Excitation-transcription coupling: signaling by ion channels to the nucleus

Nanodomain Ca²⁺ of Ca²⁺ channels detected by a tethered genetically encoded Ca²⁺ sensor

Coupling of excitation to secretion, contraction and transcription often relies on Ca(2+) computations within the nanodomain-a conceptual region extending tens of nanometers from the cytoplasmic mouth of Ca(2+) channels. Theory predicts that nanodomain Ca(2+) signals differ vastly from the slow submicromolar signals routinely observed in bulk cytoplasm. However, direct visualization of nanodomain Ca(2+) far exceeds optical resolution of spatially distributed Ca(2+) indicators. Here we couple an optical, genetically encoded Ca(2+) indicator (TN-XL) to the carboxy tail of Ca(V)2.2 Ca(2+) channels, enabling near-field imaging of the nanodomain. Under total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy, we detect Ca(2+) responses indicative of large-amplitude pulses. Single-channel electrophysiology reveals a corresponding Ca(2+) influx of only 0.085 pA, and fluorescence resonance energy transfer measurements estimate TN-XL distance to the cytoplasmic mouth at ~55 Å. Altogether, these findings raise the possibility that Ca(2+) exits the channel through the analogue of molecular portals, mirroring the crystallographic images of side windows in voltage-gated K channels.

Calcium signalling and liver regeneration

After partial hepatectomy (PH) the initial mass of the organ is restored through a complex network of cellular interactions that orchestrate both proliferative and hepatoprotective signalling cascades. Among agonists involved in this network many of them drive Ca(2+) movements. During liver regeneration in the rat, hepatocyte cytosolic Ca(2+) signalling has been shown on the one hand to be deeply remodelled and on the other hand to enhance progression of hepatocytes through the cell cycle. Mechanisms through which cytosolic Ca(2+) signals impact on hepatocyte cell cycle early after PH are not completely understood, but at least they include regulation of immediate early gene transcription and ERK and CREB phosphorylation. In addition to cytosolic Ca(2+), there is also evidence that mitochondrial Ca(2+) and also nuclear Ca(2+) may be critical for the regulation of liver regeneration. Finally, Ca(2+) movements in hepatocytes, and possibly in other liver cells, not only impact hepatocyte progression in the cell cycle but more generally may regulate cellular homeostasis after PH.

Surface traffic of dendritic CaV1.2 calcium channels in hippocampal neurons

In neurons L-type calcium currents function in gene regulation and synaptic plasticity, while excessive calcium influx leads to excitotoxicity and neurodegeneration. The major neuronal Ca(V)1.2 L-type channels are localized in clusters in dendritic shafts and spines. Whereas Ca(V)1.2 clusters remain stable during NMDA-induced synaptic depression, L-type calcium currents are rapidly downregulated during strong excitatory stimulation. Here we used fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP), live cell-labeling protocols, and single particle tracking (SPT) to analyze the turnover and surface traffic of Ca(V)1.2 in dendrites of mature cultured mouse and rat hippocampal neurons, respectively. FRAP analysis of channels extracellularly tagged with superecliptic pHluorin (Ca(V)1.2-SEP) demonstrated ∼20% recovery within 2 min without reappearance of clusters. Pulse-chase labeling showed that membrane-expressed Ca(V)1.2-HA is not internalized within1 h, while blocking dynamin-dependent endocytosis resulted in increased cluster density after 30 min. Together, these results suggest a turnover rate of clustered Ca(V)1.2s on the hour time scale. Direct recording of the lateral movement in the membrane using SPT demonstrated that dendritic Ca(V)1.2s show highly confined mobility with diffusion coefficients of ∼0.005 μm² s⁻¹. Consistent with the mobile Ca(V)1.2 fraction observed in FRAP, a ∼30% subpopulation of channels reversibly exchanged between confined and diffusive states. Remarkably, high potassium depolarization did not alter the recovery rates in FRAP or the diffusion coefficients in SPT analyses. Thus, an equilibrium of clustered and dynamic Ca(V)1.2s maintains stable calcium channel complexes involved in activity-dependent cell signaling, whereas the minor mobile channel pool in mature neurons allows limited capacity for short-term adaptations.

Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II function in vascular remodelling

Vascular smooth muscle (VSM) undergoes a phenotypic switch in response to injury, a process that contributes to pathophysiological vascular wall remodelling. VSM phenotype switching is a consequence of changes in gene expression, including an array of ion channels and pumps affecting spatiotemporal features of intracellular Ca(2+) signals. Ca(2+) signalling promotes vascular wall remodelling by regulating cell proliferation, motility, and/or VSM gene transcription, although the mechanisms are not clear. In this review, the functions of multifunctional Ca(2+)/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) in VSM phenotype switching and synthetic phenotype function are considered. CaMKII isozymes have complex structural and autoregulatory properties. Vascular injury in vivo results in rapid changes in CaMKII isoform expression with reduced expression of CaMKIIγ and upregulation of CaMKIIδ in medial wall VSM. SiRNA-mediated suppression of CaMKIIδ or gene deletion attenuates VSM proliferation and consequent neointimal formation. In vitro studies support functions for CaMKII in the regulation of cell proliferation, motility and gene expression via phosphorylation of CREB1 and HDACIIa/MEF2 complexes. These studies support the concept, and provide potential mechanisms, whereby Ca(2+) signalling through CaMKIIδ promotes VSM phenotype transitions and vascular remodelling.

Neuronal activity-regulated gene transcription in synapse development and cognitive function

Activity-dependent plasticity of vertebrate neurons allows the brain to respond to its environment. During brain development, both spontaneous and sensory-driven neural activity are essential for instructively guiding the process of synapse development. These effects of neuronal activity are transduced in part through the concerted regulation of a set of activity-dependent transcription factors that coordinate a program of gene expression required for the formation and maturation of synapses. Here we review the cellular signaling networks that regulate the activity of transcription factors during brain development and discuss the functional roles of specific activity-regulated transcription factors in specific stages of synapse formation, refinement, and maturation. Interestingly, a number of neurodevelopmental disorders have been linked to abnormalities in activity-regulated transcriptional pathways, indicating that these signaling networks are critical for cognitive development and function.

L-type calcium channel auto-regulation of transcription

L-type calcium channels (LTCC) impact the function of nearly all excitable cells. The classical LTCC function is to mediate trans-sarcolemmal Ca(2+) flux. This review focuses on the contribution of a mobile segment of the LTCC that regulates ion channel function, and also serves as a regulator of transcription in the nucleus. Specifically we highlight recent work demonstrating an auto-feedback regulatory pathway whereby the LTCC transcription factor regulates the LTCC. Also discussed is acute and long-term regulation of function by the LTCC-transcription regulator.

A framework for the study of multiple realizations: the importance of levels of analysis

The brain may undergo functional reorganizations. Selective loss of sensory input or training within a restricted part of a modality cause "shifts" within for instance somatotopic or tonotopic maps. Cross-modal plasticity occurs when input within a modality is absent - e.g., in the congenitally blind. Reorganizations are also found in functional recovery after brain injury. Focusing on such reorganizations, it may be studied whether a cognitive or conscious process can exclusively be mediated by one neural substrate - or may be associated with multiple neural representations. This is typically known as the problem of multiple realization - an essentially empirical issue with wide theoretical implications. This issue may appear to have a simple solution. When, for instance, the symptoms associated with brain injury disappear and the recovery is associated with increased activities within spared regions of the brain, it is tempting to conclude that the processes originally associated with the injured part of the brain are now mediated by an alternative neural substrate. Such a conclusion is, however, not a simple matter. Without a more thorough analysis, it cannot be concluded that a functional recovery of for instance language or attention is necessarily associated with a novel representation of the processes lost to injury. Alternatively, for instance, the recovery may reflect that apparently similar surface phenomena are obtained via dissimilar cognitive mechanisms. In this paper we propose a theoretical framework, which we believe can guide the design and interpretations of studies of post-traumatic recovery. It is essential to distinguish between a number of levels of analysis - including a differentiation between the surface phenomena and the underlying information processing - when addressing, for instance, whether a pre-traumatic and post-traumatically recovered cognitive or conscious process are actually the same. We propose a (somewhat preliminary) system of levels of analysis, which can be applied to such studies.

A framework for the study of multiple realizations: the importance of levels of analysis

The brain may undergo functional reorganizations. Selective loss of sensory input or training within a restricted part of a modality cause "shifts" within for instance somatotopic or tonotopic maps. Cross-modal plasticity occurs when input within a modality is absent - e.g., in the congenitally blind. Reorganizations are also found in functional recovery after brain injury. Focusing on such reorganizations, it may be studied whether a cognitive or conscious process can exclusively be mediated by one neural substrate - or may be associated with multiple neural representations. This is typically known as the problem of multiple realization - an essentially empirical issue with wide theoretical implications. This issue may appear to have a simple solution. When, for instance, the symptoms associated with brain injury disappear and the recovery is associated with increased activities within spared regions of the brain, it is tempting to conclude that the processes originally associated with the injured part of the brain are now mediated by an alternative neural substrate. Such a conclusion is, however, not a simple matter. Without a more thorough analysis, it cannot be concluded that a functional recovery of for instance language or attention is necessarily associated with a novel representation of the processes lost to injury. Alternatively, for instance, the recovery may reflect that apparently similar surface phenomena are obtained via dissimilar cognitive mechanisms. In this paper we propose a theoretical framework, which we believe can guide the design and interpretations of studies of post-traumatic recovery. It is essential to distinguish between a number of levels of analysis - including a differentiation between the surface phenomena and the underlying information processing - when addressing, for instance, whether a pre-traumatic and post-traumatically recovered cognitive or conscious process are actually the same. We propose a (somewhat preliminary) system of levels of analysis, which can be applied to such studies.

High-frequency field stimulation of primary neurons enhances ryanodine receptor-mediated Ca2+ release and generates hydrogen peroxide, which jointly stimulate NF-κB activity

Neuronal electrical activity increases intracellular Ca(2+) concentration and generates reactive oxygen species. Here, we show that high frequency field stimulation of primary hippocampal neurons generated Ca(2+) signals with an early and a late component, and promoted hydrogen peroxide generation via a neuronal NADPH oxidase. Hydrogen peroxide generation required both Ca(2+) entry through N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors and Ca(2+) release mediated by ryanodine receptors (RyR). Field stimulation also enhanced nuclear translocation of the NF-κB p65 protein and NF-κB -dependent transcription, and increased c-fos mRNA and type-2 RyR protein content. Preincubation with inhibitory ryanodine or with the antioxidant N-acetyl L-cysteine abolished the increase in hydrogen peroxide generation and the late Ca(2+) signal component induced by electrical stimulation. Primary cortical cells behaved similarly as primary hippocampal cells. Exogenous hydrogen peroxide also activated NF-κB-dependent transcription in hippocampal neurons; inhibitory ryanodine prevented this effect. Selective inhibition of the NADPH oxidase or N-acetyl L-cysteine also prevented the enhanced translocation of p65 in hippocampal cells, while N-acetyl L-cysteine abolished the increase in RyR2 protein content induced by high frequency stimulation. In conclusion, the present results show that electrical stimulation induced reciprocal activation of ryanodine receptor-mediated Ca(2+) signals and hydrogen peroxide generation, which stimulated jointly NF-κB activity.

Excitation-transcription coupling in sympathetic neurons and the molecular mechanism of its initiation

In excitable cells, membrane depolarization and activation of voltage-gated Ca²+ (Ca(V)) channels trigger numerous cellular responses, including muscle contraction, secretion, and gene expression. Yet, while the mechanisms underlying excitation-contraction and excitation-secretion coupling have been extensively characterized, how neuronal activity is coupled to gene expression has remained more elusive. In this article, we will discuss recent progress toward understanding the relationship between patterns of channel activity driven by membrane depolarization and activation of the nuclear transcription factor CREB. We show that signaling strength is steeply dependent on membrane depolarization and is more sensitive to the open probability of Ca(V) channels than the Ca²+ entry itself. Furthermore, our data indicate that by decoding Ca(V) channel activity, CaMKII (a Ca²+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase) links membrane excitation to activation of CREB in the nucleus. Together, these results revealed some interesting and unexpected similarities between excitation-transcription coupling and other forms of excitation-response coupling.

Calcium wave signaling in cancer cells

Ca(2+) functions as an important signaling messenger right from beginning of life to the final moments of the end of life. Ca(2+) is needed at several steps of the cell cycle such as early G(1), at the G(1)/S, and G(2)/M transitions. The Ca(2+) signals in the form of time-dependent changes in intracellular Ca(2+) concentrations, [Ca(2+)](i), are presented as brief spikes organized into regenerative Ca(2+) waves. Ca(2+)-mediated signaling pathways have also been shown to play important roles in carcinogenesis such as transformation of normal cells to cancerous cells, tumor formation and growth, invasion, angiogenesis and metastasis. Since the global Ca(2+) oscillations arise from Ca(2+) waves initiated locally, it results in stochastic oscillations because although each cell has many IP(3)Rs and Ca(2+) ions, the law of large numbers does not apply to the initiating event which is restricted to very few IP(3)Rs due to steep Ca(2+) concentration gradients. The specific Ca(2+) signaling information is likely to be encoded in a calcium code as the amplitude, duration, frequency, waveform or timing of Ca(2+) oscillations and decoded again at a later stage. Since Ca(2+) channels or pumps involved in regulating Ca(2+) signaling pathways show altered expression in cancer, one can target these Ca(2+) channels and pumps as therapeutic options to decrease proliferation of cancer cells and to promote their apoptosis. These studies can provide novel insights into alterations in Ca(2+) wave patterns in carcinogenesis and lead to the development of newer technologies based on Ca(2+) waves for the diagnosis and therapy of cancer.

Quantitative proteomics of the Cav2 channel nano-environments in the mammalian brain

Local Ca(2+) signaling occurring within nanometers of voltage-gated Ca(2+) (Cav) channels is crucial for CNS function, yet the molecular composition of Cav channel nano-environments is largely unresolved. Here, we used a proteomic strategy combining knockout-controlled multiepitope affinity purifications with high-resolution quantitative MS for comprehensive analysis of the molecular nano-environments of the Cav2 channel family in the whole rodent brain. The analysis shows that Cav2 channels, composed of pore-forming alpha1 and auxiliary beta subunits, are embedded into protein networks that may be assembled from a pool of approximately 200 proteins with distinct abundance, stability of assembly, and preference for the three Cav2 subtypes. The majority of these proteins have not previously been linked to Cav channels; about two-thirds are dedicated to the control of intracellular Ca(2+) concentration, including G protein-coupled receptor-mediated signaling, to activity-dependent cytoskeleton remodeling or Ca(2+)-dependent effector systems that comprise a high portion of the priming and release machinery of synaptic vesicles. The identified protein networks reflect the cellular processes that can be initiated by Cav2 channel activity and define the molecular framework for organization and operation of local Ca(2+) signaling by Cav2 channels in the brain.

Voltage-activated calcium channel expression profiles in mouse brain and cultured hippocampal neurons

The importance and diversity of calcium signaling in the brain is mirrored by the expression of a multitude of voltage-activated calcium channel (Ca(V)) isoforms. Whereas the overall distributions of alpha(1) subunits are well established, the expression patterns of distinct channel isoforms in specific brain regions and neurons, as well as those of the auxiliary beta and alpha(2)delta subunits are still incompletely characterized. Further it is unknown whether neuronal differentiation and activity induce changes of Ca(V) subunit composition. Here we combined absolute and relative quantitative TaqMan reverse transcription PCR (RT-PCR) to analyze mRNA expression of all high voltage-activated Ca(V) alpha(1) subunits and all beta and alpha(2)delta subunits. This allowed for the first time the direct comparison of complete Ca(V) expression profiles of mouse cortex, hippocampus, cerebellum, and cultured hippocampal neurons. All brain regions expressed characteristic profiles of the full set of isoforms, except Ca(V)1.1 and Ca(V)1.4. In cortex development was accompanied by a general down regulation of alpha(1) and alpha(2)delta subunits and a shift from beta(1)/beta(3) to beta(2)/beta(4). The most abundant Ca(V) isoforms in cerebellum were Ca(V)2.1, beta(4), and alpha(2)delta-2, and in hippocampus Ca(V)2.3, beta(2), and alpha(2)delta-1. Interestingly, cultured hippocampal neurons also expressed the same Ca(V) complement as adult hippocampus. During differentiation specific Ca(V) isoforms experienced up- or down-regulation; however blocking electrical activity did not affect Ca(V) expression patterns. Correlation analysis of alpha(1), beta and alpha(2)delta subunit expression throughout all examined preparations revealed a strong preference of Ca(V)2.1 for beta(4) and alpha(2)delta-2 and vice versa, whereas the other alpha(1) isoforms were non-selectively expressed together with each of the other beta and alpha(2)delta isoforms. Together our results revealed a remarkably stable overall Ca(2+) channel complement as well as tissue specific differences in expression levels. Developmental changes are likely determined by an intrinsic program and not regulated by changes in neuronal activity.

Excitation-transcription coupling via calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase/ERK1/2 signaling mediates the coordinate induction of VGLUT2 and Narp triggered by a prolonged increase in glutamatergic synaptic activity

Homeostatic scaling of glutamatergic and GABAergic transmission is triggered by prolonged alterations in synaptic neuronal activity. We have previously described a presynaptic mechanism for synaptic homeostasis and plasticity that involves scaling the level of vesicular glutamate (VGLUT1) and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) (VGAT) transporter biosynthesis. These molecular determinants of vesicle filling and quantal size are regulated by neuronal activity in an opposite manner and bi-directionally. Here, we report that a striking induction of VGLUT2 mRNA and synaptic protein is triggered by a prolonged increase in glutamatergic synaptic activity in mature neocortical neuronal networks in vitro together with two determinants of inhibitory synaptic strength, the neuronal activity-regulated pentraxin (Narp), and glutamate decarboxylase (GAD65). Activity-dependent induction of VGLUT2 and Narp exhibits a similar intermediate-early gene response that is blocked by actinomycin D and tetrodotoxin, by inhibitors of ionotropic glutamate receptors and L-type voltage-gated calcium channels, and is dependent on downstream signaling via calmodulin, calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase (CaMK) and extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2). The co-induction of VGLUT2 and Narp triggered by prolonged gamma-aminobutyric acid type A receptor blockade is independent of brain-derived nerve growth factor and TrkB receptor signaling. VGLUT2 protein induction occurs on a subset of cortically derived synaptic vesicles in excitatory synapses on somata and dendritic processes of multipolar GABAergic interneurons, recognized sites for the clustering of alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionate glutamate receptors by Narp. We propose that VGLUT2 and Narp induction by excitation-transcription coupling leads to increased glutamatergic transmission at synapses on GABAergic inhibitory feedback neurons as part of a coordinated program of Ca(2+)-signal transcription involved in mechanisms of homeostatic plasticity after prolonged hyperactivity.

Ca2+/calmodulin disrupts AKAP79/150 interactions with KCNQ (M-Type) K+ channels

M-type channels are localized to neuronal, cardiovascular, and epithelial tissues, where they play critical roles in control of excitability and K(+) transport, and are regulated by numerous receptors via G(q/11)-mediated signals. One pathway shown for KCNQ2 and muscarinic receptors uses PKC, recruited to the channels by A-kinase anchoring protein (AKAP)79/150. As M-type channels can be variously composed of KCNQ1-5 subunits, and M current is known to be regulated by Ca(2+)/calmodulin (CaM) and PIP(2), we probed the generality of AKAP79/150 actions among KCNQ1-5 channels, and the influence of Ca(2+)/CaM and PIP(2) on AKAP79/150 actions. We first examined which KCNQ subunits are targeted by AKAP79 in Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells heterologously expressing KCNQ1-5 subunits and AKAP79, using fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) under total internal reflection fluorescence (TIRF) microscopy, and patch-clamp analysis. Donor-dequenching FRET between CFP-tagged KCNQ1-5 and YFP-tagged AKAP79 revealed association of KCNQ2-5, but not KCNQ1, with AKAP79. In parallel with these results, CHO cells stably expressing M(1) receptors studied under perforated patch-clamp showed cotransfection of AKAP79 to "sensitize" KCNQ2/3 heteromers and KCNQ2-5, but not KCNQ1, homomers to muscarinic inhibition, manifested by shifts in the dose-response relations to lower concentrations. The effect on KCNQ4 was abolished by the T553A mutation of the putative PKC phosphorylation site. We then probed the role of CaM and PIP(2) in these AKAP79 actions. TIRF/FRET experiments revealed cotransfection of wild-type, but not dominant-negative (DN), CaM that cannot bind Ca(2+), to disrupt the interaction of YFP-tagged AKAP79(1-153) with CFP-tagged KCNQ2-5. Tonic depletion of PIP(2) by cotransfection of a PIP(2) phosphatase had no effect, and sudden depletion of PIP(2) did not delocalize GFP-tagged AKAP79 from the membrane. Finally, patch-clamp experiments showed cotransfection of wild-type, but not DN, CaM to prevent the AKAP79-mediated sensitization of KCNQ2/3 heteromers to muscarinic inhibition. Thus, AKAP79 acts on KCNQ2-5, but not KCNQ1-containing channels, with effects disrupted by calcified CaM, but not by PIP(2) depletion.

Intracellular metabotropic glutamate receptor 5 (mGluR5) activates signaling cascades distinct from cell surface counterparts

G-protein-coupled receptors are thought to transmit extracellular signals to the cytoplasm from their position on the cell surface. Some receptors, including the metabotropic glutamate receptor 5 (mGluR5), are also highly expressed on intracellular membranes where they serve unknown functions. Here, we show that activation of cell surface versus intracellular mGluR5 results in unique Ca(2+) signatures leading to unique cellular responses. Specifically, activation of either cell surface or intracellular mGluR5 leads to JNK, Ca(2+)/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase (CaMK), and cyclic adenosine 3',5'-monophosphate-responsive element-binding protein phosphorylation, whereas activation of only intracellular mGluR5 leads to ERK1/2 and Elk-1 phosphorylation. Using pharmacological and genetic approaches, the present findings support a role for CaMK kinase in mediating mGluR5-dependent cyclic adenosine 3',5'-monophosphate-responsive element-binding protein phosphorylation, whereas CaMKII is upstream of intracellular mGluR5-mediated Elk-1 phosphorylation. Consistent with models showing Elk-1 regulating cascades of gene expression, the known Elk-1 targets c-fos and egr1 were up-regulated following intracellular mGluR5 activation, whereas a representative non-Elk-1 target, c-jun, was not. These findings emphasize that glutamate not only serves as a neurotransmitter for cell surface receptors but, when transported into the cell, can also activate intracellular receptors such as mGluR5. Glutamate activation of intracellular mGluR5 serves an important role in the regulation of nuclear Ca(2+), transcriptional activation, and gene expression necessary for physiological processes such as synaptic plasticity.

Physiological functions of transient receptor potential channels in pulmonary arterial smooth muscle cells

The transient receptor potential (TRP) gene superfamily, which consists of 7 subfamilies with at least 28 mammalian homologues, is known to encode a wide variety of cation channels with diverse biophysical properties, activation mechanisms, and physiological functions. Recent studies have identified multiple TRP channel subtypes, belonging to the canonical (TRPC), melastatin-related (TRPM), and vanilloid-related (TRPV) subfamilies, in pulmonary arterial smooth muscle cells (PASMCs). They operate as specific Ca(2+) pathways responsive to stimuli, including Ca(2+) store depletion, receptor activation, reactive oxygen species, growth factors, and mechanical stress. Increasing evidence suggests that these channels play crucial roles in agonist-induced pulmonary vasoconstriction, hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction, smooth muscle cell proliferation, vascular remodeling, and pulmonary arterial hypertension. This chapter highlighted and discussed these putative physiological functions of TRP channels in pulmonary vasculatures. Since Ca(2+) ions regulate many cellular processes via specific Ca(2+) signals, future investigations of these novel channels will likely uncover more important regulatory mechanisms of pulmonary vascular functions in health and in disease states.

Reciprocal interactions regulate targeting of calcium channel beta subunits and membrane expression of alpha1 subunits in cultured hippocampal neurons

Auxiliary beta subunits modulate current properties and mediate the functional membrane expression of voltage-gated Ca(2+) channels in heterologous cells. In brain, all four beta isoforms are widely expressed, yet little is known about their specific roles in neuronal functions. Here, we investigated the expression and targeting properties of beta subunits and their role in membrane expression of Ca(V)1.2 alpha(1) subunits in cultured hippocampal neurons. Quantitative reverse transcription-PCR showed equal expression, and immunofluorescence showed a similar distribution of all endogenous beta subunits throughout dendrites and axons. High resolution microscopy of hippocampal neurons transfected with six different V5 epitope-tagged beta subunits demonstrated that all beta subunits were able to accumulate in synaptic terminals and to colocalize with postsynaptic Ca(V)1.2, thus indicating a great promiscuity in alpha(1)-beta interactions. In contrast, restricted axonal targeting of beta(1) and weak colocalization of beta(4b) with Ca(V)1.2 indicated isoform-specific differences in local channel complex formation. Membrane expression of external hemagglutinin epitope-tagged Ca(V)1.2 was strongly enhanced by all beta subunits in an isoform-specific manner. Conversely, mutating the alpha-interaction domain of Ca(V)1.2 (W440A) abolished membrane expression and targeting into dendritic spines. This demonstrates that in neurons the interaction of a beta subunit with the alpha-interaction domain is absolutely essential for membrane expression of alpha(1) subunits, as well as for the subcellular localization of beta subunits, which by themselves possess little or no targeting properties.

Ca(2+)-dependent components of inactivation of unitary cardiac L-type Ca(2+) channels

A Ca(2+) ion-dependent inactivation (CDI) of L-type Ca(2+) channels (LCC) is vital in limiting and shaping local Ca(2+) ion signalling in a variety of excitable cell types. However, under physiological conditions the unitary LCC properties that underlie macroscopic inactivation are unclear. Towards this end, we have probed the gating kinetics of individual cardiac LCCs recorded with a physiological Ca(2+) ion concentration (2 mM) permeating the channel, and in the absence of channel agonists. Upon depolarization the ensemble-averaged LCC current decayed with a fast and a slow exponential component. We analysed the unitary behaviour responsible for this biphasic decay by means of a novel kinetic dissection of LCC gating parameters. We found that inactivation was caused by a rapid decrease in the frequency of LCC reopening, and a slower decline in mean open time of the LCC. In contrast, with barium ions permeating the channel ensemble-averaged currents displayed only a single, slow exponential decay and little time dependence of the LCC open time. Our results demonstrate that the fast and slow phases of macroscopic inactivation reflect the distinct time courses for the decline in the frequency of LCC reopening and the open dwell time, both of which are modulated by Ca(2+) influx. Analysis of the evolution of CDI in individual LCC episodes was employed to examine the stochastic nature of the underlying molecular switch, and revealed that influx on the order of a thousand Ca(2+) ions may be sufficient to trigger CDI. This is the first study to characterize both the unitary kinetics and the stoichiometry of CDI of LCCs with a physiological Ca(2+) concentration. These novel findings may provide a basis for understanding the mechanisms regulating unitary LCC gating, which is a pivotal element in the local control of Ca(2+)-dependent signalling processes.

CaMKII locally encodes L-type channel activity to signal to nuclear CREB in excitation-transcription coupling

Communication between cell surface proteins and the nucleus is integral to many cellular adaptations. In the case of ion channels in excitable cells, the dynamics of signaling to the nucleus are particularly important because the natural stimulus, surface membrane depolarization, is rapidly pulsatile. To better understand excitation-transcription coupling we characterized the dependence of cAMP response element-binding protein phosphorylation, a critical step in neuronal plasticity, on the level and duration of membrane depolarization. We find that signaling strength is steeply dependent on depolarization, with sensitivity far greater than hitherto recognized. In contrast, graded blockade of the Ca(2+) channel pore has a remarkably mild effect, although some Ca(2+) entry is absolutely required. Our data indicate that Ca(2+)/CaM-dependent protein kinase II acting near the channel couples local Ca(2+) rises to signal transduction, encoding the frequency of Ca(2+) channel openings rather than integrated Ca(2+) flux-a form of digital logic.

scn1bb, a zebrafish ortholog of SCN1B expressed in excitable and nonexcitable cells, affects motor neuron axon morphology and touch sensitivity

Voltage-gated Na(+) channels initiate and propagate action potentials in excitable cells. Mammalian Na(+) channels are composed of one pore-forming alpha-subunit and two beta-subunits. SCN1B encodes the Na(+) channel beta1-subunit that modulates channel gating and voltage dependence, regulates channel cell surface expression, and functions as a cell adhesion molecule (CAM). We recently identified scn1ba, a zebrafish ortholog of SCN1B. Here we report that zebrafish express a second beta1-like paralog, scn1bb. In contrast to the restricted expression of scn1ba mRNA in excitable cells, we detected scn1bb transcripts and protein in several ectodermal derivatives including neurons, glia, the lateral line, peripheral sensory structures, and tissues derived from other germ layers such as the pronephros. As expected for beta1-subunits, elimination of Scn1bb protein in vivo by morpholino knock-down reduced Na(+) current amplitudes in Rohon-Beard neurons of zebrafish embryos, consistent with effects observed in heterologous systems. Further, after Scn1bb knock-down, zebrafish embryos displayed defects in Rohon-Beard mediated touch sensitivity, demonstrating the significance of Scn1bb modulation of Na(+) current to organismal behavior. In addition to effects associated with Na(+) current modulation, Scn1bb knockdown produced phenotypes consistent with CAM functions. In particular, morpholino knock-down led to abnormal development of ventrally projecting spinal neuron axons, defasciculation of the olfactory nerve, and increased hair cell number in the inner ear. We propose that, in addition to modulation of electrical excitability, Scn1bb plays critical developmental roles by functioning as a CAM in the zebrafish embryonic nervous system.

The versatility of mitochondrial calcium signals: from stimulation of cell metabolism to induction of cell death

Both the contribution of mitochondria to intracellular calcium (Ca(2+)) signalling and the role of mitochondrial Ca(2+) uptake in shaping the cytoplasmic response and controlling mitochondrial function are areas of intense investigation. These studies rely on the appropriate use of emerging techniques coupled with judicious data interpretation to a large extent. The development of targeted probes based on the molecular engineering of luminescent proteins has allowed the specific measurement of Ca(2+) concentration ([Ca(2+)]) and adenosine trisphosphate concentration ([ATP]) in intracellular organelles or cytoplasmic subdomains. This approach has given novel information on different aspects of mitochondrial homeostasis.

Role of L-type Ca2+ channel isoforms in the extinction of conditioned fear

Dihydropyridine (DHP) L-type Ca(2+) channel (LTCC) antagonists, such as nifedipine, have been reported to impair the extinction of conditioned fear without interfering with its acquisition. Identification of the LTCC isoforms mediating this DHP effect is an essential basis to reveal their role as potential drug targets for the treatment of specific anxiety disorders. Ca(V)1.2 and Ca(V)1.3 are the predominant LTCCs in the mammalian brain. However, since no isoform-selective DHP blockers are available, their individual contribution to fear memory extinction is unknown. We used a novel mouse model expressing DHP-insensitive Ca(V)1.2 LTCCs (Ca(V)1.2DHP(-/-) mice) to address this question. In line with previous studies, wild-type (WT) mice treated with systemic nifedipine displayed markedly impaired fear extinction. This DHP effect was completely abolished in Ca(V)1.2DHP(-/-) mice, indicating that it is mediated by Ca(V)1.2, but not by Ca(V)1.3 LTCCs. Supporting this conclusion, Ca(V)1.3-deficient mice (Ca(V)1.3(-/-)) showed extinction identical to the respective WT mice. The inhibition of fear extinction was not observed after intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) application of different doses of nifedipine, suggesting that this effect is secondary to inhibition of peripheral Ca(V)1.2 channels. The LTCC activator BayK, which lacks neurotoxic effects in Ca(V)1.2DHP(-/-) mice, did not influence the extinction time course. In summary, we demonstrate that LTCC signaling through the Ca(V)1.2 isoform of LTCCs interferes with fear memory extinction, presumably via a peripherally mediated mechanism. Activation of other LTCC isoforms (predominantly Ca(V)1.3) is not sufficient to accelerate extinction of conditioned fear in mice.

Voltage-gated Na+ channel beta1 subunit-mediated neurite outgrowth requires Fyn kinase and contributes to postnatal CNS development in vivo

Voltage-gated Na(+) channel beta1 subunits are multifunctional, participating in channel modulation and cell adhesion in vitro. We previously demonstrated that beta1 promotes neurite outgrowth of cultured cerebellar granule neurons (CGNs) via homophilic adhesion. Both lipid raft-associated kinases and nonraft fibroblast growth factor (FGF) receptors are implicated in cell adhesion molecule-mediated neurite extension. In the present study, we reveal that beta1-mediated neurite outgrowth is abrogated in Fyn and contactin (Cntn) null CGNs. beta1 protein levels are unchanged in Fyn null brains, whereas levels are significantly reduced in Cntn null brain lysates. FGF or EGF (epidermal growth factor) receptor kinase inhibitors have no effect on beta1-mediated neurite extension. These results suggest that beta1-mediated neurite outgrowth occurs through a lipid raft signaling mechanism that requires the presence of both fyn kinase and contactin. In vivo, Scn1b null mice show defective CGN axon extension and fasciculation indicating that beta1 plays a role in cerebellar microorganization. In addition, we find that axonal pathfinding and fasciculation are abnormal in corticospinal tracts of Scn1b null mice consistent with the suggestion that beta1 may have widespread effects on postnatal neuronal development. These data are the first to demonstrate a cell-adhesive role for beta1 in vivo. We conclude that voltage-gated Na(+) channel beta1 subunits signal via multiple pathways on multiple timescales and play important roles in the postnatal development of the CNS.

Crystal structure of the CaV2 IQ domain in complex with Ca2+/calmodulin: high-resolution mechanistic implications for channel regulation by Ca2+

Calmodulin (CaM) regulation of Ca(2+) channels is central to Ca(2+) signaling. Ca(V)1 versus Ca(V)2 classes of these channels exhibit divergent forms of regulation, potentially relating to customized CaM/IQ interactions among different channels. Here we report the crystal structures for the Ca(2+)/CaM IQ domains of both Ca(V)2.1 and Ca(V)2.3 channels. These highly similar structures emphasize that major CaM contacts with the IQ domain extend well upstream of traditional consensus residues. Surprisingly, upstream mutations strongly diminished Ca(V)2.1 regulation, whereas downstream perturbations had limited effects. Furthermore, our Ca(V)2 structures closely resemble published Ca(2+)/CaM-Ca(V)1.2 IQ structures, arguing against Ca(V)1/2 regulatory differences based solely on contrasting CaM/IQ conformations. Instead, alanine scanning of the Ca(V)2.1 IQ domain, combined with structure-based molecular simulation of corresponding CaM/IQ binding energy perturbations, suggests that the C lobe of CaM partially dislodges from the IQ element during channel regulation, allowing exposed IQ residues to trigger regulation via isoform-specific interactions with alternative channel regions.

Activated nuclear metabotropic glutamate receptor mGlu5 couples to nuclear Gq/11 proteins to generate inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate-mediated nuclear Ca2+ release

Recently we have shown that the metabotropic glutamate 5 (mGlu5) receptor can be expressed on nuclear membranes of heterologous cells or endogenously on striatal neurons where it can mediate nuclear Ca2+ changes. Here, pharmacological, optical, and genetic techniques were used to show that upon activation, nuclear mGlu5 receptors generate nuclear inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3) in situ. Specifically, expression of an mGlu5 F767S mutant in HEK293 cells that blocks Gq/11 coupling or introduction of a dominant negative Galphaq construct in striatal neurons prevented nuclear Ca2+ changes following receptor activation. These data indicate that nuclear mGlu5 receptors couple to Gq/11 to mobilize nuclear Ca2+. Nuclear mGlu5-mediated Ca2+ responses could also be blocked by the phospholipase C (PLC) inhibitor, U73122, the phosphatidylinositol (PI) PLC inhibitor 1-O-octadecyl-2-O-methyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphorylcholine (ET-18-OCH3), or by using small interfering RNA targeted against PLCbeta1 demonstrating that PI-PLC is involved. Direct assessment of inositol phosphate production using a PIP2/IP3 "biosensor" revealed for the first time that IP3 can be generated in the nucleus following activation of nuclear mGlu5 receptors. Finally, both IP3 and ryanodine receptor blockers prevented nuclear mGlu5-mediated increases in intranuclear Ca2+. Collectively, this study shows that like plasma membrane receptors, activated nuclear mGlu5 receptors couple to Gq/11 and PLC to generate IP3-mediated release of Ca2+ from Ca2+-release channels in the nucleus. Thus the nucleus can function as an autonomous organelle independent of signals originating in the cytoplasm, and nuclear mGlu5 receptors play a dynamic role in mobilizing Ca2+ in a specific, localized fashion.

Nucleoplasmic reticulum is not essential in nuclear calcium signalling mediated by cyclic ADPribose in primary neurons

Nuclear calcium regulation is essential for controlling nuclear processes such as gene expression. Recent studies, mostly performed on immortalized or transformed cell lines, reported the presence of a nucleoplasmic reticulum (NR). It has been suggested that NR acts as a storage organelle having an important role in nuclear Ca2+ signalling. However, whether NR is present and necessary in primary neurons for generation of nuclear Ca2+ signalling has never been investigated. Here, we show, by confocal microscopy and by electronic microscopy, that nuclei in intact neurons or isolated nuclei are not endowed with NR. Finally, our experiments performed on isolated nuclei from Aplysia giant neurons show that the nuclear envelope acts as a functional Ca2+ store which can be mobilized by the second messenger cyclic ADPribose to elicit a nucleoplasmic Ca2+ elevation. Our study provides evidence that nuclear Ca2+ signals can be independent of the presence of NR in neurons.

Reorganized stores and impaired calcium handling in skeletal muscle of mice lacking calsequestrin-1

Calsequestrin (CS), the major Ca(2+)-binding protein in the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR), is thought to play a dual role in excitation-contraction coupling: buffering free Ca(2+) increasing SR capacity, and modulating the activity of the Ca(2+) release channels (RyRs). In this study, we generated and characterized the first murine model lacking the skeletal CS isoform (CS1). CS1-null mice are viable and fertile, even though skeletal muscles appear slightly atrophic compared to the control mice. No compensatory increase of the cardiac isoform CS2 is detectable in any type of skeletal muscle. CS1-null muscle fibres are characterized by structural and functional changes, which are much more evident in fast-twitch muscles (EDL) in which most fibres express only CS1, than in slow-twitch muscles (soleus), where CS2 is expressed in about 50% of the fibres. In isolated EDL muscle, force development is preserved, but characterized by prolonged time-to-peak and half-relaxation time, probably related to impaired calcium release from and re-uptake by the SR. Ca(2+)-imaging studies show that the amount of Ca(2+) released from the SR and the amplitude of the Ca(2+) transient are significantly reduced. The lack of CS1 also causes significant ultrastructural changes, which include: (i) striking proliferation of SR junctional domains; (ii) increased density of Ca(2+)-release channels (confirmed also by (3)H-ryanodine binding); (iii) decreased SR terminal cisternae volume; (iv) higher density of mitochondria. Taken together these results demonstrate that CS1 is essential for the normal development of the SR and its calcium release units and for the storage and release of appropriate amounts of SR Ca(2+).

IP3-dependent nuclear Ca2+ signalling in the mammalian heart

In cardiac myocytes the type-2 inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor (IP(3)R2) is the predominant isoform expressed. The IP(3)R2 channel is localized to the SR and to the nuclear envelope. We studied IP(3)-dependent nuclear Ca(2+) signals ([Ca(2+)](Nuc)) in permeabilized atrial myocytes and in isolated cardiac nuclei. In permeabilized myocytes IP(3) (20 microm) and the more potent IP(3)R agonist adenophostin (5 microm) caused an elevation of [Ca(2+)](Nuc). An IP(3)-dependent increase of [Ca(2+)](Nuc) was still observed after pretreatment with tetracaine to block Ca(2+) release from ryanodine receptors (RyRs), and the effect of IP(3) was partially reversed or prevented by the IP(3)R blockers heparin and 2-APB. Isolated nuclei were superfused with an internal solution containing the Ca(2+) indicator fluo-4 dextran. Exposure to IP(3) (10 microm) and adenophostin (0.5 microm) increased [Ca(2+)](Nuc) by 25 and 27%, respectively. [Ca(2+)](Nuc) increased to higher levels than [Ca(2+)](Cyt) immediately adjacent to the outer membrane of the nuclear envelope, suggesting that a significant portion of nuclear IP(3) receptors are facing the nucleoplasm. When nuclei were pretreated with heparin or 2-APB, IP(3) failed to increase [Ca(2+)](Nuc). Isolated nuclei were also loaded with the membrane-permeant low-affinity Ca(2+) probe fluo-5N AM which compartmentalized into the nuclear envelope. Exposure to IP(3) and adenophostin resulted in a decrease of the fluo-5N signal that could be prevented by heparin. Stimulation of IP(3)R caused depletion of the nuclear Ca(2+) stores by approximately 60% relative to the maximum depletion produced by the ionophores ionomycin and A23187. The fluo-5N fluorescence decrease was particularly pronounced in the nuclear periphery, suggesting that the nuclear envelope may represent the predominant nuclear Ca(2+) store. The data indicate that IP(3) can elicit Ca(2+) release from cardiac nuclei resulting in localized nuclear Ca(2+) signals.

Identification of activity-dependent gene expression profiles reveals specific subsets of genes induced by different routes of Ca(2+) entry in cultured rat cortical neurons

Neuronal activity-dependent gene transcription is a key feature of long-lasting synaptic strengthening associated with learning and memory, as well as activity-dependent neuroprotection. To comprehensively determine the molecular alterations, we carried out genome-wide microarray analysis in cultured rat cortical neurons treated with specific pharmacological agents, a model with alterations in neuronal activity, which were monitored by multi-site electrophysiological recordings. Of the approximately 27,000 genes, the expression of 248 genes was strongly changed in response to enhanced activity. These genes encompass a large number of members of distinct families, including synaptic vesicle proteins, ion channels, signal transduction molecules, synaptic growth regulators, and others. Two subsets of these genes were further confirmed to be specifically induced by Ca(2+) influx through N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors and L-type voltage-gated Ca(2+) channels (VGCCs). In addition, those genes dynamically regulated by the enhanced activity were also elucidated, as well as those candidate genes associated with synaptic plasticity and neuroprotection. Our findings therefore would help define the molecular mechanisms that occur in response to neuronal activity and identify specific clusters of genes that contribute to activity-dependent and Ca(2+)-inducible modulation of brain development and function.

NMDA and AMPA receptors: old channels, new tricks

Learning and memory depend on persistent changes in synaptic strength that require neuronal gene expression. An unresolved question concerns the mechanisms by which activity at synapses is transduced into a nuclear transcriptional response. In the prevailing view, N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA)- and alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA)-type glutamate receptors have distinct roles in controlling synaptic strength: AMPA receptors effect short-term changes in synaptic strength, whereas NMDA receptors regulate genes that are required for the long-term maintenance of these changes. Here, we review recent data on the roles of these two types of receptor in activity-dependent gene expression. We discuss evidence that signals from NMDA receptors and AMPA receptors are integrated to specify transcriptional responses for particular plasticity related genes.

TRPC3 and TRPC6 are essential for angiotensin II-induced cardiac hypertrophy

Angiotensin (Ang) II participates in the pathogenesis of heart failure through induction of cardiac hypertrophy. Ang II-induced hypertrophic growth of cardiomyocytes is mediated by nuclear factor of activated T cells (NFAT), a Ca(2+)-responsive transcriptional factor. It is believed that phospholipase C (PLC)-mediated production of inositol-1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP(3)) is responsible for Ca(2+) increase that is necessary for NFAT activation. However, we demonstrate that PLC-mediated production of diacylglycerol (DAG) but not IP(3) is essential for Ang II-induced NFAT activation in rat cardiac myocytes. NFAT activation and hypertrophic responses by Ang II stimulation required the enhanced frequency of Ca(2+) oscillation triggered by membrane depolarization through activation of DAG-sensitive TRPC channels, which leads to activation of L-type Ca(2+) channel. Patch clamp recordings from single myocytes revealed that Ang II activated DAG-sensitive TRPC-like currents. Among DAG-activating TRPC channels (TRPC3, TRPC6, and TRPC7), the activities of TRPC3 and TRPC6 channels correlated with Ang II-induced NFAT activation and hypertrophic responses. These data suggest that DAG-induced Ca(2+) signaling pathway through TRPC3 and TRPC6 is essential for Ang II-induced NFAT activation and cardiac hypertrophy.

Dynamic but not constitutive association of calmodulin with rat TRPV6 channels enables fine tuning of Ca2+-dependent inactivation

The Ca(2+)-selective TRPV6 as well as the L-type Ca(2+) channel are regulated by the Ca(2+)-binding protein calmodulin (CaM). Here, we investigated the interaction of CaM with rat (r)TRPV6 in response to alterations of intracellular Ca(2+), employing Ca(2+)-imaging and patch-clamp techniques. Additionally, confocal Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) microscopy on living cells was utilized as a key method to visualize in vivo protein-protein interactions essential for CaM regulation of rTRPV6 activity. The effects of overexpressed CaM or its Ca(2+)-insensitive mutant (CaM(MUT)) was probed on various rTRPV6 mutants and fragments in an attempt to elucidate the molecular mechanism of Ca(2+)/CaM-dependent regulation and to pinpoint the physiologically relevant rTRPV6-CaM interaction site. A significant reduction of rTRPV6 activity, as well as an increase in current inactivation, were observed when CaM was overexpressed in addition to endogenous CaM. The Ca(2+)-insensitive CaM(MUT), however, failed to affect rTRPV6-derived currents. Accordingly, live cell confocal FRET microscopy revealed a robust interaction for CaM but not CaM(MUT) with rTRPV6, suggesting a strict Ca(2+) dependence for their association. Indeed, interaction of rTRPV6 or its C terminus with CaM increased with rising intracellular Ca(2+) levels, as observed by dynamic FRET measurements. An rTRPV6Delta(695-727) mutant with the very C-terminal end deleted, yielded Ca(2+) currents with a markedly reduced inactivation in accordance with a lack of CaM interaction as substantiated by FRET microscopy. These results, in contrast with those for CaM-dependent L-type Ca(2+) channel inactivation, demonstrate a dynamic association of CaM with the very C-terminal end of rTRPV6 (aa 695-727), and this enables acceleration of the rate of rTRPV6 current inactivation with increasing intracellular CaM concentrations.

Cross talk between Ca2+ and redox signalling cascades in muscle and neurons through the combined activation of ryanodine receptors/Ca2+ release channels

Calcium release mediated by the ryanodine receptors (RyR) Ca2+ release channels is required for muscle contraction and contributes to neuronal plasticity. In particular, Ca2+ activation of RyR-mediated Ca2+ release can amplify and propagate Ca2+ signals initially generated by Ca2+ entry into cells. Redox modulation of RyR function by a variety of non-physiological or endogenous redox molecules has been reported. The effects of RyR redox modification on Ca2+ release in skeletal muscle as well as the activation of signalling cascades and transcription factors in neurons will be reviewed here. Specifically, the different effects of S-nitrosylation or S-glutathionylation of RyR cysteines by endogenous redox-active agents on the properties of skeletal muscle RyRs will be discussed. Results will be presented indicating that these cysteine modifications change the activity of skeletal muscle RyRs, modify their behaviour towards both activators and inhibitors and affect their interactions with FKBP12 and calmodulin. In the hippocampus, sequential activation of ERK1/2 and CREB is a requisite for Ca2+-dependent gene expression associated with long-lasting synaptic plasticity. The effects of reactive oxygen/nitrogen species on RyR channels from neurons and RyR-mediated sequential activation of neuronal ERK1/2 and CREB produced by hydrogen peroxide and other stimuli will be discussed as well.

The ryanodine receptors Ca2+ release channels: cellular redox sensors?

The release of Ca2+ from intracellular stores mediated by ryanodine receptors (RyR) Ca2+ release channels is essential for striated muscle contraction and contributes to diverse neuronal functions including synaptic plasticity. Through Ca2+-induced Ca2+-release, RyR can amplify and propagate Ca2+ signals initially generated by Ca2+ entry into cardiac muscle cells or neurons. In contrast, RyR activation in skeletal muscle is under membrane potential control and does not require Ca2+ entry. Non-physiological or endogenous redox molecules can change RyR function via modification of a few RyR cysteine residues. This critical review will address the functional effects of RyR redox modification on Ca2+ release in skeletal muscle and cardiac muscle as well as in the activation of signaling cascades and transcriptional regulators required for synaptic plasticity in neurons. Specifically, the effects of endogenous redox-active agents, which induce S-nitrosylation or S-glutathionylation of particular channel cysteine residues, on the properties of muscle RyRs will be discussed. The effects of endogenous redox RyR modifications on cardiac preconditioning will be analyzed as well. In the hippocampus, sequential activation of ERKs and CREB is a requisite for Ca2+-dependent gene expression associated with long lasting synaptic plasticity. Results showing that reactive oxygen/nitrogen species modify RyR channels from neurons and the RyR-mediated sequential activation of neuronal ERKs and CREB produced by hydrogen peroxide and other stimuli will be also discussed.

Reversible intracellular translocation of KRas but not HRas in hippocampal neurons regulated by Ca2+/calmodulin

The Ras/MAPK pathway regulates synaptic plasticity and cell survival in neurons of the central nervous system. Here, we show that KRas, but not HRas, acutely translocates from the plasma membrane (PM) to the Golgi complex and early/recycling endosomes in response to neuronal activity. Translocation is reversible and mediated by the polybasic-prenyl membrane targeting motif of KRas. We provide evidence that KRas translocation occurs through sequestration of the polybasic-prenyl motif by Ca²⁺/calmodulin (Ca²⁺/CaM) and subsequent release of KRas from the PM, in a process reminiscent of GDP dissociation inhibitor–mediated membrane recycling of Rab and Rho GTPases. KRas translocation was accompanied by partial intracellular redistribution of its activity. We conclude that the polybasic-prenyl motif acts as a Ca²⁺/CaM-regulated molecular switch that controls PM concentration of KRas and redistributes its activity to internal sites. Our data thus define a novel signaling mechanism that differentially regulates KRas and HRas localization and activity in neurons.

Isolated plant nuclei as mechanical and thermal sensors involved in calcium signalling

Calcium signals in the nucleus elicit downstream effects that are distinct from those of cytosolic calcium signals. In the present work, we have evaluated the ability of plant nuclei to sense stimuli directly and to convert them into calcium changes. We show that individual mechanical stimulation of isolated nuclei elicits a single calcium transient at acidic pHs, whereas a series of stimulations leads to oscillations whose frequency reflects that of the stimuli. Conversely, at alkaline pHs, nuclei respond to temperature but not to stretch. The stretch- and the temperature-activated processes differ by their sensitivity to pharmacological drugs known to affect ion channel activities in animal cells. Our data demonstrate that isolated nuclei are able to gauge physical parameters of their environment. This might have a profound influence on the functioning of calcium-dependent processes known to control a large array of molecular events in the nucleus.

Essential role of Ca2+-binding protein 4, a Cav1.4 channel regulator, in photoreceptor synaptic function

CaBP1-8 are neuronal Ca(2+)-binding proteins with similarity to calmodulin (CaM). Here we show that CaBP4 is specifically expressed in photoreceptors, where it is localized to synaptic terminals. The outer plexiform layer, which contains the photoreceptor synapses with secondary neurons, was thinner in the Cabp4(-/-) mice than in control mice. Cabp4(-/-) retinas also had ectopic synapses originating from rod bipolar and horizontal cells tha HJt extended into the outer nuclear layer. Responses of Cabp4(-/-) rod bipolars were reduced in sensitivity about 100-fold. Electroretinograms (ERGs) indicated a reduction in cone and rod synaptic function. The phenotype of Cabp4(-/-) mice shares similarities with that of incomplete congenital stationary night blindness (CSNB2) patients. CaBP4 directly associated with the C-terminal domain of the Ca(v)1.4 alpha(1)-subunit and shifted the activation of Ca(v)1.4 to hyperpolarized voltages in transfected cells. These observations indicate that CaBP4 is important for normal synaptic function, probably through regulation of Ca(2+) influx and neurotransmitter release in photoreceptor synaptic terminals.

Specific localization and timing in neuronal signal transduction mediated by protein-lipid interactions

A large number of signaling proteins translocate from the cytosol to the plasma membrane in response to receptor and electrical stimuli. The site of translocation to the plasma membrane and the "on" and "off" rates of the translocation process are critical for defining the specificity of the signaling response. In addition to targeting mechanisms based on protein-protein interactions, signaling proteins have evolved a large repertoire of covalent lipid modifications and lipid binding protein modules that regulate reversible membrane association. The time constants of these membrane interactions range from milliseconds to several hours. Here we discuss how diversity in lipid-based membrane anchoring and targeting motifs contributes to plasticity in neuronal signaling by providing local and regional control mechanisms as well as a means to transduce and integrate signals over a broad range of different time scales.

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor activation of NFAT (nuclear factor of activated T-cells)-dependent transcription: a role for the transcription factor NFATc4 in neurotrophin-mediated gene expression

A member of the neurotrophin family, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) regulates neuronal survival and differentiation during development. Within the adult brain, BDNF is also important in neuronal adaptive processes, such as the activity-dependent plasticity that underlies learning and memory. These long-term changes in synaptic strength are mediated through alterations in gene expression. However, many of the mechanisms by which BDNF is linked to transcriptional and translational regulation remain unknown. Recently, the transcription factor NFATc4 (nuclear factor of activated T-cells isoform 4) was discovered in neurons, where it is believed to play an important role in long-term changes in neuronal function. Interestingly, NFATc4 is particularly sensitive to the second messenger systems activated by BDNF. Thus, we hypothesized that NFAT-dependent transcription may be an important mediator of BDNF-induced plasticity. In cultured rat CA3-CA1 hippocampal neurons, BDNF activated NFAT-dependent transcription via TrkB receptors. Inhibition of calcineurin blocked BDNF-induced nuclear translocation of NFATc4, thus preventing transcription. Further, phospholipase C was a critical signaling intermediate between BDNF activation of TrkB and the initiation of NFAT-dependent transcription. Both inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate (IP3)-mediated release of calcium from intracellular stores and activation of protein kinase C were required for BDNF-induced NFAT-dependent transcription. Finally, increased expression of IP3 receptor 1 and BDNF after neuronal exposure to BDNF was linked to NFAT-dependent transcription. These results suggest that NFATc4 plays a crucial role in neurotrophin-mediated synaptic plasticity.