucosaminidase (AGA), PLA2, SIAT8B, GALNT7, or B3GAT1 metabolize chemical ligands to which the influenza virus, herpes simplex, cytomegalovirus (CMV), rubella, or Toxoplasma gondii bind. The epidermal growth factor receptor (EGR/EGFR) is used by the CMV to gain entry to cells, and a CMV gene codes for an interleukin (IL-10) mimic that binds the host cognate receptor, IL10R. The fibroblast growth factor receptor (FGFR1) is used by herpes simplex. KPNA3 and RANBP5 control the nuclear import of the influenza virus. Disrupted in schizophrenia 1 (DISC1) controls the microtubule network that is used by viruses as a route to the nucleus, while DTNBP1, MUTED, and BLOC1S3 regulate endosomal to lysosomal routing that is also important in viral traffic. Neuregulin 1 activates ERBB receptors releasing a factor, EBP1, known to inhibit the influenza virus transcriptase. Other viral or bacterial components bind to genes or proteins encoded by CALR, FEZ1, FYN, HSPA1B, IL2, HTR2A, KPNA3, MED12, MED15, MICB, NQO2, PAX6, PIK3C3, RANBP5, or TP53, while the cerebral infectivity of the herpes simplex virus is modified by Apolipoprotein E (APOE). Genes encoding for proteins related to the innate immune response, including cytokine related (CCR5, CSF2RA, CSF2RB, IL1B, IL1RN, IL2, IL3, IL3RA, IL4, IL10, IL10RA, IL18RAP, lymphotoxin-alpha, tumor necrosis factor alpha [TNF]), human leukocyte antigen (HLA) antigens (HLA-A10, HLA-B, HLA-DRB1), and genes involved in antigen processing (angiotensin-converting enzyme and tripeptidyl peptidase 2) are all concerned with defense against invading pathogens. Human microRNAs (Hsa-mir-198 and Hsa-mir-206) are predicted to bind to influenza, rubella, or poliovirus genes. Certain genes associated with schizophrenia, including those also concerned with neurophysiology, are intimately related to the life cycles of the pathogens implicated in the disease. Several genes may affect pathogen virulence, while the pathogens in turn may affect genes and processes relevant to the neurophysiology of schizophrenia. For such genes, the strength of association in genetic studies is likely to be conditioned by the presence of the pathogen, which varies in different populations at different times, a factor that may explain the heterogeneity that plagues such studies. This scenario also suggests that drugs or vaccines designed to eliminate the pathogens that so clearly interact with schizophrenia susceptibility genes could have a dramatic effect on the incidence of the disease.

Alpha-defensins secreted by dysplastic granulocytes inhibit the differentiation of monocytes in chronic myelomonocytic leukemia

Chronic myelomonocytic leukemia (CMML) is a clonal hematopoietic disorder that occurs in elderly patients. One of the main diagnostic criteria is the accumulation of heterogeneous monocytes in the peripheral blood. We further explored this cellular heterogeneity and observed that part of the leukemic clone in the peripheral blood was made of immature dysplastic granulocytes with a CD14(-)/CD24(+) phenotype. The proteome profile of these cells is dramatically distinct from that of CD14(+)/CD24(-) monocytes from CMML patients or healthy donors. More specifically, CD14(-)/CD24(+) CMML cells synthesize and secrete large amounts of alpha-defensin 1-3 (HNP1-3). Recombinant HNPs inhibit macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF)-driven differentiation of human peripheral blood monocytes into macrophages. Using transwell, antibody-mediated depletion, suramin inhibition of purinergic receptors, and competitive experiments with uridine diphosphate (UDP)/uridine triphosphate (UTP), we demonstrate that HNP1-3 secreted by CD14(-)/CD24(+) cells inhibit M-CSF-induced differentiation of CD14(+)/CD24(-) cells at least in part through P2Y6, a receptor involved in macrophage differentiation. Altogether, these observations suggest that a population of immature dysplastic granulocytes contributes to the CMML phenotype through production of alpha-defensins HNP1-3 that suppress the differentiation capabilities of monocytes.

Electropositive charge in alpha-defensin bactericidal activity: functional effects of Lys-for-Arg substitutions vary with the peptide primary structure

Cationic amino acids contribute to alpha-defensin bactericidal activity. Curiously, although Arg and Lys have equivalent electropositive charges at neutral pH, alpha-defensins contain an average of nine Arg residues per Lys residue. To investigate the role of high alpha-defensin Arg content, all Arg residues in mouse Paneth cell alpha-defensin cryptdin 4 (Crp4) and rhesus myeloid alpha-defensin 4 (RMAD-4) were replaced with Lys to prepare (R/K)-Crp4 and (R/K)-RMAD-4, respectively. Lys-for-Arg replacements in Crp4 attenuated bactericidal activity and slowed the kinetics of Escherichia coli ML35 cell permeabilization, and (R/K)-Crp4 required longer exposure times to reduce E. coli cell survival. In marked contrast, Lys substitutions in RMAD-4 improved microbicidal activity against certain bacteria and permeabilized E. coli more effectively. Therefore, Arg-->Lys substitutions attenuated activity in Crp4 but not in RMAD-4, and the functional consequences of Arg-->Lys replacements in alpha-defensins are dependent on the peptide primary structure. In addition, the bactericidal effects of (R/K)-Crp4 and (R/K)-RMAD-4 were more sensitive to inhibition by NaCl than those of the native peptides, suggesting that the high Arg content of alpha-defensins may be under selection to confer superior microbicidal function under physiologic conditions.

Through the looking glass, mechanistic insights from enantiomeric human defensins

Despite the small size and conserved tertiary structure of defensins, little is known at a molecular level about the basis of their functional versatility. For insight into the mechanism(s) of defensin function, we prepared enantiomeric pairs of four human defensins, HNP1, HNP4, HD5, and HBD2, and studied their killing of bacteria, inhibition of anthrax lethal factor, and binding to HIV-1 gp120. Unstructured HNP1, HD5, and HBD3 and several other human alpha- and beta-defensins were also examined. Crystallographic analysis showed a plane of symmetry that related (L)HNP1 and (D)HNP1 to each other. Either d-enantiomerization or linearization significantly impaired the ability of HNP1 and HD5 to kill Staphylococcus aureus but not Escherichia coli. In contrast, (L)HNP4 and (D)HNP4 were equally bactericidal against both bacteria. d-Enantiomers were generally weaker inhibitors or binders of lethal factor and gp120 than their respective native, all-l forms, although activity differences were modest, particularly for HNP4. A strong correlation existed among these different functions. Our data indicate: (a) that HNP1 and HD5 kill E. coli by a process that is mechanistically distinct from their actions that kill S. aureus and (b) that chiral molecular recognition is not a stringent prerequisite for other functions of these defensins, including their ability to inhibit lethal factor and bind gp120 of HIV-1.

Levels of innate immune factors in genital fluids: association of alpha defensins and LL-37 with genital infections and increased HIV acquisition

BACKGROUND

Several mucosal innate immune proteins exhibit HIV inhibitory activity and their analogues are potential microbicide candidates. However, their clinical associations and in-vivo role in cervicovaginal host defense against HIV acquisition are poorly defined.

METHODS

Cervicovaginal secretions (CVSs) were collected from HIV uninfected Kenyan sex workers at enrolment into an HIV prevention trial. After trial completion, CVS from participants acquiring HIV (cases) and matched controls were assessed for levels of innate immune factors and HIV neutralizing capacity, by blinded investigators. Cross-sectional and prospective associations of innate immune factors were examined.

RESULTS

CVS contained high levels of defensins (human neutrophil peptide-1-3 and human beta defensin-2-3), LL-37 and secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor. Regulated upon activation normal T-cell expressed and secreted levels were lower, and IFNalpha was undetectable. CVS from 20% of participants neutralized a clade A primary HIV isolate, and 12% neutralized both clade A and C isolates. HIV neutralization was correlated with human neutrophil peptide-1-3 (alpha-defensins) and LL-37 levels. However, alpha-defensin and LL-37 levels were increased in participants with bacterial sexually transmitted infections and were independently associated with increased HIV acquisition in multivariate analysis.

CONCLUSIONS

Despite significant HIV inhibitory activity, cervicovaginal levels of alpha-defensins and LL-37 were associated with increased HIV acquisition, perhaps due to their association with bacterial sexually transmitted infections.

Human defensins as cancer biomarkers and antitumour molecules

Human defensins, which are small cationic peptides produced by neutrophils and epithelial cells, form two genetically distinct alpha and beta subfamilies. They are involved in innate immunity through killing microbial pathogens or neutralizing bacterial toxins and in adaptive immunity by serving as chemoattractants and activators of immune cells. alpha-defensins are mainly packaged in neutrophil granules (HNP1, HNP2, HNP3) or secreted by intestinal Paneth cells (HD5, HD6), while beta-defensins are expressed in mucosa and epithelial cells. Using surface enhanced laser desorption/ionisation time-of-flight (SELDI-TOF) mass spectrometry (MS), alpha-defensins were found to be expressed in a variety of human tumours, either in tumour cells or at their surface. HNP1-3 peptides are also secreted and their accumulation in biological fluids was proposed as a tumour biomarker. Conversely, beta-defensin-1 (HBD-1) is down-regulated in some tumour types in which it could behave as a tumour suppressor protein. Alpha-defensins promote tumour cell growth or, at higher concentration, provoke cell death. These peptides also inhibit angiogenesis, which, in addition to immunomodulation, indicates a complex role in tumour development. This review summarizes current knowledge of defensins to discuss their role in tumour growth, tumour monitoring and cancer treatment.

Characteristics of the main groups of human host-defensive peptides

Emberben az antimikrobiális peptidek három fő csoportját a defensinek, a cathelicidinek és a histatinok képezik. Ezek biokémiai sajátságaikban és antimikrobiális hatásuk spektruma tekintetében igen különbözőek, de valamennyi hasznosan szolgálja a szervezet mikrobiális fertőzésekkel szembeni védelmét. Ezeket a peptideket jó ideig csupán új típusú antimikrobiális ágenseknek tekintették, újabb tanulmányok során azonban feltárták, hogy antimikrobiális aktivitásuk mellett sok más – ugyancsak a gazdavédelmet szolgáló – biológiai aktivitással rendelkeznek. A veleszületett immunitás fontos komponenseinek bizonyultak, továbbá azt is kimutatták róluk, hogy az éretlen dendritikus sejteken és lymphocytákon lévő különböző receptorokkal való kölcsönhatás révén tulajdonképpen ezek a peptidek indítják be az adaptív immunválasz-reakciókat is, amelyekben aztán további immunmodulátori szerepet játszanak. Az LL-37-tel kapcsolatban pedig egyenesen azt állítják, hogy annak immunmoduláló aktivitása erősebb az antimikrobiális aktivitásnál. A humán α-defensinekről pedig azt is kimutatták, hogy más fajban is megőrzik aktivitásukat, egerekben ugyanis immunadjuváns hatást fejtettek ki. Újabban egyre több közleményben arról számolnak be, hogy számos emberi betegséggel társultan e gazdavédő kis peptidek termelődésének károsodása és/vagy funkcióinak zavarai figyelhetők meg. E peptidek multifunkcionális szerepének felismerése pedig a gyógyszeripar irántuk való fokozott érdeklődését eredményezte.

Antimicrobial peptides and bacteriocins: alternatives to traditional antibiotics

Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are ubiquitous, gene-encoded natural antibiotics that have gained recent attention in the search for new antimicrobials to combat infectious disease. In multicellular organisms, AMPs, such as defensins and cathelicidins, provide a coordinated protective response against infection and are a principal component of innate immunity in vertebrates. In unicellular organisms, AMPs, such as bacteriocins, function to suppress competitor species. Because many AMPs kill bacteria by disruption of membrane integrity and are thus thought to be less likely to induce resistance, AMPs are being extensively evaluated as novel antimicrobial drugs. This review summarizes and discusses the antibiotic properties of AMPs highlighting their potential as alternatives to conventional antibiotics.

Current concepts of molecular defence mechanisms operative during urinary tract infection

Mucosal tissues such as the gastrointestinal tract are typically exposed to a tremendous number of microorganisms and many of them are potentially dangerous to the host. In contrast, the urogenital tract is rather infrequently colonized with bacterial organisms and also devoid of physical barriers as a multi-layered mucus or ciliated epithelia, thereby necessitating separate host defence mechanisms. Recurrent urinary tract infection (UTI) represents the successful case of microbial host evasion and poses a major medical and economic health problem. During recent years considerable advances have been made in our understanding of the mechanisms underlying the immune homeostasis of the urogenital tract. Hence, the system of pathogen-recognition receptors including the Toll-like receptors (TLRs) is able to sense danger signalling and thus activate the host immune system of the genitourinary tract. Additionally, various soluble antimicrobial molecules including iron-sequestering proteins, defensins, cathelicidin and Tamm-Horsfall protein (THP), as well as their role for the prevention of UTI by modulating innate and adaptive immunity, have been more clearly defined. Furthermore, signalling mediators like cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) or the circulatory hormone vasopressin were shown to be involved in the defence of uropathogenic microbes and maintenance of mucosal integrity. Beyond this, specific receptors e.g. CD46 or beta1/beta 3-integrins, have been elucidated that are hijacked by uropathogenic E. coli to enable invasion and survival within the urogenital system paving the way for chronic forms of urinary tract infection. Collectively, the majority of these findings offer novel avenues for basic and translational research implying effective therapies against the diverse forms of acute and chronic UTI.

Acid sphingomyelinase is required for efficient phago-lysosomal fusion

The acid sphingomyelinase (ASMase) localizes to the lumen of endosomes, phagosomes and lysosomes as well as to the outer leaflet of the plasma membrane and hydrolyses sphingomyelin to ceramide and phosphorylcholine. Using the facultative intracellular bacterium Listeria monocytogenes, we show that maturation of phagosomes into phagolysosomes is severely impaired in macrophages genetically deficient for ASMase. Unlike in wild-type macrophages, phagosomes containing L. monocytogenes in ASMase(-/-) macrophages remained positive for the late phagosomal markers mannose-6-phosphate receptor (M6PR) and Rab7 for at least 2 h and, correspondingly, showed delayed acquisition of lysosomal markers like lysosome associated membrane protein 1 (Lamp1). The transfer of lysosomal fluid phase markers into phagosomes containing L. monocytogenes was severely impaired in ASMase(-/-) macrophages and decreased with increasing size of the cargo. Moreover, phagosomes containing L. monocytogenes from ASMase(-/-) cells acquired significantly less listeriocidal proteases cathepsin D, B and L. The results of this study suggest that ASMase is required for the proper fusion of late phagosomes with lysosomes, which is crucial for efficient transfer of lysosomal antibacterial hydrolases into phagosomes.

Defensins' offensive play: exploiting a viral achilles' heel

Vertebrates rely on antimicrobial peptides as a front-line defense against invading pathogens. Certain cationic antimicrobial peptides, such as human alpha-defensins, have traditionally been thought to destroy invading microbes by disrupting their lipid membranes. In this issue of Cell Host & Microbe, Smith and Nemerow reveal that alpha-defensins can inactivate adenoviruses, which lack lipid membranes, through direct binding of the defensin to the virus's naked protein shell.

Mechanism of adenovirus neutralization by Human alpha-defensins

Defensins are naturally occurring antimicrobial peptides that disrupt bacterial membranes and prevent bacterial invasion of the host. Emerging studies indicate that certain defensins also block virus infection; however, the mechanism(s) involved are poorly understood. We demonstrate that human alpha-defensins inhibit adenovirus infection at low micromolar concentrations, and this requires direct association of the defensin with the virus. Moreover, defensins inhibit virus disassembly at the vertex region, thereby restricting the release of an internal capsid protein, pVI, which is required for endosomal membrane penetration during cell entry. As a consequence, defensins hamper the release of adenovirus particles from endocytic vesicles, resulting in virion accumulation in early endosomes and lysosomes. Thus, defensins possess remarkably distinct modes of activity against bacteria and viruses, and their function may provide insights for the development of new antiviral strategies.

The yejABEF operon of Salmonella confers resistance to antimicrobial peptides and contributes to its virulence

Pathogenic micro-organisms have evolved many strategies to counteract the antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) that they encounter upon entry into host systems. These strategies play vital roles in the virulence of pathogenic micro-organisms. The Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium genome has a gene cluster consisting of yejA, yejB, yejE and yejF genes, which encode a putative ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter. Our study shows that these genes constitute an operon. We deleted the yejF gene, which encodes the ATPase component of the putative ABC transporter. The DeltayejF strain showed increased sensitivity to protamine, melittin, polymyxin B, human defensin (HBD)-1 and HBD-2, and was compromised in its capacity to proliferate inside activated macrophages and epithelial cells. Inside Intestine 407 cells, Salmonella was found to co-localize with human defensins HD-5 and HBD-1; this suggests that the ability to counteract AMPs in the intracellular milieu is important for Salmonella. In a murine typhoid model, the DeltayejF strain displayed decreased virulence when infected intragastrically. These findings suggest that the putative transporter encoded by the yejABEF operon is involved in counteracting AMPs, and that it contributes to the virulence of Salmonella.

Role of beta-defensins in oral epithelial health and disease

The oral epithelium functions as a mechanical and protective barrier to resist bacterial infection. beta-Defensins are a group of antimicrobial peptides mainly produced by epithelial cells of many organs including skin, lung, kidney, pancreas, uterus, eye, and nasal and oral mucosa. This review focuses on beta-defensins (BDs) in oral epithelia and discusses their importance in oral epithelial health and disease. BDs exhibit antimicrobial activity against oral microbes including periodontitis-related bacteria, Candida, and papilloma virus. Alterative expression of BDs was observed in oral epithelial diseases, including oral inflammatory lesions with and without microbial infection and oral cancer. BDs may be useful in the treatment of oral infectious diseases, ulcerative lesions, and cancer. BDs play an important role in protection against oral microbes and may be used in clinical applications.

Human defensin alpha-1 causes Trypanosoma cruzi membrane pore formation and induces DNA fragmentation, which leads to trypanosome destruction

Human defensins play a fundamental role in the initiation of innate immune responses to some microbial pathogens. Here we show that human defensin alpha-1 displays a trypanocidal role against Trypanosoma cruzi, the causative agent of Chagas' disease. The toxicity of human defensin alpha-1 against T. cruzi is mediated by membrane pore formation and the induction of nuclear and mitochondrial DNA fragmentation, leading to trypanosome destruction. Exposure of trypomastigote and amastigote forms of T. cruzi to defensin alpha-1 significantly reduced parasite viability in a peptide concentration-dependent and saturable manner. The toxicity of defensin alpha-1 against T. cruzi is blocked by anti-defensin alpha-1 immunoglobulin G. Electron microscopic analysis of trypomastigotes exposed to defensin alpha-1 revealed pore formation in the cellular and flagellar membranes, membrane disorganization, and blebbing as well as cytoplasmic vacuolization. Furthermore, human defensin alpha-1 enters the trypanosome when membrane pores are present and is associated with later intracellular damage. Trypanosome membrane depolarization abolished the toxicity of defensin alpha-1 against the parasite. Preincubation of trypomastigotes with defensin alpha-1 followed by exposure to human epithelial cells significantly reduced T. cruzi infection in these cells. Thus, human defensin alpha-1 is an innate immune molecule that causes severe toxicity to T. cruzi and plays an important role in reducing cellular infection. This is the first report showing that human defensin alpha-1 causes membrane pore formation in a human parasite, leading to trypanosome destruction.

Pathogenicity of environmental isolates of V. cholerae in mice

Environmental V. cholerae (Vc) have the potential for virulence in people and they may also be a reservoir of accessory virulence genes. We infected mice with two non-O1, non-O139 Vc (TP and SIO) that were isolated in San Diego County and compared them to Vc O1 El Tor N16961 using a model of pneumonia in adult mice. Live but not heat killed Vc El Tor and TP caused fatal hemorrhagic pneumonia despite a >90% decrease in CFU in 24h suggesting the disease was toxin mediated. SIO did not cause pneumonia in normal mice but neutropenic, gp91phox and complement (C3) mice were more susceptible to all three strains. TP and SIO lack ctx but have rtxA, hlyA, and hapA, genes that encode virulence factors in Vc El Tor. The explanation for the enhanced virulence of TP remains to be determined.

Beta-defensin production by human colonic plasma cells: a new look at plasma cells in ulcerative colitis

BACKGROUND

Previously, we showed that colonic epithelium of ulcerative colitis (UC) patients expresses increased levels of mRNA for 3 antimicrobial peptides, human beta-defensin 2 (hBD-2), hBD-3, and hBD-4 compared to controls.

METHODS

Human colon mucosa was analyzed using double immunofluorescence staining, in situ hybridization, immunoelectron microscopy, and quantitative real-time reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) with specific antibodies and probes in the respective assays.

RESULTS

We demonstrate that lamina propria in colon from UC patients, Crohn's colitis patients, and controls contain cells that express hBD-2. These cells were identified as mature plasma cells by the highly specific CD138 marker, by their prominent IgA or IgG expression, and by their ultrastructural characteristics. By immunoelectron microscopy it was furthermore shown that the hBD-2 peptide was expressed in rough endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi complex, and cytoplasmic vesicles, reflecting consecutive steps of synthesis and transport for secretion. Plasma cells were 2-3 times more abundant in UC colon than in control colon and Crohn's colitis. Moreover, plasma cells in UC colon expressed hBD-3 and hBD-4 mRNA. Additionally, hBD-2 mRNA expression was demonstrated in 3 out of 4 well-characterized plasma cell lines.

CONCLUSIONS

Mature colonic plasma cells can express multiple beta-defensins. In UC, defensin production by plasma cells is probably clinically relevant since plasma cells accumulate in large numbers between the distorted crypts and muscularis mucosae, first focally than diffusely, so as to protect against microbial attack.

Mechanisms of action of ostrich beta-defensins against Escherichia coli

To understand their mechanism of antimicrobial activity against Gram-negative bacteria, ostrich beta-defensins, ostricacins-1 and 2 (Osp-1 and Osp-2), were compared with those of sheep myeloid antimicrobial peptide (SMAP)-29 and human neutrophil peptide (HNP)-1, well-characterized sheep alpha-helical and human alpha-defensin peptides, respectively. Fluorescence-based biochemical assays demonstrated that the ostricacins bound lipopolysaccharides and disrupted both outer and cytoplasmic membrane integrity. The ostricacins' permeabilizing ability was weaker than that of SMAP-29, but stronger than HNP-1. As ostricacins have previously shown the ability to inhibit bacterial growth, these peptides were suggested to be bacteriostatic to Gram-negative bacteria, which are caused by the interaction between the peptides and cytoplasmic targets causing the inhibition of DNA, RNA, and protein synthesis as well as enzymatic activities. These findings indicated promising possibilities for the peptides to be used in the development of therapeutic and topical products.