Patterning and specification of the cerebral cortex

Gene expression differences in bipolar disorder revealed by cDNA array analysis of post-mortem frontal cortex

Previous studies have implicated a number of biochemical pathways in the etiology of bipolar disorder (BD). However, the precise abnormalities underlying this disorder remain to be established. To investigate novel factors that may be important in the pathophysiology of BD, we utilized cDNA expression arrays to examine differences in expression of up to 1200 genes known to be involved in potentially relevant biochemical processes. This investigation was undertaken in post-mortem samples of frontal cortex tissue from patients with BD and matched controls, obtained (n = 10/group) from the Stanley Foundation Neuropathology Consortium. Results include significant (greater than 35% change in signal intensity) differences between BD and controls in a number of genes (n = 24). Selected targets were analyzed by RT-PCR, which confirmed a decrease in transforming growth factor-beta1 (TGF-beta 1), and an increase in both caspase-8 precursor (casp-8) and transducer of erbB2 (Tob) expression in BD. We further observed a significant decrease of TGF-beta 1 mRNA levels in BD by RT-PCR in individual post-mortem samples. Given the neuroprotective role attributed to this inhibitory cytokine, our results suggest that the down-regulation of TGF-beta 1 may lead to various neurotoxic insults potentially involved in the etiology of certain mood disorders.

Embryonic regionalization of the neocortex

Understanding the development of the vertebrate brain and in particular that of the neocortex, where high brain functions reside, remains one of the most difficult and exciting tasks in biology. In this review, we discuss recent experimental evidence as well as different possibilities for the intrinsic regionalization of the embryonic dorsal telencephalon, which may be related to the formation of distinct functional areas in the adult neocortex.

COUP-TFI: an intrinsic factor for early regionalization of the neocortex

Regionalization of the cerebral cortex is thought to involve two phases: an early regionalization phase and a later refinement phase. It has been shown that early regionalization of the neocortex does not require thalamic inputs and is regulated by intrinsic factors. Recently, two such intrinsic factors, Pax6 and Emx2, have been identified. In this study, we identified COUP-TFI as a regulatory factor for early neocortical regionalization. The spatial and temporal expression pattern of COUP-TFI suggested a role in specification of the neocortex and in maintaining cortical identity. Altered region-specific expression of marker genes in the cortex as well as miswired area-specific connections between the cortex and the thalamus in COUP-TFI null mice indicate COUP-TFI plays a critical role in regulating early regionalization. Our results substantiate that COUP-TFI, an intrinsic factor, may work in concert with Pax6 and Emx2 to specify neocortical identity.

Detailed field pattern is intrinsic to the embryonic mouse hippocampus early in neurogenesis

There is accumulating evidence that the mammalian cerebral cortex is regionally specified early in neurogenesis. However, the degree and scale of the regional pattern that is intrinsic to different parts of the cortical primordium remains unclear. Here, we show that detailed patterning-the accurate positioning of several areas or fields-is intrinsic to the part of the primordium that generates the hippocampus. A caudomedial portion of the cortical primordium, the site from which the hippocampus arises, was isolated from potential extrinsic patterning cues by maintaining it in explant culture. Explants were prepared at embryonic day (E) 12.5, which is early in hippocampal neurogenesis in the mouse and 3 d before individual fields are seen by differential gene expression. Allowed to develop for 3 d in vitro, E12.5 explants upregulate field-specific patterns of gene expression with striking temporal and spatial accuracy. Possible sources of patterning signals intrinsic to the explants were evaluated by removing the cortical hem or presumptive extrahippocampal cortex from the explants. To expose cells to different local positional cues, explant fragments were grafted into ectopic positions in a larger explant. None of these manipulations altered the development of patterned, field-specific gene expression. Finally, explants harvested at E10.5 also upregulate field-specific gene expression, although less robustly. Some hippocampal patterning information is therefore intrinsic to the caudomedial cortical primordium at the time that the first hippocampal neurons are born at E10.5. By E12.5, hippocampal field patterning appears to be well established and resistant to the manipulation of several potential intrinsic cues.

Testosterone and grasp-reflex differences in human neonates

According to the Geschwind-Behan-Galaburda (GBG) hypothesis, prenatal testosterone (T) causes a slowing in the development of the left brain with a consequent compensatory growth in the right brain, creating a reverse organisation of the cerebral lateralisation. That is, left- and right-handedness might be associated with high and low prenatal T levels, respectively. To test this hypothesis, the relations of T levels (umbilical cord blood) to grasp-reflex strengths were studied in human neonates. Handedness was assessed by measuring the grasp-reflex strengths from the right and left hands in 10 trials from each hand alternatively. There were two handedness groups: right-handers (R-L significantly greater than zero) and left-handers (significantly smaller than zero). Contrary to the GBG model, the mean free T concentration was found to be significantly higher in right-handers than left-handers for males and females. There was no significant difference in the total T levels between right- and left-handers. Free T concentrations positively correlated with RL grasp-reflex strengths, i.e. right-handedness increased as T increased, and left-handedness increased as T decreased. Contrary to these positive correlations, T negatively correlated with the grasp-reflex strengths from the right and left hands. These results partly supported the GBG hypothesis for this spinal-motor-asymmetry model. Total T did not significantly correlate with grasp-reflex strengths. The results suggest that prenatal T may at least play a role in prenatal determination of spinal motor lateralisation, with a possible consequent upward regulation of cerebral lateralisation.

Similarity and variation in gene expression among human cerebral cortical subregions revealed by DNA macroarrays: technical consideration of RNA expression profiling from postmortem samples

The functional regionality of the human cerebral cortex suggests that a set of genes might be activated in each subregion of the neocortex to support its specific functions. To test this hypothesis, we employed the DNA array technique to compare the mRNA expression profiles of three neocortical subregions of the human brain: prefrontal cortex (Area 46), motor cortex (Area 4) and visual cortex (Area 17). The macroarray analysis on high quality mRNA from postmortem brains revealed that the expression profiles of the different cortical areas are almost similar: only six out of 1088 known genes exhibited significant differences (>2-fold) in their expression. RT-PCR studies with an increased number of samples confirmed that expression of only two genes, annexin II and early growth response protein 1, varied by 2-fold among the regions, whereas expression of the others showed large inter-individual difference. These results suggest that the whole neocortex of humans is more homogeneous than we expected at the level of gross gene expression profiles. In parallel, sensitivity and accuracy of radioisotope-based DNA macroarrays and fluorescence-based DNA microarrays were tested.

Cell-cycle kinetics of neocortical precursors are influenced by embryonic thalamic axons

Thalamic afferents are known to exert a control over the differentiation of cortical areas at late stages of development. Here, we show that thalamic afferents also influence early stages of corticogenesis at the level of the ventricular zone. Using an in vitro approach, we show that embryonic day 14 mouse thalamic axons release a diffusable factor that promotes the proliferation of cortical precursors over a restricted developmental window. The thalamic mitogenic effect on cortical precursors (1) shortens the total cell-cycle duration via a reduction of the G(1) phase; (2) facilitates the G(1)/S transition leading to an increase in proliferative divisions; (3) is significantly reduced by antibodies directed against bFGF; and (4) influences the proliferation of both glial and neuronal precursors and does not preclude the action of signals that induce differentiation in these two lineages. We have related these in vitro findings to the in vivo condition: the organotypic culture of cortical explants in which anatomical thalamocortical innervation is preserved shows significantly increased proliferation rates compared with cortical explants devoid of subcortical afferents. These results are in line with a number of studies at subcortical levels showing the control of neurogenesis via afferent fibers in both vertebrates and invertebrates. Specifically, they indicate the mechanisms whereby embryonic thalamic afferents contribute to the known early regionalization of the ventricular zone, which plays a major role in the specification of neocortical areas.

Neocortical origin and tangential migration of guidepost neurons in the lateral olfactory tract

The early-generated neurons designated as lot cells specifically mark the future site of the lateral olfactory tract (LOT) and guide LOT axons. We investigated the mechanism of how lot cells develop and get localized in the LOT position. Lot cells differentiated from neuroepithelial cells in all regions of the neocortex but not from those in the ganglionic eminence in culture. Cell tracing analyses demonstrated that lot cells generated from the neocortex subsequently followed a tangential migration stream ventrally toward the LOT position. Mutant mouse embryos lacking the function of transcription factor Gli3 showed disturbances of the migration stream and translocation of lot cells in the dorsal telencephalon. These results reveal a new type of neuronal migration in the telencephalon and introduce an unexpected dramatic feature of the earliest regionalization of the telencephalon.

Stage of specification of the spinal cord and tectal projections from cortical grafts

In order to determine the embryonic age at which the hodological phenotype developed by neocortical cells is specified, we have examined the spinal or tectal projections developed by embryonic (E) grafts of presumptive frontal or occipital neocortex placed into the frontal or occipital neocortex of newborn host rats. Grafts of E13, E14 and E16 cells of the frontal cortex transplanted into the occipital cortex of newborns are capable of developing and maintaining in adulthood a spinal cord axon. Grafts of E12 cells do not project to the spinal cord but send fibres to the superficial layers of the tectum. In addition, following transplantation into the frontal cortex, early embryonic (E12) cells from the presumptive occipital cortex are capable of differentiating into neurons with spinal cord projection but are practically incapable of developing a tectal projection. When grafted at E14 into the frontal cortex, occipital cells lose the capacity to project to the spinal cord but become able to send fibres to the tectum. Taken together, these findings indicate that young (E12) embryonic frontal and occipital cortical cells are competent to subsequently differentiate into neurons projecting to the spinal cord or tectum according to instructive signals available in the cortical territory where they complete their development. By E13/E14, some cortical cells are specified and their capacity to contact targets that are not appropriate to their embryonic origin is much reduced. These findings are consistent with the notion that cortical specification involves progressive restriction in cell multipotentiality and fate specification toward region-specific phenotypes.

Visual behaviour mediated by retinal projections directed to the auditory pathway

An unresolved issue in cortical development concerns the relative contributions of intrinsic and extrinsic factors to the functional specification of different cortical areas. Ferrets in which retinal projections are redirected neonatally to the auditory thalamus have visually responsive cells in auditory thalamus and cortex, form a retinotopic map in auditory cortex and have visual receptive field properties in auditory cortex that are typical of cells in visual cortex. Here we report that this cross-modal projection and its representation in auditory cortex can mediate visual behaviour. When light stimuli are presented in the portion of the visual field that is 'seen' only by this projection, 'rewired' ferrets respond as though they perceive the stimuli to be visual rather than auditory. Thus the perceptual modality of a neocortical region is instructed to a significant extent by its extrinsic inputs. In addition, gratings of different spatial frequencies can be discriminated by the rewired pathway, although the grating acuity is lower than that of the normal visual pathway.

A local Wnt-3a signal is required for development of the mammalian hippocampus

The mechanisms that regulate patterning and growth of the developing cerebral cortex remain unclear. Suggesting a role for Wnt signaling in these processes, multiple Wnt genes are expressed in selective patterns in the embryonic cortex. We have examined the role of Wnt-3a signaling at the caudomedial margin of the developing cerebral cortex, the site of hippocampal development. We show that Wnt-3a acts locally to regulate the expansion of the caudomedial cortex, from which the hippocampus develops. In mice lacking Wnt-3a, caudomedial cortical progenitor cells appear to be specified normally, but then underproliferate. By mid-gestation, the hippocampus is missing or represented by tiny populations of residual hippocampal cells. Thus, Wnt-3a signaling is crucial for the normal growth of the hippocampus. We suggest that the coordination of growth with patterning may be a general role for Wnts during vertebrate development.

Graded and areal expression patterns of regulatory genes and cadherins in embryonic neocortex independent of thalamocortical input

The differentiation of areas of the mammalian neocortex has been hypothesized to be controlled by intrinsic genetic programs and extrinsic influences such as those mediated by thalamocortical afferents (TCAs). To address the interplay between these intrinsic and extrinsic mechanisms in the process of arealization, we have analyzed the requirement of TCAs in establishing or maintaining graded or areal patterns of gene expression in the developing mouse neocortex. We describe the differential expression of Lhx2, SCIP, and Emx1, representatives of three different classes of transcription factors, and the type II classical cadherins Cad6, Cad8, and Cad11, which are expressed in graded or areal patterns, as well as layer-specific patterns, in the cortical plate. The differential expression of Lhx2, SCIP, Emx1, and Cad8 in the cortical plate is not evident until after TCAs reach the cortex, whereas Cad6 and Cad11 show subtle graded patterns of expression before the arrival of TCAs, which later become stronger. We find that these genes exhibit normal-appearing graded or areal expression patterns in Mash-1 mutant mice that fail to develop a TCA projection. These findings show that TCAs are not required for the establishment or maintenance of the graded and areal expression patterns of these genes and strongly suggest that their regulation is intrinsic to the developing neocortex.

A role for neural determination genes in specifying the dorsoventral identity of telencephalic neurons

Neurogenin1 (Ngn1), Neurogenin2(Ngn2), and Mash1 encode bHLH transcription factors with neuronal determination functions. In the telencephalon, theNgns and Mash1 are expressed at high levels in complementary dorsal and ventral domains, respectively. We found thatNgn function is required to maintain these two separate expression domains, as Mash1 expression is up-regulated in the dorsal telencephalon of Ngn mutant embryos. We have taken advantage of the replacement of the Ngns by Mash1 in dorsal progenitors to address the role of the neural determination genes in neuronal-type specification in the telencephalon. InNgn2 single and Ngn1; Ngn2 double mutants, a population of early born cortical neurons lose expression of dorsal-specific markers and ectopically express a subset of ventral telencephalic-specific markers. Analysis of Mash1; Ngn2double mutant embryos and of embryos carrying a Ngn2 toMash1 replacement mutation demonstrated that ectopic expression of Mash1 is required and sufficient to confer these ventral characteristics to cortical neurons. Our results indicate that in addition to acting as neuronal determinants, Mash1 andNgns play a role in the specification of dorsal-ventral neuronal identity, directly linking pathways of neurogenesis and regional patterning in the forebrain.

Formation of cortical fields on a reduced cortical sheet

Theories of both cortical field development and cortical evolution propose that thalamocortical projections play a critical role in the differentiation of cortical fields (; ). In the present study, we examined how changing the size of the immature neocortex before the establishment of thalamocortical connections affects the subsequent development and organization of the adult neocortex. This alteration in cortex is consistent with one of the most profound changes made to the mammalian neocortex throughout evolution: cortical size. Removing the caudal one-third to three-fourths of the cortical neuroepithelial sheet unilaterally at an early stage of development in marsupials resulted in normal spatial relationships between visual, somatosensory, and auditory cortical fields on the remaining cortical sheet. Injections of neuroanatomical tracers into the reduced cortex revealed in an altered distribution of thalamocortical axons; this alteration allowed the maintenance of their original anteroposterior distribution. These results demonstrate the capacity of the cortical neuroepithelium to accommodate different cortical fields at early stages of development, although the anteroposterior and mediolateral relationships between cortical fields appear to be invariant. The shifting of afferents and efferents with cortical reduction or expansion at very early stages of development may have occurred naturally in different lineages over time and may be sufficient to explain much of the phenotypic variation in cortical field number and organization in different mammals.

Cross-modal reorganization of horizontal connectivity in auditory cortex without altering thalamocortical projections

The development of the different, highly specialized regions of the mammalian cerebral cortex depends in part on neural activity, either intrinsic spontaneous activity or externally driven sensory activity. To determine whether patterned sensory activity instructs the development of intrinsic cortical circuitry, we have experimentally altered the modality of sensory inputs to cerebral cortex. Neonatal diversion of retinal axons to the auditory thalamus (cross-modal rewiring) results in a primary auditory cortex (AI) that resembles visual cortex in its response properties and topography (Roe et al., 1990, 1992). To test the hypothesis that the visual response properties are created by a visually driven reorganization of auditory cortical circuitry, we investigated the effect of early visual experience on the development of intrinsic, horizontal connections within AI. Horizontal connections are likely to play an important role in the construction of visual response properties in AI as they do in visual cortex. Here we show that early visual inputs to auditory thalamus can reorganize horizontal connections in AI, causing both an increase in their extent and a change in pattern, so that projections are not restricted to the isofrequency axis, but extend in a more isotropic pattern around the injection site. Thus, changing afferent modality, without altering the source of the thalamocortical axons, can profoundly alter cortical circuitry. Similar changes may underlie cortical compensatory processes in deaf or blind humans and may also have played a role in the parcellation of neocortex during mammalian evolution.

Cross-modal reorganization of callosal connectivity without altering thalamocortical projections

Mammalian cerebral cortex is composed of a multitude of different areas that are each specialized for a unique purpose. It is unclear whether the activity pattern and modality of sensory inputs to cortex play an important role in the development of cortical regionalization. The modality of sensory inputs to cerebral cortex can be altered experimentally. Neonatal diversion of retinal axons to the auditory thalamus (cross-modal rewiring) results in a primary auditory cortex (AI) that resembles the primary visual cortex in its visual response properties and topography. Functional reorganization could occur because the visual inputs use existing circuitry in AI, or because the early visual inputs promote changes in AI's circuitry that make it capable of constructing visual receptive field properties. The present study begins to distinguish between these possibilities by exploring whether the callosal connectivity of AI is altered by early visual experience. Here we show that early visual inputs to auditory thalamus can reorganize callosal connections in auditory cortex, causing both a reduction in their extent and a reorganization of the pattern. This result is distinctly different from that in deafened animals, which have widespread callosal connections, as in early postnatal development. Thus, profound changes in cortical circuitry can result simply from a change in the modality of afferent input. Similar changes may underlie cortical compensatory processes in deaf and blind humans.

Specification of somatosensory area identity in cortical explants

The H-2Z1 transgene is restricted to a subset of layer IV neurons in the postnatal mouse cortex and delineates exactly the somatosensory area. Expression of the H-2Z1 transgene was used as an areal marker to determine when the parietal cortex becomes committed to a somatosensory identity. We have shown previously that grafts dissected from embryonic day 13.5 (E13.5) H-2Z1 cortex and transplanted into the cortex of nontransgenic newborns express H-2Z1 according to their site of origin. Expression was not modified on heterotopic transplantation (). In the present study, whole cortical explants were isolated at E12.5 from noncortical tissues. The explants developed a regionalized expression of H-2Z1, indicating that regionalization takes place and is maintained in vitro. We used this property and confronted embryonic H-2Z1 cortex with presumptive embryonic sources of regionalizing signals in an in vitro grafting procedure. A great majority of E11.5-E13.5 grafts maintained their presumptive expression of H-2Z1 when grafted heterotopically on nontransgenic E13.5-E15.5 explants. However, a significantly lower proportion of E11.5 parietal grafts expressed H-2Z1 in occipital compared with parietal cortex, indicating that somatosensory identity may be partially plastic at E11.5. Earlier stages could not be tested because the E10.5 grafts failed to develop in vitro. The data suggest that commitment to the expression of a somatosensory area-specific marker coincides with the onset of neurogenesis and occurs well before the birth of the non-GABAergic neurons that express H-2Z1 in vivo.

The differentiation of cerebellar interneurons is independent of their mitotic history

A narrow time window centered around the terminal mitosis of their precursors has been recognized to be critical for the determination and/or realization of the developmental fate of a variety of neuronal phenotypes. In contrast, individual cell lineages in the cerebellum get separated early during embryonic development, and at least precursors for granule neurons have been found to be specified while still proliferating. We utilized primary dissociated cultures to address the issue of whether the faithful development of cerebellar granule cells and basket/stellate cells is dependent on their mitotic history and on the completion of a fixed number of cell cycles. Neuroblasts derived from embryonic cerebellar anlagen and transferred into primary dissociated cultures stopped proliferating as assessed by a loss of expression of the cell proliferation marker, Ki-67, and a failure to incorporate 5-bromo-2'-deoxyuridine. Although these cells had been forced to leave the proliferating cell pool prematurely, they developed into granule neurons or basket/stellate cells as judged by their distinct pattern of expression of specific molecular markers and the acquisition of a typical morphology. This included the cell intrinsic capacity of granule neurons to position their afferent synapses specifically to their dendrites. Thus, the competence of cerebellar interneurons to differentiate appropriately is independent of the precise timing of their final mitosis; however, their sensitivity towards extrinsic developmental signals appears to vary in a cell cycle-dependent manner, as suggested by the failure to survive of those cells that were in S-phase at the time of cultivation.

Young neurons from medial ganglionic eminence disperse in adult and embryonic brain

In this study, we identified neuronal precursors that can disperse through adult mammalian brain tissue. Transplanted neuronal precursors from embryonic medial ganglionic eminence (MGE), but not from lateral ganglionic eminence (LGE) or neocortex, dispersed and differentiated into neurons in multiple adult brain regions. In contrast, only LGE cells were able to migrate efficiently from the adult subventricular zone to the olfactory bulb. In embryonic brain slices, MGE cells migrated extensively toward cortex. Our results demonstrate that cells in different germinal regions have unique migratory potentials, and that adult mammalian brain can support widespread dispersion of specific populations of neuronal precursors. These findings could be useful in repair of diffuse brain damage.

Transplants of fetal frontal cortex grafted into the occipital cortex of newborn rats receive a substantial thalamic input from nuclei normally projecting to the frontal cortex

A number of molecular and hodological experiments have provided evidence that there is an early commitment of neocortical neurons to express features unique to a certain cortical area. However, the findings of several transplantation experiments have indicated that late embryonic cortical tissue heterotopically grafted into the neocortex of newborn rats receives a set of thalamic projections appropriate for the host cortical locus within which it develops. To provide further information on the extent to which neocortical neurons are predetermined to develop area-specific systems of connections, in this study we have compared the pattern of thalamic afferents to grafts of embryonic day 16 occipital or frontal neocortex transplanted into the occipital cortex of newborn rats. Two months after grafting, a retrograde neurotracer (cholera toxin, subunit b) was injected into the grafts to precisely assess the number of cells in the visual- and/or motor-related nuclei of the host thalamus projecting to each category of transplants (occipital-to-occipital or frontal-to-occipital). Transplants of embryonic occipital cortex received significant input from several visual-related thalamic nuclei, i.e. the lateral posterior and lateral dorsal nuclei, and no input from motor-related thalamic nuclei. However, only few labeled cells were found in the dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus, which was systematically affected by a severe atrophy, probably in response to the lesion of the occipital cortex performed prior to the transplantation. By comparison, transplants of frontal origin received a substantial input from the ventrolateral and ventromedial thalamic nuclei, which normally project to the frontal cortex, but received a weak input from the lateral posterior and lateral dorsal nuclei. Neocortical neurons grafted heterotopically into the neocortex of newborn hosts are not only able to contact cortical and subcortical targets appropriate for their embryonic site of origin, but are also susceptible to derive thalamic inputs closely related to their embryonic origin.

Cerebral cortical specification by early potential restriction of progenitor cells and later phenotype control of postmitotic neurons

Neurons expressing latexin, a carboxypeptidase A inhibitor, are restricted to lateral areas in the cerebral cortex of adult and early postnatal rats. To address the precise timing of cortical regional specification at the cellular level, we monitored latexin expression in developing cortical cells under specific conditions in vitro. Individual cortical cells were labeled with 5-bromo-2′-deoxyuridine in vivo, dissociated and exposed to a defined new environment in a monolayer or a reaggregated-cell culture system. While a substantial fraction of early progenitor cells derived from the lateral cerebral wall became latexin-expressing neurons in both systems, far fewer progenitors from dorsal cortex did so under the same environmental conditions, indicating early establishment of cortical regional specification at the progenitor cell level. Furthermore, it was shown that the probability for postmitotic cells within lateral cortex to become latexin-expressing neurons was influenced by temporally regulated regional environmental signals. These findings suggest that developing cortical cells are progressively specified for a regional molecular phenotype during both their proliferative and postmitotic periods.

Distinct functions of alpha3 and alpha(v) integrin receptors in neuronal migration and laminar organization of the cerebral cortex

Changes in specific cell-cell recognition and adhesion interactions between neurons and radial glial cells regulate neuronal migration as well as the establishment of distinct layers in the developing cerebral cortex. Here, we show that alpha3beta1 integrin is necessary for neuron-glial recognition during neuronal migration and that alpha(v) integrins provide optimal levels of the basic neuron-glial adhesion needed to maintain neuronal migration on radial glial fibers. A gliophilic-to-neurophilic switch in the adhesive preference of developing cortical neurons occurs following the loss of alpha3beta1 integrin function. Furthermore, the targeted mutation of the alpha3 integrin gene results in abnormal layering of the cerebral cortex. These results suggest that alpha3beta1 and alpha(v) integrins regulate distinct aspects of neuronal migration and neuron-glial interactions during corticogenesis.

Neuronal activity influences the growth of barrels in developing rat primary somatosensory cortex without affecting the expression pattern of four major GABAA receptor alpha subunits

Thalamic innervation plays a major role in parcellation of neocortex and maturation of cortical circuits. While the underlying mechanisms are unknown, lesion studies have identified GABAA receptors in neocortex as molecular targets of thalamic regulation [J. Paysan, A. Kossel, J. Bolz, J.M. Fritschy, Area-specific regulation of gamma-aminobutyric acid A receptor subtypes by thalamic afferents in developing rat neocortex, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 94 (1997) 6995-7000]. To determine the factors regulating the expression of GABAA receptors, the overall level of neuronal activity was chronically modulated in neonatal rat cortex. Slices of Elvax polymer loaded with the N-methyl-D-asparate (NMDA) receptor antagonist MK-801 or with brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) were placed unilaterally over the left parietal cortex in newborn animals. Unlike thalamic lesions (Paysan et al., 1997), these chronic drug treatments did not alter the laminar distribution or the expression level of the four major GABAA receptor alpha subunit isoforms (alpha 1, alpha 2, alpha 3, alpha 5) in primary somatosensory cortex (S1), as assessed immunohistochemically after one week. In particular, the staining of the barrel field in layers III-IV, which is very prominent with the alpha 1-subunit, was preserved in the drug-treated hemisphere. Even systemic administration of MK-801 at birth, which resulted in pronounced retardation of cortical development, had no effect on the laminar distribution and staining intensity of the four GABAA receptor alpha subunit variants. However, the size of barrels in S1, as measured in tangential sections stained for the GABAA receptor alpha 1 subunit, was enlarged upon chronic, topical blockade of NMDA receptors with MK-801 and was reduced to the same extent upon chronic exposure to BDNF. Thus, these pharmacological treatments modulated cortical growth, possibly by exerting opposite effects on neuronal activity in S1. The results suggest that the parcellation of somatosensory cortex and the laminar distribution of GABAA receptor subtypes are governed primarily by factors independent of thalamocortical activity.

Membrane-associated molecules guide limbic and nonlimbic thalamocortical projections

Membrane-associated signals expressed in restricted domains of the developing cerebral cortex may mediate axon target recognition during the establishment of thalamocortical projections, which form in a highly precise manner during development. To test this hypothesis, we first analyzed the outgrowth of thalamic explants from limbic and nonlimbic nuclei on membrane substrates prepared from limbic cortex and neocortex. The results show that different thalamic fiber populations are able to discriminate between membrane substrates prepared from target and nontarget cortical regions. A candidate molecule that could mediate selective choice in the thalamocortical system is the limbic system-associated membrane protein (LAMP), which is an early marker of cortical and subcortical limbic regions (Pimenta et al.,1995) that can promote outgrowth of limbic axons. Limbic thalamic and cortical axons showed preferences for recombinant LAMP (rLAMP) in a stripe assay. Incubation of cortical membranes with an antibody against LAMP prevented the ability of limbic thalamic fibers to distinguish between membranes from limbic cortex and neocortex. Strikingly, nonlimbic thalamic fibers also responded to LAMP, but in contrast to limbic thalamic fibers, rLAMP inhibited branch formation and acted as a repulsive axonal guidance signal for nonlimbic thalamic axons. The present studies indicate that LAMP fulfills a role as a selective guidance cue in the developing thalamocortical system.

Progenitor cells: what do they know and when do they know it?

In the cerebral cortex, cell-fate specification and migration depend on both extrinsic and intrinsic regulation, but recent studies raise the possibility that much of the information needed to generate distinct cell types and specific migratory patterns is intrinsic to progenitor cells at early stages of development.

The role of ErbB receptor signaling in cell fate decisions by cortical progenitors: evidence for a biased, lineage-based responsiveness to different ligands

We recently identified the required collaborative signaling of TGFalpha and collagen type IV to regulate cell fate choice in the cerebral cortex, measured by the expression of the limbic system associated membrane protein (LAMP) by nonlimbic, sensorimotor progenitors. We show that activation of different members of the erbB receptor family can similarly modulate the specification of cortical area fate. The region of the cerebral wall from which progenitor cells arise does not influence the response to the neuregulin-1 or TGFalpha, but a subpopulation of progenitors is not competent to express LAMP in response to neuregulin-1. The heterogeneity in the responsiveness by progenitors to the two growth factors is reflected in the expression of different repertoires of erbB receptors. Using clonal analysis, we demonstrate that there may be a lineage-dependent mechanism regulating the ability of neuronal progenitors to respond to specific inductive cues that control cell fate.

Embryonic expression of the myelin basic protein gene: identification of a promoter region that targets transgene expression to pioneer neurons

The myelin basic protein (MBP) gene produces two families of structurally related proteins from three different promoters-the golli products, generated from the most upstream promoter, and the MBPs, produced from the two downstream promoters. In this report we describe the expression of golli proteins within some of the earliest neuronal populations of the brain, including Cajal-Retzius cells and preplate neurons of the forebrain, representing a new marker for these cells. To identify elements responsible for neuronal expression of the golli products, we generated transgenic animals from constructs containing different portions of the upstream promoter. A construct containing 1.1 kb immediately upstream of the golli transcription start site targeted expression of beta-galactosidase to preplate neurons and a subset of Cajal-Retzius cells in transgenic mice-the first reported genetic element to target expression to these pioneer cortical populations. Although expression in Cajal-Retzius cells declined with embryonic development, preplate cells continued to express the transgene after arriving at their final destination in the subplate. Interestingly, expression persisted in subplate neurons found within a distinct layer between the white matter and cortical layer VI well into postnatal life. Birth dating studies with bromodeoxyuridine indicated that these neurons were born between E10.5 and E12.5. Thus, the transgene marked subplate neurons from their birth, providing a fate marker for these cells. This work suggests a role for the MBP gene in the early developing brain long before myelination and especially in the pioneer cortical neurons important in the formation of the cortical layers.

Untying the Gordian knot: contemporary studies of neuronal organization

The nervous systems of invertebrates and vertebrates consist of neuronal networks of varying complexity, and the elucidation of the organization of these networks is essential if we are to understand neural function. Up until the mid-19th Century gross dissection was the primary tool available to scientists to study the nervous system. The development of neurohistological techniques, electrical stimulation, and observation of neural function in humans and animals following injury added rapidly to our understanding of the nervous system during the following century. Over the last 3 decades investigators seeking to unravel the complexities of neural circuits have made use of analytical methods based upon the biological properties of neurons, including orthograde and retrograde axonal transport of tracer substances, the expression of particular genes and gene products that can be assessed with immunocytochemical or in situ methods, and the imaging of the utilization of oxygen or glucose by active populations of neurons. Advances in neuroscience have led to an enormous expansion in our knowledge of normal neural functioning and how that function is altered by injury or disease. Modern studies of neuronal organization have been at the center of our increased understanding of how the brain works.

Separate progenitors for radial and tangential cell dispersion during development of the cerebral neocortex

Cell lineage analyses suggest that cortical neuroblasts are capable of undertaking both radial and tangential modes of cell movement. However, it is unclear whether distinct progenitors are committed to generating neuroblasts that disperse exclusively in either radial or tangential directions. Using highly unbalanced mouse stem cell chimeras, we have identified certain progenitors that are committed to one mode of cell dispersion only. Radially dispersed neurons expressed glutamate, the neurochemical signature of excitatory pyramidal cells. In contrast, tangential progenitors gave rise to widely scattered neurons that are predominantly GABAergic. These results suggest lineage-based mechanisms for early specification of certain progenitors to distinct dispersion pathways and neuronal phenotypes.

Prenatal effects of drugs of abuse on brain development

Drugs of abuse modify signaling of neurotransmitter systems and intracellular messengers. Recent studies of central nervous system development show that these same neurotransmitters may serve as molecules that regulate specific aspects of cell proliferation, survival, migration, circuit formation and establishment of topography. Moreover, the convergence of neurotransmitter, growth factor and hormone activity on similar intracellular signaling systems suggests the potential for significant interactions among molecular components that regulate development. The application of modern strategies used by developmental and cell biologists to the question of whether prenatal drug exposure alters brain structure and function has led to discoveries of specific, targeted changes. Studies of the mechanisms of drug action that lead to altered neural development are now reality.

Neocortex in the hippocampus: an anatomical and functional study of CA1 heterotopias after prenatal treatment with methylazoxymethanol in rats

Migration disorders cause neurons to differentiate in an abnormal heterotopic position. Although significant insights have been gained into the etiology of these disorders, very little is known about the anatomy of heterotopias. We have studied heterotopic masses arising in the hippocampal CA1 region after prenatal treatment with methylazoxymethanol (MAM) in rats. Heterotopic cells were phenotypically similar to neocortical supragranular neurons and exhibited the same temporal profile of migration and neurogenesis. However, they did not express molecules characteristic of CA1 neurons such as the limbic-associated membrane protein. Horseradish peroxidase injections in heterotopia demonstrated labeled fibers not only in the neocortex and white matter but also in the CA1 stratum radiatum and stratum lacunosum. To study the pathophysiological consequences of this connectivity, we compared the effects of neocortical and limbic seizures on the expression of Fos protein and on cell death in MAM animals. After metrazol-induced seizures, Fos-positive cells were present in CA1 heterotopias, the only hippocampal region to be activated with the neocortex. By contrast, kainic acid-induced seizures caused a prominent delayed cell death in limbic regions and in CA1 heterotopias. Together, these results suggest that neocortical heterotopias in the CA1 region are integrated in both the hippocampal and neocortical circuitry.

Regulation of thalamic neurite outgrowth by the Eph ligand ephrin-A5: implications in the development of thalamocortical projections

The cerebral cortex is parcellated into different functional domains that receive distinct inputs from other cortical and subcortical regions. The molecular mechanisms underlying the specificity of connections of cortical afferents remain unclear. We report here that the Eph family tyrosine kinase receptor EphA5 and the ligand ephrin-A5 may play a key role in the exclusion of the limbic thalamic afferents from the sensorimotor cortex by mediating repulsive interactions. In situ hybridization shows that the EphA5 transcript is expressed at high levels in both cortical and subcortical limbic regions, including the frontal cortex, the subiculum, and the medial thalamic nuclei. In contrast, ephrin-A5 is transcribed abundantly in the sensorimotor cortex. Consistent with the complementary expression, the ligand inhibited dramatically the growth of neurites from neurons isolated from the medial thalamus but was permissive for the growth of neurites from lateral thalamic neurons, which is primarily nonlimbic. Similarly, the growth of neurites from Eph-A5-expressing neurons isolated from the subiculum was inhibited by ephrin-A5. Our studies suggest that the Eph family ligand ephrin-A5 serves as a general inhibitor of axonal growth from limbic neurons, which may serve to prevent innervation of inappropriate primary sensorimotor regions, thus contributing to the generation of specificity of thalamic cortical afferents.

Early patterning of the rat cerebral wall for regional organization of a neuronal population expressing latexin

The exact timing of regional patterning in the developing cerebral cortex and other telencephalic structures remains to be elucidated. In the present study, we addressed this issue by comparing the distribution and density of neuronal population expressing latexin in the adult rat telencephalon, with the regional pattern in the fetal cerebral wall as to the potential to generate latexin-expressing neurons. Immunohistochemical analyses on adult animals have shown that latexin-expressing neurons are restricted to a lateral cortical field, within which they are most abundant at the middle level, decreasing in number rostrally and caudally. Substantial numbers of latexin-immunopositive neurons were recorded in the claustrum and endopiriform nuclei, both of which are located from rostral to middle level in the lateral telencephalon. By examining the number and density of latexin-immunopositive neurons in organotypic slice cultures from various portions of the developing rat cerebral wall, it has been shown that the regional pattern within the early cerebral wall as to the potential to generate latexin-expressing neurons matches well the distribution and density of latexin-expressing neurons in the adult telencephalon. Thus, in cultures derived from either embryonic day 13 or 16 fetuses, latexin-immunopositive neurons appeared most prominently in those from rostral-to-middle portions of the lateral cerebral wall, decreasing in number rostrally and caudally. In cultures from the dorsal cerebral wall, the number was generally very low. In light of our previous finding that most prospective latexin-expressing neurons are still dividing at embryonic day 13, it can be concluded that some kind of pattern formation event occurs within the early cerebral wall even prior to the genesis of the postmitotic neurons that would be later allocated in a region-specific manner.

Neural progenitors and stem cells: mechanisms of progenitor heterogeneity

Heterogeneity among progenitor cells in the vertebrate nervous system has been documented with increasing frequency over the past few years. It has become clear that differences in progenitor cells help to determine when and how they respond to environmental signals. More recent studies have begun to elucidate the molecular basis of the differences in progenitor cell subpopulations that control their developmental potential and responsiveness to environmental signals.