Lead-chelating hole-transport layers for efficient and stable perovskite minimodules

High-Efficiency Inverted Perovskite Solar Cells via In Situ Passivation Directed Crystallization

Lead halide perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have emerged as one of the influential photovoltaic technologies with promising cost-effectiveness. Though with mild processabilities to massive production, inverted PSCs have long suffered from inferior photovoltaic performances due to intractable defective states at boundaries and interfaces. Herein, an in situ passivation (ISP) method is presented to effectively adjust crystal growth kinetics and obtain the well-orientated perovskite films with the passivated boundaries and interfaces, successfully enabled the new access of high-performance inverted PSCs. The study unravels that the strong yet anisotropic ISP additive adsorption between different facets and the accompanied additive engineering yield the high-quality (111)-orientated perovskite crystallites with superior photovoltaic properties. The ISP-derived inverted perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have achieved remarkable power conversion efficiencies (PCEs) of 26.7% (certified as 26.09% at a 5.97 mm2 active area) and 24.5% (certified as 23.53% at a 1.28 cm2 active area), along with decent operational stabilities.

Synergistic Passivation on Buried Interface for Highly Efficient and Stable p-i-n Perovskite Solar Cells

The properties of an interface at the hole transport layer (HTL)/perovskite layer are crucial for the performance and stability of perovskite solar cells (PVSCs), especially the buried interface between HTL and perovskite layer. Here, a molecular named potassium 1-trifluoroboratomethylpiperidine (3FPIP) assistant-modified perovskite bottom interface strategy is proposed to improve the charge transfer capability and balances energy level between HTL and perovskite. BF3 - in the 3FPIP molecule interacts with undercoordinated Pb2+ to passivate iodine vacancies and enhance PVSCs performance. Furthermore, the infiltration of K+ ions into perovskite molecules enhances the crystallinity and stability of perovskite. Therefore, the PVSCs with the buried interface treatment exhibit a champion performance of 24.6%. More importantly, the corresponding devices represent outstanding ambient stability, remaining at 92% of the initial efficiency after 1200 h. This work provides a new method of buried interface engineering with functional group synergy.

Eliminating performance loss from perovskite films to solar cells

Preoptimizing perovskite films may generally improve the performance of the final perovskite solar cells (PSCs). However, the research on whether the film optimization fully contributes to the enhancement of the final PSCs has been long neglected. We demonstrated that the preparation of metal electrodes by high-vacuum thermal evaporation, an unavoidable step in almost all device fabrication processes, will damage the surface of perovskite films, resulting in component escape, defect density rebound, carrier extraction barrier, and film stability deterioration. Therefore, the prepared perovskite film and the final film actually working in devices are not exactly the same, and the contribution of film optimization to the device improvement was weakened. We designed a bilayer structure composed of graphene oxide and graphite flakes to eliminate the unwanted film inconsistencies and thus save the film optimization loss. Therefore, the efficient PSCs with power conversion efficiency of 25.55% were obtained, which demonstrated negligible photovoltaic performance loss after operating for 2000 hours.

Efficient Perovskite Solar Cells by Employing Triphenylamine-Functionalized Azadipyrromethene Dyes as Dopant-Free Hole-Transporting Materials and Bidentate Surface Passivating Agents

In this study, a series of dopant-free, low-cost hole-transporting materials (HTMs) based on triphenylamine-functionalized azadipyrromethene dyes 1-3 (TPA-ADPs 1-3) were designed and synthesized. The properties of these new HTMs were investigated by optical spectroscopy, cyclic voltammetry, thermogravimetric analysis, differential scanning calorimetric, atomic force microscopy, and X-ray diffraction, as well as theoretical calculations. The results indicated that the TPA-ADPs 1-3 presented well-matched energy levels with perovskite, higher hole mobility, as well as more effective defect passivation at the perovskite/HTM interface by the coordination interaction between the ADP moiety and the undercoordinated Pb2+. The n-i-p perovskite solar cells (PSCs) employing HTMs 1-3 as well as doped Spiro-OMeTAD were fabricated and characterized. The TPA-ADP 1-based PSCs exhibited the best performance with a champion power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 22.13% and an fill factor of 0.81, which was superior to that of the devices based on the doped Spiro-OMeTAD. Long-term device performance studies indicated that the TPA-ADP 1-based PSCs maintained 80% of the initial PCE after 1800 h of storage in the ambient condition of 40-60% RH, which was also higher than the stability of doped Spiro-OMeTAD-based devices under the same conditions.

Fusing Science with Industry: Perovskite Photovoltaics Moving Rapidly into Industrialization

The organic-inorganic lead halide per materials have emerged as highly promising contenders in the field of photovoltaic technology, offering exceptional efficiency and cost-effectiveness. The commercialization of perovskite photovoltaics hinges on successfully transitioning from lab-scale perovskite solar cells to large-scale perovskite solar modules (PSMs). However, the efficiency of PSMs significantly diminishes with increasing device area, impeding commercial viability. Central to achieving high-efficiency PSMs is fabricating uniform functional films and optimizing interfaces to minimize energy loss. This review sheds light on the path toward large-scale PSMs, emphasizing the pivotal role of integrating cutting-edge scientific research with industrial technology. By exploring scalable deposition techniques and optimization strategies, the advancements and challenges in fabricating large-area perovskite films are revealed. Subsequently, the architecture and contact materials of PSMs are delved while addressing pertinent interface issues. Crucially, efficiency loss during scale-up and stability risks encountered by PSMs is analyzed. Furthermore, the advancements in industrial efforts toward perovskite commercialization are highlighted, emphasizing the perspective of PSMs in revolutionizing renewable energy. By highlighting the scientific and technical challenges in developing PSMs, the importance of combining science and industry to drive their industrialization and pave the way for future advancements is stressed.

High-Efficiency Perovskite Solar Cells with Improved Interfacial Charge Extraction by Bridging Molecules

The interface between the perovskite layer and electron transporting layer is a critical determinate for the performance and stability of perovskite solar cells (PSCs). The heterogeneity of the interface critically affects the carrier dynamics at the buried interface. To address this, a bridging molecule, (2-aminoethyl)phosphonic acid (AEP), is introduced for the modification of SnO2/perovskite buried interface in n-i-p structure PSCs. The phosphonic acid group strongly bonds to the SnO2 surface, effectively suppressing the surface carrier traps and leakage current, and uniforming the surface potential. Meanwhile, the amino group influences the growth of perovskite film, resulting in higher crystallinity, phase purity, and fewer defects. Furthermore, the bridging molecules facilitate the charge extraction at the interface, as indicated by the femtosecond transient reflection (fs-TR) spectroscopy, leading to champion power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 26.40% (certified 25.98%) for PSCs. Additionally, the strengthened interface enables improved operational durability of ≈1400 h for the unencapsulated PSCs under ISOS-L-1I protocol.

Towards High-Performance Inverted Mesoporous Perovskite Solar Cell by Using Bathocuproine (BCP)

Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) are considered the most promising photovoltaic devices to replace silicon-based solar cells because of their low preparation cost and high photoelectric conversion efficiency (PCE). Reducing defects in perovskite films is an effective means to improve the efficiency of PSCs. In this paper, a lead chelator was selected and mixed into hole transport layers (HTLs) to design and prepare mesoporous PSCs with the structure of ITO/PTAA(BCP)/Al2O3/PVK/PCBM/BCP/Ag, and its modification effect on the buried interface at the bottom of the perovskite layer in the mesoporous structure was explored. The experimental results show that in the presence of mesoporous alumina, the lead chelator can still play a role in modifying the bottom of the perovskite film. The use of lead chelator as passivation material added to the HTL can effectively reduce the residue of dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) and decrease the defects at the bottom of the perovskite film, which dramatically improves the device performance. The PCE of the device is increased from 18.03% to 20.78%, which is an increase of 15%. The work in this paper provides an effective method to enhance the performance of PSCs.

Efficient and stable perovskite mini-module via high-quality homogeneous perovskite crystallization and improved interconnect

The efficiency and stability of perovskite module devices are mainly limited by the quality of scalable perovskite films and sub-cells' lateral contact. Here, firstly, we report constant low temperature substrate to regulate the growth of perovskite intermediate films to slow down the crystallization for obtaining high-quality homogeneous perovskite films in large scale size, which avoid the effect of the ambient temperature on the film quality. Secondly, a scribing step named P1.5 was added before the top function layers deposition, the diffusion barrier layer can be formed "naturally" at the interconnection interface without introducing any additional materials, which well alleviates the diffusion degradation process. As a result, our inverted perovskite devices exhibit a very small efficiency loss with area expansion comparable to other photovoltaic devices (for example, Cadmium Telluride), the perovskite module (aperture area 14.61 cm2) shows a certified quasi-steady-state power conversion efficiency of 22.73%, and the module maintaining over 90% of its initial efficiency after 1000 hours of continuous operation under illumination.

Eliminating Resistance-Capacitance Coupling Shielding for Depicting the Defect Landscape in Perovskite Solar Cells by Capacitance Spectroscopy

Capacitance spectroscopy techniques have been widely utilized to evaluate the defect properties in perovskites, which contribute to the efficiency and operation stability development for perovskite solar cells (PSCs). Yet the interplay between the charge transporting layer (CTL) and the perovskite on the capacitance spectroscopy results is still unclear. Here, they show that a pseudo-trap-state capacitance signal is generated in thermal admittance spectroscopy (TAS) due to the enhanced resistance capacitance (RC) coupling caused by the carrier freeze-out of the CTL in PSCs, which could be discerned from the actual defect-induced trap state capacitance signal by tuning the series resistance of PSCs. By eliminating the RC coupling shielding effect on the defect-induced capacitance spectroscopy, it is obtain the actual defect density which is 4-folds lower than the pseudo-trap density, and the spatial distribution of defects in PSCs which reveals that the commonly adopted interface passivators can passivate the defects about 60 nm away from the decorated surface. It is further revealed that phenethylammonium ions (PEA+) possess a better passivation capability over octylammonium ions (OA+) due to the deeper passivation depth for PEA+ on the surface defects in perovskite films.

Surface Reconstruction for Efficient NiOx-Based Inverted Perovskite Solar Cells

Functional agents are verified to efficiently enhance device performance of perovskite solar cells (PSCs) through surface engineering. However, the influence of intrinsic characteristics of molecules on final device performance is overlooked. Here, a surface reconstruction strategy is developed to enhance the efficiency of inverted PSCs by mitigating the adverse effects of lead chelation (LC) molecules. Bathocuproine (BCP) is chosen as the representative of LC molecules for its easy accessibility and outstanding optoelectronic properties. During this strategy, BCP molecules on perovskite surface are first dissolved in solvents and then captured specially by undercoordinated Pb2+ ions, preventing adverse n-type doping by the molecules themselves. In this case, the BCP molecule exhibits outstanding passivation effect on perovskite surface, which leads to an obviously increased open-circuit voltage (VOC). Therefore, a record power conversion efficiency of 25.64% for NiOx-based inverted PSCs is achieved, maintaining over 80% of initial efficiency after exposure to ambient condition for ≈1500 h.

Designed Additive to Regulated Crystallization for High Performance Perovskite Solar Cell

It is a crucial role for enhancing the power conversion efficiency (PCE) of perovskite solar cells (PSCs) to prepare high-quality perovskite films, which can be achieved by delaying the crystallization of perovskite film. Hence, we designed difluoroacetic anhydride (DFA) as an additive to regulating crystallization process thus reducing defect formation during perovskite film formation. It was found DFA reacts with DMSO by forming two molecules, difluoroacetate thioether ester (DTE) and difluoroacetic acid (DA). The strong bonding DTE⋅PbI2 and DA⋅PbI2 retard perovskite crystallization process for high-quality film formation, which was monitored through in situ UV/Vis and PL tests. By using DFA additives, we prepared perovskite films with high-quality and low defects. Finally, a champion PCE of 25.28 % was achieved with excellent environmental stability, which retained 95.75 % of the initial PCE after 1152 h at 25 °C under 25 % RH.

Stabilizing Lead Halide Perovskites via an Organometallic Chemical Bridge for Efficient and Stable Photovoltaics

Defects around the surface and grain boundaries of perovskite films normally cause severe nonradiative recombination and imbalanced charge carrier transport, further limiting both the efficiency and stability of perovskite solar cells (PSCs). To tackle this critical issue, we propose a chemical bridge strategy to reconstruct the interface using organometallic molecules. The commercially available molecule bis(diphenylphosphino)ferrocene (FcP2), with a unique bridge molecular structure, anchors and chelates Pb atoms by forming strong Pb-P bonds and further passivates both surfaces and grain boundaries. Detailed characterization revealed that bridge molecule FcP2 reconstruction can effectively suppress nonradiative recombination, and the electron delocalization properties of the ferrocene core can further achieve more balanced interfacial carrier transport. The resultant N-i-P PSC device outputs close to 25% efficiency together with one of the best reported operational stabilities, maintaining over 95% of the initial efficiency after 1000 h of continuous operation at the maximum power point under 1-sun illumination.

A crystal capping layer for formation of black-phase FAPbI3 perovskite in humid air

Black-phase formamidinium lead iodide (α-FAPbI3) perovskites are the desired phase for photovoltaic applications, but water can trigger formation of photoinactive impurity phases such as δ-FAPbI3. We show that the classic solvent system for perovskite fabrication exacerbates this reproducibility challenge. The conventional coordinative solvent dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) promoted δ-FAPbI3 formation under high relative humidity (RH) conditions because of its hygroscopic nature. We introduced chlorine-containing organic molecules to form a capping layer that blocked moisture penetration while preserving DMSO-based complexes to regulate crystal growth. We report power conversion efficiencies of >24.5% for perovskite solar cells fabricated across an RH range of 20 to 60%, and 23.4% at 80% RH. The unencapsulated device retained 96% of its initial performance in air (with 40 to 60% RH) after 500-hour maximum power point operation.

Chelating Dual Interface for Efficient and Stable Crystal Growth and Iodine Defect Management in Sn-Pb Perovskite Solar Cells

Suppressing Sn2+ oxidation and rationally controlling the crystallization process of tin-lead perovskite (Sn-Pb PVK) films by suitable bonding methods have emerged as key approaches to achieving efficient and stable Sn-Pb perovskite solar cells (PSCs). Herein, the chelating coordination is performed at the top and bottom interfaces of Sn-Pb PVK films. The chelation strength is stronger toward Sn2+ than Pb2+ by introducing oligomeric proanthocyanidins (OPC) at the bottom interface. This difference in chelation strength resulted in a spontaneous gradient distribution of Sn/Pb within the perovskite layer during crystallization, particularly enhancing the enrichment of Sn2+ at the bottom interface and facilitating the extraction and separation of photogenerated charge carriers in PSCs. Simultaneously, this top-down distribution of gradually increasing Sn content slowed down the crystallization rate of Sn-Pb PVK films, forming higher-quality films. On the top interface of the PVK, trifluoroacetamidine (TFA) was used to inhibit the generation of iodine vacancies (VI) through chelating with surface-uncoordinated Pb2+/Sn2+, further passivating defects while suppressing the oxidation of Sn2+. Ultimately, the PSCs with simultaneous chelation at both top and bottom interfaces achieved a power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 23.31% and an open-circuit voltage (VOC) exceeding 0.90 V. The stability of unencapsulated target devices in different environments also improved.

Counter-Doping Effect by Trivalent Cations in Tin-Based Perovskite Solar Cells

Tin (Sn) -based perovskite solar cells (PSCs) normally show low open circuit voltage due to serious carrier recombination in the devices, which can be attributed to the oxidation and the resultant high p-type doping of the perovskite active layers. Considering the grand challenge to completely prohibit the oxidation of Sn-based perovskites, a feasible way to improve the device performance is to counter-dope the oxidized Sn-based perovskites by replacing Sn2+ with trivalent cations in the crystal lattice, which however is rarely reported. Here, the introduction of Sb3+, which can effectively counter-dope the oxidized perovskite layer and improve the carrier lifetime, is presented. Meanwhile, Sb3+ can passivate deep-level defects and improve carrier mobility of the perovskite layer, which are all favorable for the photovoltaic performance of the devices. Consequently, the target devices yield a relative enhancement of the power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 31.4% as well as excellent shelf-storage stability. This work provides a novel strategy to improve the performance of Sn-based PSCs, which can be developed as a universal way to compensate for the oxidation of Sn-based perovskites in optoelectronic devices.

Bisphosphonate-Anchored Self-Assembled Molecules with Larger Dipole Moments for Efficient Inverted Perovskite Solar Cells with Excellent Stability

In the fabrication of inverted perovskite solar cells (PSCs), the wettability, adsorbability, and compactness of self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) on conductive substrates have critical impacts on the quality of the perovskite films and the defects at the buried perovskite-substrate interface, which control the efficiency and stability of the devices. Herein, three bisphosphonate-anchored indolocarbazole (IDCz)-derived SAMs, IDCz-1, IDCz-2, and IDCz-3, are designed and synthesized by modulating the position of the two nitrogen atoms of the IDCz unit to improve the molecular dipole moments and strengthen the π-π interactions. Regulating the work functions (WF) of FTO electrodes through molecular dipole moments and energy levels, the perovskite band bends upwards with a small offset for ITO/IDCz-3/perovskite, thereby promoting hole extraction and blocking electrons. As a result, the inverted PSC employing IDCz-3 as hole-collecting layer exhibits a champion PCE of 25.15%, which is a record efficiency for the multipodal SAMs-based PSCs. Moreover, the unencapsulated device with IDCz-3 can be stored for at least 1800 h with little degradation in performance.

Eliminating Voids and Residual PbI2 beneath a Perovskite Film via Buried Interface Modification for Efficient Solar Cells

The commercialization process of perovskite solar cells (PSCs) is markedly restricted by the power conversion efficiency (PCE) and long-term stability. During fabrication and operation, the bottom interface of the organic-inorganic hybrid perovskite layer frequently exhibits voids and residual PbI2, while these defects inevitably act as recombination centers and degradation sites, affecting the efficiency and stability of the devices. Therefore, the degradation and nonradiative recombination originating from the buried interface should be thoroughly resolved. Here, we report a multifunctional passivator by introducing malonic dihydrazide as an interfacial chemical bridge between the electron transport layer and the perovskite (PVK) layer. MADH with hydrazine groups improves the surface affinity of SnO2 and provides nucleation sites for the growth of PVK, leading to the reduced residual PbI2 and the voids resulting from the inhomogeneous solvent volatilization at the bottom interface. Meanwhile, the hydrazine group and carbonyl group synergistically coordinate with Pb2+ to improve the crystal growth environment, reducing the number of Pb-related defects. Eventually, the PCE of the PSCs is significantly enhanced benefiting from the reduced interfacial defects and the increased carrier transport. Moreover, the reductive nature of hydrazide further inhibits I2 generation during long-term operation, and the device retains 90% of the initial PCE under a 1 sun continuous illumination exposure of 700 h.

Efficient Blade-Coated p-i-n Perovskite Solar Cells and Modules Enabled by Effective Molecular N Doping

N doping is an essential strategy to prolong electron diffusion length and improve the photovoltaic performance of p-i-n structured perovskite solar devices, but current n-dopants generally suffer from air instability, poor compatibility with perovskites, and the compensation from perovskite intrinsic defects, thus limiting their doping effectiveness. To address these issues, in this work, a new perovskite n-doping strategy is developed by incorporating an air-stable n-dopant (1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium-2-carboxylate, EMIC) that has no detrimental effects on perovskite crystallinity and morphology. EMIC is soluble in most polar solvents and can be readily introduced into perovskite precursor solutions. Upon thermal annealing of perovskite films, the decarboxylation of EMIC releases imidazolylidene, a reactive species that highly tends to donate electrons and thus efficiently prolongs the electron diffusion length from 0.57 µm to over 1.21 µm. As a result, the blade-coated perovskite solar cells and modules realize high power conversion efficiencies of 24.3% and 20.6% at 7.4 mm2 and 25.0 cm2 aperture areas, respectively.

Mobile iodides capture for highly photolysis- and reverse-bias-stable perovskite solar cells

For halide perovskites that are susceptible to photolysis and ion migration, iodide-related defects, such as iodine (I2) and iodine vacancies, are inevitable. Even a small number of these defects can trigger self-accelerating chemical reactions, posing serious challenges to the durability of perovskite solar cells. Fortunately, before I2 can damage the perovskites under illumination, they generally diffuse over a long distance. Therefore, detrimental I2 can be captured by interfacial materials with strong iodide/polyiodide (Ix-) affinities, such as fullerenes and perfluorodecyl iodide. However, fullerenes in direct contact with perovskites fail to confine Ix- ions within the perovskite layer but cause detrimental iodine vacancies. Perfluorodecyl iodide, with its directional Ix- affinity through halogen bonding, can both capture and confine Ix-. Therefore, inverted perovskite solar cells with over 10 times improved ultraviolet irradiation and thermal-light stabilities (under 85 °C and 1 sun illumination), and 1,000 times improved reverse-bias stability (under ISOS-V ageing tests) have been developed.

Synergistic Redox Modulation for High-Performance Nickel Oxide-Based Inverted Perovskite Solar Modules

Nickel oxide (NiOx)-based inverted perovskite solar cells stand as promising candidates for advancing perovskite photovoltaics towards commercialization, leveraging their remarkable stability, scalability, and cost-effectiveness. However, the interfacial redox reaction between high-valence Ni4+ and perovskite, alongside the facile conversion of iodide in perovskite into I2, significantly deteriorates the performance and reproducibility of NiOx-based perovskite photovoltaics. Here, potassium borohydride (KBH4) is introduced as a dual-action reductant, which effectively avoids the Ni4+/perovskite interface reaction and mitigates the iodide-to-I2 oxidation within perovskite film. This synergistic redox modulation significantly suppresses nonradiative recombination and increases the carrier lifetime. As a result, an impressive power conversion efficiency of 24.17% for NiOx-based perovskite solar cells is achieved, and a record efficiency of 20.2% for NiOx-based perovskite solar modules fabricated under ambient conditions. Notably, when evaluated using the ISOS-L-2 standard protocol, the module retains 94% of its initial efficiency after 2000 h of continuous illumination under maximum power point at 65 °C in ambient air.

Two-Dimensional Materials for Highly Efficient and Stable Perovskite Solar Cells

Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) offer low costs and high power conversion efficiency. However, the lack of long-term stability, primarily stemming from the interfacial defects and the susceptible metal electrodes, hinders their practical application. In the past few years, two-dimensional (2D) materials (e.g., graphene and its derivatives, transitional metal dichalcogenides, MXenes, and black phosphorus) have been identified as a promising solution to solving these problems because of their dangling bond-free surfaces, layer-dependent electronic band structures, tunable functional groups, and inherent compactness. Here, recent progress of 2D material toward efficient and stable PSCs is summarized, including its role as both interface materials and electrodes. We discuss their beneficial effects on perovskite growth, energy level alignment, defect passivation, as well as blocking external stimulus. In particular, the unique properties of 2D materials to form van der Waals heterojunction at the bottom interface are emphasized. Finally, perspectives on the further development of PSCs using 2D materials are provided, such as designing high-quality van der Waals heterojunction, enhancing the uniformity and coverage of 2D nanosheets, and developing new 2D materials-based electrodes.

Efficient and Stable Inverted Perovskite Solar Modules Enabled by Solid-Liquid Two-Step Film Formation

A considerable efficiency gap exists between large-area perovskite solar modules and small-area perovskite solar cells. The control of forming uniform and large-area film and perovskite crystallization is still the main obstacle restricting the efficiency of PSMs. In this work, we adopted a solid-liquid two-step film formation technique, which involved the evaporation of a lead iodide film and blade coating of an organic ammonium halide solution to prepare perovskite films. This method possesses the advantages of integrating vapor deposition and solution methods, which could apply to substrates with different roughness and avoid using toxic solvents to achieve a more uniform, large-area perovskite film. Furthermore, modification of the NiOx/perovskite buried interface and introduction of Urea additives were utilized to reduce interface recombination and regulate perovskite crystallization. As a result, a large-area perovskite film possessing larger grains, fewer pinholes, and reduced defects could be achieved. The inverted PSM with an active area of 61.56 cm2 (10 × 10 cm2 substrate) achieved a champion power conversion efficiency of 20.56% and significantly improved stability. This method suggests an innovative approach to resolving the uniformity issue associated with large-area film fabrication.

Crystallization Regulation and Lead Leakage Prevention Simultaneously for High-Performance CsPbI2Br Perovskite Solar Cells

All-inorganic CsPbI2Br perovskite is striking as a result of the reasonable band gap and thermal stability. However, the notorious air instability, unsatisfactory conversion efficiencies, and toxic water-soluble Pb2+ ions have greatly limited the further development of CsPbI2Br-based devices. Herein, a facile strategy is developed to prepare efficient and air-stable CsPbI2Br-based perovskite solar cells (PSCs) with in situ lead leakage protection. With the introduction of 2,2'-dihydroxy-4,4'-dimethoxy-5,5'-disulfobenzophenone disodium salt (BP-9) into the CsPbI2Br precursor solution, the crystallization of perovskite can be regulated at a reduced trap density, the uncoordinated Pb2+ ions and electron-rich defects in the structure can be passivated to suppress non-radiative recombination, and the energy level arrangement can be optimized to improve charge carrier transport. Consequently, the optimized PSC achieved a championship efficiency of 17.11%, accompanied by negligible J-V hysteresis and remarkably improved air stability. More importantly, the strong chelation of BP-9 with water-soluble Pb2+ ions minimizes the leakage of toxic lead in the perovskite structure.

Current State and Future Perspectives of Printable Organic and Perovskite Solar Cells

Photovoltaic technology presents a sustainable solution to address the escalating global energy consumption and a reliable strategy for achieving net-zero carbon emissions by 2050. Emerging photovoltaic technologies, especially the printable organic and perovskite solar cells, have attracted extensive attention due to their rapidly transcending power conversion efficiencies and facile processability, providing great potential to revolutionize the global photovoltaic market. To accelerate these technologies to translate from the laboratory scale to the industrial level, it is critical to develop well-defined and scalable protocols to deposit high-quality thin films of photoactive and charge-transporting materials. Herein, the current state of printable organic and perovskite solar cells is summarized and the view regarding the challenges and prospects toward their commercialization is shared. Different printing techniques are first introduced to provide a correlation between material properties and printing mechanisms, and the optimization of ink formulation and film-formation during large-area deposition of different functional layers in devices are then discussed. Engineering perspectives are also discussed to analyze the criteria for module design. Finally, perspectives are provided regarding the future development of these solar cells toward practical commercialization. It is believed that this perspective will provide insight into the development of printable solar cells and other electronic devices.

Passivation of Sodium Benzenesulfonate at the Buried Interface of a High-Performance Wide-Bandgap Perovskite Solar Cell

The phase segregation of wide-bandgap perovskite is detrimental to a device's performance. We find that Sodium Benzenesulfonate (SBS) can improve the interface passivation of PTAA, thus addressing the poor wettability issue of poly[bis(4-phenyl)(2,4,6-trimethylphenyl)amine](PTAA). This improvement helps mitigate interface defects caused by poor contact between the perovskite and PTAA, reducing non-radiative recombination. Additionally, enhanced interface contact improves the crystallinity of the perovskite, leading to higher-quality perovskite films. By synergistically controlling the crystallization and trap passivation to reduce the phase segregation, SBS-modified perovskite solar cells (PSCs) achieved a power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 20.27%, with an open-circuit voltage (Voc) of 1.18 V, short-circuit current density (Jsc) of 20.93 mA cm-2, and fill factor (FF) of 82.31%.

Reconfigurable perovskite X-ray detector for intelligent imaging

X-ray detection is widely used in various applications. However, to meet the demand for high image quality and high accuracy diagnosis, the raw data increases and imposes challenges for conventional X-ray detection hardware regarding data transmission and power consumption. To tackle these issues, we present a scheme of in-X-ray-detector computing based on CsPbBr3 single-crystal detector with convenient polarity reconfigurability, good linear dynamic range, and robust stability. The detector features a stable trap-free device structure and achieves a high linear dynamic range of 106 dB. As a result, the detector could achieve edge extraction imaging with a data compression ratio of ~50%, and could also be programmed and trained to perform pattern recognition tasks with a high accuracy of 100%. Our research shows that in-X-ray-detector computing can be used in flexible and complex scenarios, making it a promising platform for intelligent X-ray imaging.

Donor engineering of a benzothiadiazole-based D-A-D-type molecular semiconductor for perovskite solar cells: a theoretical study

Due to the easy formation of compact molecular packing arrangements and the favorable photophysical and electrochemical properties, donor-acceptor-donor (D-A-D)-type small molecule hole-transporting materials (HTMs) have been widely synthesized and researched to improve the efficiency and stability of perovskite solar cells (PSCs). The main approach in recent experiments has been to seek good acceptors, whereas the influence of the electron-donating units has been less reported. In this work, six new benzothiadiazole-based D-A-D-type HTMs are tailored by employing the ethyl-substituted phenoxazine (POZ), phenothiazine (PTZ) and carbazole (CZ) as the donors. To obtain an elementary understanding of new HTMs, the electronic, optical, hole-transporting and interfacial properties are simulated with quantum chemistry methods. The results indicate that all tailored HTMs exhibit suitable energy alignment compared with the band structures of the perovskite, and the continuous highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) levels will be helpful for interfacial energy regulation. In comparison with the YN1, the maximum absorption wavelengths of the newly designed HTMs are red-shifted due to the decreased excitation energies from the ground-state to the first singlet excited-state. Importantly, the hole mobilities of all designed HTMs are distinctly higher than the referenced YN1, which is contributed by the better planarity of the molecular skeleton and the easier orbital overlapping between adjacent molecules. The interfacial simulations manifest that the FAPbI3/SM37 system displays a more stable adsorption configuration and greater charge redistributions at the interface compared to YN1, which further promotes the separation of photogenerated electron-hole pairs. Moreover, larger Stokes shifts and better solubility are also acquired for the new HTMs. In summary, our calculations not only propose several potential highly efficient HTMs, but also provide useful insights at the atomic level for the experimental synthesis of new D-A-D-type HTMs.

Rational molecular design of multifunctional self-assembled monolayers for efficient hole selection and buried interface passivation in inverted perovskite solar cells

Self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) have been widely employed as the bottom-contact hole-selective layer (HSL) in inverted perovskite solar cells (PSCs). Besides manipulating the electrical properties, molecularly engineering the SAM provides an opportunity to modulate the perovskite buried interface. Here, we successfully introduced Lewis-basic oxygen and sulfur heteroatoms through rational molecular design of asymmetric SAMs to obtain two novel multifunctional SAMs, CbzBF and CbzBT. Detailed characterization of single-crystal structures and device interfaces shows that enhanced packing, more effective ITO work function adjustment, and buried interface passivation were successfully achieved. Consequently, the champion PSC employing CbzBT showed an excellent power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 24.0% with a high fill factor of 84.41% and improved stability. This work demonstrates the feasibility of introducing defect-passivating heterocyclic groups into SAM molecules to help passivate the interfacial defects in PSCs. The insights gained from this molecular design strategy will accelerate the development of new multifunctional SAM HSLs for efficient PSCs.

HOF-101-based dual-mode biosensor for photoelectrochemical/electrochemiluminescence detection and imaging of oxytetracycline

A unique hydrogen-bonded organic frameworks (HOF-101)-based photoelectrochemical (PEC) and electrochemiluminescence (ECL) dual-mode biosensor using polydopamine nanoparticles (PDAs) as quencher was constructed for ultrasensitive detection and imaging of oxytetracycline (OXY). In particular, HOF-101 was a superior ECL material and can be observed with the naked eye. Furthermore, it also had outstanding PEC signal, so HOF-101 was a new dual-signal material with excellent performance, thus it was explored to realize dual-mode detection. As the main component of natural melanin, PDAs not only had good biocompatibility, but also contained rich functional groups on the surface. Additionally, PDAs had excellent light absorption ability and poor conductivity, which made it the excellent photoquencher. In this work, PDAs were introduced on the surface of HOF-101 to quench its ECL and PEC signals by using the dual-aptamer sandwich method, achieving ultrasensitive detection of antibiotic OXY. Particularly for ECL detection, HOF-101 was firstly used to visually detect OXY. The detection range can reach 0.1 pM-100 nM, and the limit of detection (LOD) can reach 0.04 pM. This work showed a great contribution to the development of new ECL-PEC materials and ECL visualization analysis, which had outstanding application potential in the fields of food safety and biochemical analysis.

Defect Passivation in Quasi-2D Perovskite Light-Emitting Diodes by an Ibuprofen Additive

It is well known that the inferior film morphology and the excessive surface/interface defect states are two obstacles to achieving high electroluminescence performance of quasi-2D perovskite light-emitting diodes (PeLEDs). To solve these problems, ibuprofen was introduced as an additive in the quasi-2D perovskite emitting layer. More efficient photoluminescence is demonstrated. Further, optimized quasi-2D PeLEDs with a current efficiency of 55.93 cd/A are confirmed and 5.7-fold enhancement in device stability is obtained. The physical mechanism of the remarkable improvement is investigated by kinds of measurements. Three aspects should be counted into it. First, the introduction of ibuprofen can passivate defects, thus making the quasi-2D perovskite emitting layer more dense and homogeneous. The reason should be that the C═O functional group and C═C bond in the benzene ring in ibuprofen can coordinate the unsaturated Pb2+ perovskite emitting layer. Meanwhile, the related exciton harvesting process is investigated. The proportion of the crystalline phases (small n and large n phase) can be tuned to benefit the energy funneling process. Finally, the analysis of the current density and voltage curves of the hole-dominated devices and the electron-dominated devices is conducted by utilizing the space charge-limited current (SCLC) methods.

Multifunctional ytterbium oxide buffer for perovskite solar cells

Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) comprise a solid perovskite absorber sandwiched between several layers of different charge-selective materials, ensuring unidirectional current flow and high voltage output of the devices1,2. A 'buffer material' between the electron-selective layer and the metal electrode in p-type/intrinsic/n-type (p-i-n) PSCs (also known as inverted PSCs) enables electrons to flow from the electron-selective layer to the electrode3-5. Furthermore, it acts as a barrier inhibiting the inter-diffusion of harmful species into or degradation products out of the perovskite absorber6-8. Thus far, evaporable organic molecules9,10 and atomic-layer-deposited metal oxides11,12 have been successful, but each has specific imperfections. Here we report a chemically stable and multifunctional buffer material, ytterbium oxide (YbOx), for p-i-n PSCs by scalable thermal evaporation deposition. We used this YbOx buffer in the p-i-n PSCs with a narrow-bandgap perovskite absorber, yielding a certified power conversion efficiency of more than 25%. We also demonstrate the broad applicability of YbOx in enabling highly efficient PSCs from various types of perovskite absorber layer, delivering state-of-the-art efficiencies of 20.1% for the wide-bandgap perovskite absorber and 22.1% for the mid-bandgap perovskite absorber, respectively. Moreover, when subjected to ISOS-L-3 accelerated ageing, encapsulated devices with YbOx exhibit markedly enhanced device stability.

Enhanced Quasi-Fermi Level Splitting of Perovskite Solar Cells by Universal Dual-Functional Polymer

Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have attracted extensive attention due to their higher power conversion efficiency (PCE) and simple fabrication process. However, the open-circuit voltage (VOC ) loss remains a significant impediment to enhance device performance. Here, a facile strategy to boost the VOC to 95.5% of the Shockley-Queisser (S-Q) limit through the introduction of a universal multifunctional polymer additive is demonstrated. This additive effectively passivates the cation and anion defects simultaneously, thereby leading to the transformation from the strong n-type to weak n-type of perovskite films. Benefitting from the energy level alignment and the suppression of bulk non-radiative recombination, the quasi-Fermi level splitting (QFLS) is enhanced.  Consequently, the champion devices with 1.59 eV-based perovskite reach the highest VOC value of 1.24 V and a PCE of 23.86%. Furthermore, this strategy boosts the VOC by at least 0.07 V across five different perovskite systems, a PCE of 25.04% is achieved for 1.57 eV-based PSCs, and the corresponding module (14 cm2 ) also obtained a high PCE of 21.95%. This work provides an effective and universal strategy to promote the VOC approach to the detailed balance theoretical limit.

Phase-Pure α-FAPbI3 Perovskite Solar Cells via Activating Lead-Iodine Frameworks

Narrow bandgap cubic formamidine perovskite (α-FAPbI3 ) is widely studied for its potential to achieve record-breaking efficiency. However, its high preparation difficulty caused by lattice instability is criticized. A popular strategy for stabilizing the α-FAPbI3 lattice is to replace intrinsic FA+ or I- with smaller ions of MA+ , Cs+ , Rb+ , and Br- , whereas this generally leads to broadened optical bandgap and phase separation. Studies show that ions substitution-free phase-pure α-FAPbI3 can achieve intrinsic phase stability. However, the challenging preparation of high-quality films has hindered its further development. Here, a facile synthesis of high-quality MA+ , Cs+ , Rb+ , and Br- -free phase-pure α-FAPbI3 perovskite film by a new solution modification strategy is reported. This enables the activation of lead-iodine (Pb─I) frameworks by forming the coated Pb⋯O network, thus simultaneously promoting spontaneous homogeneous nucleation and rapid phase transition from δ to α phase. As a result, the efficient and stable phase-pure α-FAPbI3 PSC is obtained through a one-step method without antisolvent treatment, with a record efficiency of 23.15% and excellent long-term operating stability for 500 h under continuous light stress.

Stabilizing Precursor Solution and Controlling Crystallization Kinetics Simultaneously for High-Performance Perovskite Solar Cells

The efficiency of metal halide perovskite solar cells (PSCs) has skyrocketed; however, defects created by aging precursor solutions and during crystallization pose a significant barrier to the reproducibility and efficiency of solar cells. In this work, fluoro-N,N,N″,N″-tetramethylformamidinium hexafluorophosphate (F-(CH3 )4 CN2 PF6 , abbreviated as TFFH) is introduced to stabilize precursor solution and improve crystallization dynamics simultaneously for high-performance formamidinium lead iodide (FAPbI3 )-based perovskite indoor photovoltaics. The TFFH stabilizes the precursor solution by inhibiting oxidation of I- and reducing newly generated I0 to I- , and passivates undercoordinated Pb2+ by interacting with the Pb─I framework. Time-resolved optical diagnostics show prolonged perovskite crystallization dynamics and in situ defect passivation due to the presence of strong FA+ ···TFFH···Pb─I interaction. Simultaneous regulation of precursor solution and crystallization dynamics guarantee larger perovskite grain sizes, better crystal orientation, fewer defects and more efficient charge extraction in PSCs. The optimized PSCs achieve improved reproducibility and better stability and reach an efficiency of 42.43% at illumination of 1002 lux, which is the highest efficiency among all indoor photovoltaics. It is anticipated that the concurrent stabilization of solutions and regulation of crystallization dynamics will emerge as a prevalent approach for enhancing the reproducibility and efficiency of perovskite.

Lanthanide 3D Supramolecular Framework Boosts Stable Perovskite Solar Cells with High UV Utilization

In this work, the ligand-to-metal charge transition and Förster resonance energy transfer process is exploited to derive lanthanide-organic framework (Tb-cpon) modified perovskite solar cells (PSCs) with enhanced performance under UV irradiation. Tb-cpon-modified PSCs exhibit rapid response and reduced degradation due to energy downconversion facilitated by effective coupling of UV-sensitive chromophores to lanthanide luminescent centers, enhancing the spectral response range of the composite films. Furthermore, the characteristic changes of precursor particle sizes suggest formation of Tb-cpon adducts as intermediate products, leading to enhanced crystallinity and reduced defect concentrations in the Tb-cpon-perovskite hybrid film. Accordingly, the Tb-cpon-modified PSC devices obtain a champion efficiency up to 23.72% as well as a sensitive photovoltaic conversion even under pure UV irradiation. Moreover, the unencapsulated devices maintain more than 80% of the initial efficiency after continuous irradiation under a 310 nm UV lamp for 24 h (from the Au electrode side), compared to 21% for the control devices.

Ultrasensitive and Robust CsPbBr3 Single-Crystal X-ray Detectors Based on Interface Engineering

Halide lead perovskites have shown great development in recent years for ionizing radiation detection. However, the bias-induced interfacial electrochemical reaction between the perovskite and electrode severely deteriorates detector performance. We report that BCP strongly interacts with Al and constructs a stable Al-BCP chelating interface, resulting in the suppression of a detrimental electrochemical reaction. The fabricated Au/Al/BCP/C60/CsPbBr3/Au detector shows a low dark current of 3 nA with a stable baseline at an extremely high bias of 100 V (∼100 V mm-1). The superior high-bias stability enables a high sensitivity of 7.3 × 104 μC Gyair-1 cm-2 at 100 V. Meanwhile, a low detection limit of 15 nGyair s-1 at 40 V is achieved due to the reduced noise. The outstanding performance of our device exceeds that of most advanced detectors based on CsPbBr3 single crystals. Besides, X-ray imaging with 1 mm spatial resolution is well demonstrated at a low dose rate of 200 nGyair s-1. The interfacial chelating strategy overcomes the technical limitation of bias-induced instability of perovskite radiation detectors and can be anticipated to operate under an extremely high electrical field.

Stabilized hole-selective layer for high-performance inverted p-i-n perovskite solar cells

P-i-n geometry perovskite solar cells (PSCs) offer simplified fabrication, greater amenability to charge extraction layers, and low-temperature processing over n-i-p counterparts. Self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) can enhance the performance of p-i-n PSCs but ultrathin SAMs can be thermally unstable. We report a thermally robust hole-selective layer comprised of nickel oxide (NiOx) nanoparticle film with a surface-anchored (4-(3,11-dimethoxy-7H-dibenzo[c,g]carbazol-7-yl)butyl)phosphonic acid (MeO-4PADBC) SAM that can improve and stabilize the NiOx/perovskite interface. The energetic alignment and favorable contact and binding between NiOx/MeO-4PADBC and perovskite reduced the voltage deficit of PSCs with various perovskite compositions and led to strong interface toughening effects under thermal stress. The resulting 1.53-electron-volt devices achieved 25.6% certified power conversion efficiency and maintained >90% of their initial efficiency after continuously operating at 65 degrees Celsius for 1200 hours under 1-sun illumination.

Hyperbranched polymer functionalized flexible perovskite solar cells with mechanical robustness and reduced lead leakage

Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) are multilayer structures. The interface between electron transport layer and perovskite is the mechanical weakest point in flexible PSCs due to its low fracture energy. Herein, we develop a highly adhesive polyamide-amine-based hyperbranched polymers to reinforce the interface. The interface fracture energy is improved from 1.08 to 2.13 J·m-2 by the hyperbranched polymers with adhesive groups and dynamic hydrogen bond networks. The polymer functionalized perovskite solar cells achieve superior power conversion efficiencies of 25.05% and 23.86% for rigid and flexible devices, respectively. Furthermore, the hyperbranched polymer contains abundant intramolecular cavities that can capture Pb2+. Pb leakage after solar cell damage is effectively suppressed. Our findings provide insights on designing adhesive interface layers towards high-efficiency, mechanical-stable and environment-friendly flexible perovskite solar cells.