Advances in Oral Drug Delivery Systems: Challenges and Opportunities

Research progress of sorafenib drug delivery system in the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma: An update

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the most prevalent malignant tumors in the contemporary era, representing a significant global health concern. Early HCC patients have mild symptoms or are asymptomatic, which promotes the onset and progression of the disease. Moreover, advanced HCC is insensitive to chemotherapy, making traditional clinical treatment unable to block cancer development. Sorafenib (SFB) is a first-line targeted drug for advanced HCC patients with anti-angiogenesis and anti-tumor cell proliferation effects. However, the efficacy of SFB is constrained by its off-target distribution, rapid metabolism, and multi-drug resistance. In recent years, nanoparticles based on a variety of materials have been demonstrated to enhance the targeting and therapeutic efficacy of SFB against HCC. Concurrently, the advent of joint drug delivery systems has furnished crucial empirical evidence for reversing SFB resistance. This review will summarize the application of nanotechnology in the field of HCC treatment over the past five years. It will focus on the research progress of SFB delivery systems combined with multiple therapeutic modalities in HCC treatment.

Engineered nanoparticles in non-invasive insulin delivery for precision therapeutics of diabetes

Diabetes mellitus is a chronic disease leading to the death of millions a year across the world. Insulin is required for Type 1, Type 2, and gestational diabetic patients, however, there are various modes of insulin delivery out of which oral delivery is noninvasive and convenient. Moreover, factors like insulin degradation and poor intestinal absorption play a crucial role in its bioavailability and effectiveness. This review discusses various types of engineered nanoparticles used in-vitro, in-vivo, and ex-vivo insulin delivery along with their administration routes and physicochemical properties. Injectable insulin formulations, currently in use have certain limitations, leading to invasiveness, low patient compliance, causing inflammation, and side effects. Based on these drawbacks, this review emphasizes more on the non-invasive route, particularly oral delivery. The article is important because it focuses on how engineered nanoparticles can overcome the limitations of free therapeutics (drugs alone), navigate the barriers, and accomplish precision therapeutics in diabetes. In future, more drugs could be delivered with a similar strategy to cure various diseases and resolve challenges in drug delivery. This review significantly describes the role of various engineered nanoparticles in improving the bioavailability of insulin by protecting it from various barriers during non-invasive routes of delivery.

Ferulic Acid: A Comprehensive Review

Ferulic acid (FA), a phenolic compound abundant in the cell walls of seeds, leaves, and roots of various fruits, vegetables, cereals, and grains, is renowned for its wide range of biological activities, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and anticancer properties. Despite its therapeutic potential, the clinical application of FA is hindered by challenges such as poor water solubility, limited bioavailability, rapid metabolism, and instability under physiological conditions. To address these issues, nanotechnology has emerged as a transformative approach, enhancing FA's pharmacokinetic profile. Various nanoparticle-based systems, including polymer-based and lipid-based nanoparticles, have been developed to encapsulate FA. These systems have demonstrated significant improvements in FA's solubility, stability, and bioavailability, with studies showing enhanced antioxidant activity and controlled release profiles. Further, the surface engineering of these nanoparticles provides targeted drug/phytochemical delivery potential. The targeted delivery of drugs/phytochemicals significantly enhances the therapeutic efficacy and minimizes systemic side effects. This review explores the therapeutic potential of FA, the limitations in its clinical application, and the advancements in nanoparticle-based delivery systems that are paving the way for its effective therapeutic use.

Omarigliptin/rosinidin combination ameliorates cyclophosphamide-induced lung toxicity in rats: The interaction between glucagon-like peptide-1, TXNIP/NLRP3 inflammasome signaling, and PI3K/Akt/FoxO1 axis

Cyclophosphamide is an anti-neoplastic drug that has shown competence in the management of a broad range of malignant tumors. In addition, it represents a keystone agent for management of immunological conditions. Despite these unique properties, induction of lung toxicity may limit its clinical use. Omarigliptin is one of the dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors that has proven efficacy in management of diabetes mellitus. Rosinidin is an anthocyanidin flavonoid that exhibited promising results in management of diseases characterized by oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis. The present work investigated the possible effects of omarigliptin with or without rosinidin on cyclophosphamide-induced lung toxicity with an exploration of the molecular mechanisms that contribute to these effects. In a rodent model of cyclophosphamide elicited lung toxicity, the potential efficacy of omarigliptin with or without rosinidin was investigated at both the biochemical and the histopathological levels. Both omarigliptin and rosinidin exhibited a synergistic ability to augment the tissue antioxidant defenses, mitigate the inflammatory pathways, restore glucagon-like peptide-1 levels, modulate high mobility group box 1 (HMGB1)/receptors of advanced glycation end products (RAGE)/nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) axis, downregulate the fibrogenic mediators, and create a balance between the pathways involved in apoptosis and the autophagy signals in the pulmonary tissues. In conclusion, omarigliptin/rosinidin combination may be introduced as a novel therapeutic modality that attenuates the different forms of lung toxicities induced by cyclophosphamide.

Exploring the Transformative Potential of Functionalized Mesoporous Silica in Enhancing Antioxidant Activity: A Comprehensive Review

Antioxidants are essential for reducing oxidative stress, protecting cells from damage, and supporting overall well-being. Functionalized mesoporous silica materials have garnered interest due to their flexible uses in diverse domains, such as drug delivery systems. This review aims to thoroughly examine and evaluate the progress made in utilizing functionalized mesoporous silica materials as a possible approach to enhancing antioxidant activity. The authors performed a thorough search of reliable databases, including Scopus, PubMed, Google Scholar, and Clarivate Web of Science, using precise keywords linked to functionalized mesoporous silica nanoparticles and antioxidants. The identified journals serve as the major framework for the main discussion in this study. Functionalized mesoporous silica nanoparticles have been reported to greatly enhance antioxidant activity by allowing for an increased loading capacity, controlled release behavior, the targeting of specific drugs, improved biocompatibility and safety, and enhanced penetration. The results emphasize the significant capacity of functionalized mesoporous silica (FSM) to bring about profound changes in a wide range of applications. FSM materials can be designed as versatile nanocarriers, integrating intrinsic antioxidant capabilities and augmenting the efficacy of current drugs, offering substantial progress in antioxidant therapies and drug delivery systems, as well as enhanced substance properties in the pharmaceutical field. Functionalized mesoporous silica materials are a highly effective method for enhancing antioxidant activity. They provide new opportunities for the advancement of cutting-edge treatments and materials in the field of antioxidant research. The significant potential of FSM materials to change drug delivery methods and improve substance properties highlights their crucial role in future breakthroughs in the pharmaceutical field and antioxidant applications.

Salidroside: A Promising Agent in Bone Metabolism Modulation

Rhodiola rosea, a long-lived herbaceous plant from the Crassulaceae group, contains the active compound salidroside, recognized as an adaptogen with significant therapeutic potential for bone metabolism. Salidroside promotes osteoblast proliferation and differentiation by activating critical signaling pathways, including bone morphogenetic protein-2 and adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase, essential for bone formation and growth. It enhances osteogenic activity by increasing alkaline phosphatase activity and mineralization markers, while upregulating key regulatory proteins including runt-related transcription factor 2 and osterix. Additionally, salidroside facilitates angiogenesis via the hypoxia-inducible factor 1-alpha and vascular endothelial growth factor pathway, crucial for coupling bone development with vascular support. Its antioxidant properties offer protection against bone loss by reducing oxidative stress and promoting osteogenic differentiation through the nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 pathway. Salidroside has the capability to counteract the negative effects of glucocorticoids on bone cells and prevents steroid-induced osteonecrosis. Additionally, it exhibits multifaceted anti-inflammatory actions, notably through the inhibition of tumor necrosis factor-alpha and interleukin-6 expression, while enhancing the expression of interleukin-10. This publication presents a comprehensive review of the literature on the impact of salidroside on various aspects of bone tissue metabolism, emphasizing its potential role in the prevention and treatment of osteoporosis and other diseases affecting bone physiology.

Characterization of Prototype Gummy Formulations Provides Insight into Setting Quality Standards

Gummy formulations are considered suitable alternatives to traditional oral dosage forms like tablets and capsules due to their merits that include chewability, softness/flexibility, improved drug release, administration without water, appealing organoleptic properties, better patient compliance, easy preparation and usefulness for persons of different ages (e.g. children). Though there is increasing interest in gummy formulations containing drugs, measurable parameters, and specification limits for evaluating their quality are scarce. Quality check forms an essential part of the pharmaceutical development process because drug products must be distributed as consistently stable, safe, and therapeutically effective entities. Consequently, some quality parameters that could contribute to the overall performance of typical gummy formulations were investigated employing six brands of non-medicinal gummies as specimens. Accordingly, key physicochemical and micromechanical characteristics namely adhesiveness (0.009 - 0.028 mJ), adhesive force (0.009 - 0.055 N), chewiness (2.780 - 6.753 N), cohesiveness (0.910 - 0.990), hardness (2.984 - 7.453 N), springiness (0.960 - 1.000), and resilience (0.388 - 0.572), matrix firmness - compression load (2.653 - 6.753 N) and work done (3.288 - 6.829 mJ), rupture (5.315 - 29.016 N), moisture content (< 5%), weight uniformity (< 2.5 g; < 7.5% deviation), and intraoral dissolution pH (≥ 3.5 ≤ 6.8) were quantified to identify measures that may potentially function as specification limits and serve as prospective reference points for evaluating the quality of gummy formulations. Findings from this work contribute to ongoing efforts to standardize the quality control strategies for gummy formulations, particularly those intended for oral drug delivery.

Unlocking the potential of flavonoid-based co-crystal and co-amorphous systems

Flavonoids are polyphenolic compounds that have multiple benefits in treating various life-threatening diseases. Despite their diverse pharmacological activities, the market potential of flavonoids is hampered due to their poor solubility and low bioavailability after oral administration. The current review highlights the role of co-crystals and co-amorphous systems (CAMs) in enhancing the solubility, permeability, bioavailability, and therapeutic efficacy of flavonoids. It also explains the significance of flavonoid-based co-formers in the formation of co-crystals and CAMs with other APIs to improve their efficacy. Future perspectives, patented formulations, commercial medications (including their phases of clinical trials), and challenges associated with the use of flavonoid-based co-crystals and CAMs are also mentioned in the review.

Designing Dual-Responsive Drug Delivery Systems: The Role of Phase Change Materials and Metal-Organic Frameworks

Stimuli-responsive drug delivery systems (DDSs) offer precise control over drug release, enhancing therapeutic efficacy and minimizing side effects. This review focuses on DDSs that leverage the unique capabilities of phase change materials (PCMs) and metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) to achieve controlled drug release in response to pH and temperature changes. Specifically, this review highlights the use of a combination of lauric and stearic acids as PCMs that melt slightly above body temperature, providing a thermally responsive mechanism for drug release. Additionally, this review delves into the properties of zeolitic imidazolate framework-8 (ZIF-8), a stable MOF under physiological conditions that decomposes in acidic environments, thus offering pH-sensitive drug release capabilities. The integration of these materials enables the fabrication of complex structures that encapsulate drugs within ZIF-8 or are enveloped by PCM layers, ensuring that drug release is tightly controlled by either temperature or pH levels, or both. This review provides comprehensive insights into the core design principles, material selections, and potential biomedical applications of dual-stimuli responsive DDSs, highlighting the future directions and challenges in this innovative field.

Dual-Responsive Microsphere Based on Natural Sunflower Pollen for Hemostasis and Repair in Inflammatory Bowel Disease

Noninvasive treatment of inflammatory bowel disease with lower gastrointestinal bleeding is a major clinical challenge. In this study, we designed an orally targeted microsphere based on sunflower pollen microcapsules to localize the site of inflammatory injury and promote hemostasis and tissue repair. Due to the Eudragit and ascorbate palmitate coatings, EL/AP@PS(t+Dex) demonstrates pH- and enzyme-responsive release of loaded drugs and helps to resist the harsh environment of the gastrointestinal tract. Both in vitro and in vivo experiments show the characteristics of inflammation targeting and mucosal adhesion, which reduce the systematic exposure and increase the local drug concentration. In the DSS model, orally administered EL/AP@PS(t+Dex) significantly alleviates hematochezia, inhabits intestinal inflammation, and remarkably promotes the recovery of the intestinal epithelial barrier to reduce the exposure of intestinal microvessels. Furthermore, EL/AP@PS(t+Dex) optimized the composition of intestinal microbiota, which benefits intestinal homeostasis. This finding provides a fundamental solution for the treatment of intestinal bleeding caused by inflammatory bowel disease (IBD).

A Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic (PBPK) Study to Assess the Adjuvanticity of Three Peptides in an Oral Vaccine

Following up on the first PBPK model for an oral vaccine built for alpha-tocopherol, three peptides are explored in this article to verify if they could support an oral vaccine formulation as adjuvants using the same PBPK modeling approach. A literature review was conducted to verify what peptides have been used as adjuvants in the last decades, and it was noticed that MDP derivatives have been used, with one of them even being commercially approved and used as an adjuvant when administered intravenously in oncology. The aim of this study was to build optimized models for three MDP peptides (MDP itself, MTP-PE, and murabutide) and to verify if they could act as adjuvants for an oral vaccine. Challenges faced by peptides in an oral delivery system are taken into consideration, and improvements to the formulations to achieve better results are described in a step-wise approach to reach the most-optimized model. Once simulations are performed, results are compared to determine what would be the best peptide to support as an oral adjuvant. According to our results, MTP-PE, the currently approved and commercialized peptide, could have potential to be incorporated into an oral formulation. It would be interesting to proceed with further in vivo experiments to determine the behavior of this peptide when administered orally with a proper formulation to overcome the challenges of oral delivery systems.

Oral targeted drug delivery to post-gastrointestinal sites

As an essential branch of targeted drug delivery, oral targeted delivery is attracting growing attention in recent years. In addition to site-specific delivery for the treatment of locoregional diseases in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT), oral targeted delivery to remote sites beyond the GIT emerges as a cutting-edge research topic. This review aims to provide an overview of the fundamental concepts and most recent advances in this field. Owing to the physiological barriers existing in the GIT, carrier systems should be transported across the enteric epithelia to target remote sites. Recently, pioneer investigations have validated the transport of intact micro- or nanocarriers across gastrointestinal barriers and subsequently to various distal organs and tissues. The microfold (M) cell pathway is the leading mechanism underlying the oral absorption of particulates, but the contribution of the transcellular and paracellular pathways should not be neglected either. In addition to well-acknowledged physicochemical and biological factors, the formation of a protein corona may also influence the biological fate of carrier systems. Although in an early stage of conceptualization, oral targeted delivery to remote diseases has demonstrated promising potential for the treatment of inflammation, tumors, and diseases inflicting the lymphatic and mononuclear phagocytosis systems.

Silicon-Based Piezo Micropumps Enable Fully Flexible Drug Delivery Patterns

Drug release plays a crucial role in drug delivery. While current formulation approaches are capable of coarse-tuning the release profile, their precision and reproducibility are limited by the physicochemical properties of the excipients and active pharmaceutical ingredient (API). Innovative and advanced approaches are urgently needed, especially for site-specific targeting of drugs and to address their pharmacological requirements for optimal therapy. The 5 × 5 × 0.6 mm3 piezoelectric micropump developed by Fraunhofer EMFT was designed to enable precise drug delivery in a low volume format. In this study, we investigated the ability of the micropump to deliver solutions of highly soluble APIs using a wide range of customized pump profiles. Additionally, we examined the ability of the micropump to deliver suspensions containing various defined particle sizes. While results for suspensions indicate that pumping performance is highly dependent on the size and concentration of the suspended particles, results with API solutions demonstrate high precision and reproducibility of release, coupled with maximum flexibility in the release profile of the API. The piezoelectric micropump thus lays the cornerstone in the development of a wide range of innovative drug delivery profiles, enabling customized release profiles to be programmed and thus paving the way to fully personalized medicine.

Mucus-penetrating and permeation enhancer albumin-based nanoparticles for oral delivery of macromolecules: Application to bevacizumab

The oral administration of therapeutic proteins copes with important challenges (mainly degradation and poor absorption) making their potential therapeutic application extremely difficult. The aim of this study was to design and evaluate the potential of the combination between mucus-permeating nanoparticles and permeation enhancers as a carrier for the oral delivery of the monoclonal antibody bevacizumab, used as a model of therapeutic protein. For this purpose, bevacizumab was encapsulated in PEG-coated albumin nanoparticles as a hydrophobic ion-pairing complex with either sodium deoxycholate (DS) or sodium docusate (DOCU). In both cases, complex formation efficiencies close to 90% were found. The incorporation of either DS or DOCU in PEG-coated nanoparticles significantly increased their mean size, particularly when DOCU was used. Moreover, the diffusion in mucus of DOCU-loaded nanoparticles was significantly reduced, compared with DS ones. In a C. elegans model, DS or DOCU (free or nanoencapsulated) disrupted the intestinal epithelial integrity, but the overall survival of the worms was not affected. In rats, the relative oral bioavailability of bevacizumab incorporated in PEG-coated nanoparticles as a complex with DS (B-DS-NP-P) was 3.7%, a 1000-fold increase compared to free bevacizumab encapsulated in nanoparticles (B-NP-P). This important effect of DS may be explained not only by its capability to transiently disrupt tight junctions but also to their ability to increase the fluidity of membranes and to inhibit cytosolic and brush border enzymes. In summary, the current strategy may be useful to allow the therapeutic use of orally administered proteins, including monoclonal antibodies.

Advances in Hydrogel-Based Drug Delivery Systems

Hydrogels, with their distinctive three-dimensional networks of hydrophilic polymers, drive innovations across various biomedical applications. The ability of hydrogels to absorb and retain significant volumes of water, coupled with their structural integrity and responsiveness to environmental stimuli, renders them ideal for drug delivery, tissue engineering, and wound healing. This review delves into the classification of hydrogels based on cross-linking methods, providing insights into their synthesis, properties, and applications. We further discuss the recent advancements in hydrogel-based drug delivery systems, including oral, injectable, topical, and ocular approaches, highlighting their significance in enhancing therapeutic outcomes. Additionally, we address the challenges faced in the clinical translation of hydrogels and propose future directions for leveraging their potential in personalized medicine and regenerative healthcare solutions.

Applications and prospects of microneedles in tumor drug delivery

As drug delivery devices, microneedles are used widely in the local administration of various drugs. Such drug-loaded microneedles are minimally invasive, almost painless, and have high drug delivery efficiency. In recent decades, with advancements in microneedle technology, an increasing number of adaptive, engineered, and intelligent microneedles have been designed to meet increasing clinical needs. This article summarizes the types, preparation materials, and preparation methods of microneedles, as well as the latest research progress in the application of microneedles in tumor drug delivery. This article also discusses the current challenges and improvement strategies in the use of microneedles for tumor drug delivery.

Oral Administration of Antimicrobial Peptide NZ2114 Through the Microalgal Bait Tetraselmis subcordiformis (Wille) Butcher for Improving the Immunity and Gut Health in Turbot (Scophthalmus maximus L.)

Antibiotics are widely used in aquaculture to treat the bacterial diseases. However, the improper use of antibiotics could lead to environmental pollution and development of resistance. As a safe and eco-friendly alternative, antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are commonly explored as therapeutic agents. In this study, a mutant strain of Tetraselmis subcordiformis containing AMP NZ2114 was developed and used as an oral drug delivery system to reduce the use of antibiotics in turbot (Scophthalmus maximus) aquaculture. The gut, kidney, and liver immune-related genes and their effects on gut digestion and bacterial communities in turbot fed with NZ2114 were evaluated in an 11-day feeding experiment. The results showed that compared with the group fed with wild-type T. subcordiformis, the group fed with T. subcordiformis transformants containing NZ2114 was revealed with decreased levels of both pro-inflammatory factors (TNF-α and IL-1β), inhibitory effect on Staphylococcus aureus, Vibrio parahaemolyticus, and Vibrio splendidus demonstrated by the in vitro simulation experiments, and increased richness and diversity of the gut microbiota of turbot. In conclusion, our study provided a novel, beneficial, and low-cost method for controlling bacteria in turbot culture through the oral drug delivery systems.

Biomedical applications of stimuli-responsive "smart" interpenetrating polymer network hydrogels

In recent years, owing to the ongoing advancements in polymer materials, hydrogels have found increasing applications in the biomedical domain, notably in the realm of stimuli-responsive "smart" hydrogels. Nonetheless, conventional single-network stimuli-responsive "smart" hydrogels frequently exhibit deficiencies, including low mechanical strength, limited biocompatibility, and extended response times. In response, researchers have addressed these challenges by introducing a second network to create stimuli-responsive "smart" Interpenetrating Polymer Network (IPN) hydrogels. The mechanical strength of the material can be significantly improved due to the topological entanglement and physical interactions within the interpenetrating structure. Simultaneously, combining different network structures enhances the biocompatibility and stimulus responsiveness of the gel, endowing it with unique properties such as cell adhesion, conductivity, hemostasis/antioxidation, and color-changing capabilities. This article primarily aims to elucidate the stimulus-inducing factors in stimuli-responsive "smart" IPN hydrogels, the impact of the gels on cell behaviors and their biomedical application range. Additionally, we also offer an in-depth exposition of their categorization, mechanisms, performance characteristics, and related aspects. This review furnishes a comprehensive assessment and outlook for the advancement of stimuli-responsive "smart" IPN hydrogels within the biomedical arena. We believe that, as the biomedical field increasingly demands novel materials featuring improved mechanical properties, robust biocompatibility, and heightened stimulus responsiveness, stimuli-responsive "smart" IPN hydrogels will hold substantial promise for wide-ranging applications in this domain.

Unleashing the Potential of Oral Deliverable Nanomedicine in the Treatment of Inflammatory Bowel Disease

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), marked by chronic gastrointestinal tract inflammation, poses a significant global medical challenge. Current treatments for IBD, including corticosteroids, immunomodulators, and biologics, often require frequent systemic administration through parenteral delivery, leading to nonspecific drug distribution, suboptimal therapeutic outcomes, and adverse effects. There is a pressing need for a targeted drug delivery system to enhance drug efficacy and minimize its systemic impact. Nanotechnology emerges as a transformative solution, enabling precise oral drug delivery to inflamed intestinal tissues, reducing off-target effects, and enhancing therapeutic efficiency. The advantages include heightened bioavailability, sustained drug release, and improved cellular uptake. Additionally, the nano-based approach allows for the integration of theranostic elements, enabling simultaneous diagnosis and treatment. Recent preclinical advances in oral IBD treatments, particularly with nanoformulations such as functionalized polymeric and lipid nanoparticles, demonstrate remarkable cell-targeting ability and biosafety, promising to overcome the limitations of conventional therapies. These developments signify a paradigm shift toward personalized and effective oral IBD management. This review explores the potential of oral nanomedicine to enhance IBD treatment significantly, focusing specifically on cell-targeting oral drug delivery system for potential use in IBD management. We also examine emerging technologies such as theranostic nanoparticles and artificial intelligence, identifying avenues for the practical translation of nanomedicines into clinical applications.

In vivo biodistribution and ototoxicity assessment of cationic liposomal-ceftriaxone via noninvasive trans-tympanic delivery in chinchilla models: Implications for otitis media therapy

OBJECTIVES

We report the in vivo biodistribution and ototoxicity of cationic liposomal-ceftriaxone (CFX) delivered via ear drop formulation in adult chinchilla.

METHODS

CFX was encapsulated in liposomes with size of ∼100 nm and surface charge of +20 mV. 100 μl liposomes or free drug was applied twice daily in both external ear canals of adult chinchillas for either 3 or 10 days. Study groups included free ceftriaxone (CFX, Day 3: n = 4, Day 10: n = 8), liposomal ceftriaxone (CFX-Lipo, Day 3: n = 4, Day 10: n = 8), and a systemic control group (Day 3: n = 4, Day 10: n = 4). Ceftriaxone delivery to the middle ear and systemic circulation was quantified by HPLC assays. Liposome transport was visualized via confocal microscopy. Auditory brainstem response (ABR) tests and cochlear histology were used to assess ototoxicity.

RESULTS

Liposomal ceftriaxone (CFX-Lipo) displayed a ∼658-fold increase in drug delivery efficiency in the middle ear relative to the free CFX (8.548 ± 0.4638% vs. 0.013 ± 0.0009%, %Injected dose, Mean ± SEM). CFX measured in blood serum (48.2 ± 7.78 ng/ml) following CFX-Lipo treatment in ear was 41-fold lower compared to systemic free-CFX treatment (1990.7 ± 617.34 ng/ml). ABR tests and histological analysis indicated no ototoxicity due to the treatment.

CONCLUSION

Cationic liposomal encapsulation results in potent drug delivery across the tympanic membrane to the middle ear with minimal systemic exposure and no ototoxicity.

Manganese Dioxide Nanoplatform with a Hollow Rhombic Dodecahedron Morphology for Drug Delivery

Manganese dioxide (MnO2) is considered as a promising drug carrier material suitable for the tumor microenvironment while lacking conducive structures for drug loading. Herein, we construct a MnO2 nanoplatform with a hollow rhombic dodecahedral morphology for drug delivery. In this work, we obtained zeolitic imidazolate framework nanoparticles (ZIF-90 NPs) via a coordination reaction. Furthermore, the drug-loading nanoparticles (ZIF-90/DOX NPs) were obtained by Schiff's base reaction and then selected as a sacrificial template to obtain the hollow nanoplatforms (ZIF-90@MnO2 NPs). Moreover, the photothermal effect and multiresponsive drug release behaviors were revealed by loading the photothermal agent IR-820 and the anticancer drug doxorubicin hydrochloride (DOX). Our study demonstrates that the ZIF-90@MnO2 NPs loaded with photosensitizers exhibited excellent photothermal conversion performance. Benefiting from the hollow structure and redox activity, remarkable drug loading and release performances of ZIF-90@MnO2 NPs were achieved. It is shown that ZIF-90@MnO2 NPs achieved a satisfactory drug-loading efficiency (up to ca. 69.7%) for DOX. More promisingly, the ZIF-90@MnO2 NPs exhibited significant glutathione (GSH)/pH-responsive drug release and degradation performances. Overall, this work highlights the potential of controlled drug release of nanocarriers and offers unique insights into the design of nanocarriers with hollow structures.

Comparative pharmacokinetic evaluation of glimepiride orodispersable and conventional tablets in rabbits

OBJECTIVES

Glimepiride Orodispersable Tablets (ODT) were prepared with the goal to have rapid onset of action and higher bioavailability with ease administration to individuals with swallowing difficulty to ameliorate patient compliance.

SIGNIFICANCE

Glimepiride is a contemporary hypoglycemic medication that belongs to the family of sulfonylurea derivatives. It is used in type 2 diabetes mellitus. Compliance adherence remains one of the limitations with the conventional drug delivery system especially in pediatric, geriatric, psychiatric, and traveling patients, for such population ODT provides a good alternate dosage form compared with Commercial Tablets.

METHOD

The Comparative in vivo pharmacokinetic parameters of the prepared ODT and conventional tablets (CT) were evaluated using an animal model. The plasma concentration of Glimepiride after oral administration of a single dose was determined at predetermined time intervals with HPLC. The pharmacokinetic parameters were calculated using PK Solutions 2.0 from Summit PK® software.

RESULTS

The Cmax obtained with ODT (22.08 µg/ml) was significantly (p = 0.006) high, a lower tmax of 3.0 hr was achieved with the orodispersable formulation of the drug. The ODT showed 104.34% relative bioavailability as compared to CT and left shift of tmax as well.

CONCLUSION

As per findings of the in vivo investigation, the Glimepiride ODT would be beneficial in terms of patient compliance, quick onset of action, and increased bioavailability.

Research progress of plant-derived natural products in thyroid carcinoma

Thyroid carcinoma (TC) is a prevalent malignancy of the endocrine system, with a notable rise in its detection rate in recent decades. The primary therapeutic approaches for TC now encompass thyroidectomy and radioactive iodine therapy, yielding favorable prognoses for the majority of patients. TC survivors may necessitate ongoing surveillance, remedial treatment, and thyroid hormone supplementation, while also enduring the adverse consequences of thyroid hormone fluctuations, surgical complications, or side effects linked to radioactive iodine administration, and encountering enduring physical, psychosocial, and economic hardships. In vitro and in vivo studies of natural products against TC are demonstrating the potential of these natural products as alternatives to the treatment of thyroid cancer. This therapy may offer greater convenience, affordability, and acceptability than traditional therapies. In the early screening of natural products, we mainly use a combination of database prediction and literature search. The pharmacological effects on TC of selected natural products (quercetin, genistein, apigenin, luteolin, chrysin, myricetin, resveratrol, curcumin and nobiletin), which hold promise for therapeutic applications in TC, are reviewed in detail in this article through most of the cell-level evidence, animal-level evidence, and a small amount of human-level evidence. In addition, this article explores possible issues, such as bioavailability, drug safety.

Development of Pectin Particles as a Colon-Targeted Marjoram Phenolic Compound Delivery System

Marjoram is a culinary herb that has been widely employed in folk medicine and presents a high content in phenolics. Thus, the aim of this project was to design formulations to encapsulate phenolic compounds from marjoram to allow their release in the colon. For this purpose, pectin was used as an encapsulating agent, applying two different encapsulation techniques (ionic gelation and spray-drying), followed by a CaCl2 bath. The ionic gelation technique showed a higher yield (77%) compared to spray-drying (31%), and the particles obtained were smaller (267 nm). However, the microparticles obtained by spray-drying presented a higher encapsulation efficiency (93%). Moreover, spray-dried microparticles protected a higher percentage of the encapsulated phenolics from the action of gastrointestinal pHs and enzymes. Hence, the results showed that spray-drying was a more appropriate technique than ionic gelation for the encapsulation of marjoram phenolics in order to protect them during the gastrointestinal step, facilitating their arrival in the colon. These microparticles would also be suitable for inclusion in food matrices for the development of phenolic colon delivery systems.

An Updated Review For Hyperuricemia and Gout Management; Special Focus on the Available Drug Delivery Systems and Clinical Trials

BACKGROUND

Hyperuricemia belongs to metabolic syndromes where increased uric acid levels are identified in the blood serum. Such a syndrome could be responsible for kidney stone formation, gout, hypertension, and chronic kidney diseases. It has been reported that cardiovascular risks have been linked with hyperuricemia. Gout is of the most frequent manifestations due to hyperuricemia; its management involves various pharmacological available options and dietary changes. Throughout the literature, various dosage forms are studied as alternative options to the present drug delivery systems.

OBJECTIVE

To update and summarize the current information for gout and hyperuricemia management.

METHODS

Authors have performed a thorough literature research from 2010-2023 using keywords such as hyperuricemia, gout, diagnosis, guidelines, drug delivery and clinical trials. The databases used were PubMed, ScienceDirect. According to our inclusion criteria, all studies which include the previous terms, as well as drugs or other molecules that can be applied for gout and/or hyperuricemia management, were added.

RESULTS

In this article, authors have summarized the pathogenesis, diagnosis and updated guidelines for gout and hyperuricemia management. Moreover, the authors have reviewed and discussed current drug delivery systems found in the literature, including drugs targeting the above disorders. Finally, the available clinical trials assessing the efficacy of newer drugs or combinations of the past ones, are being discussed.

CONCLUSION

The available drugs and dosage forms are limited, and therefore, scientific society should focus on the development of more efficient drug delivery systems for hyperuricemia and gout management.

Yeast glucan particles: An express train for oral targeted drug delivery systems

As an emerging drug delivery vehicle, yeast glucan particles (YGPs) derived from yeast cells could be specifically taken up by macrophages. Therefore, these vehicles could rely on the recruitment of macrophages at the site of inflammation and tumors to enable targeted imaging and drug delivery. This review summarizes recent advances in the application of YGPs in oral targeted delivery systems, covering the basic structure of yeast cells, methods for pre-preparation, drug encapsulation and characterization. The mechanism and validation of the target recognition interaction of YGPs with macrophages are highlighted, and some inspiring cases are presented to show that yeast cells have promising applications. The future chances and difficulties that YGPs will confront are also emphasized throughout this essay. YGPs are not only the "armor" but also the "compass" of drugs in the process of targeted drug transport. This system is expected to provide a new idea about the oral targeted delivery of anti-inflammatory and anti-tumor drugs, and furthermore offer an effective delivery strategy for targeted therapy of other macrophage-related diseases.

Chitosan-carboxymethyl tamarind gum in situ polyelectrolyte complex-based floating capsules of ofloxacin: In vitro-in vivo studies

The current research attempted to design and evaluate sustained stomach-specific ofloxacin delivery by single-unit hydrodynamically balanced system (HBS)-based floating capsules. These HBS-based floating capsules of ofloxacin were prepared using two oppositely ionic polymers, namely cationic-natured low molecular mass chitosan (LMMCH) and anionic-natured carboxymethyl tamarind gum (CMTG). FTIR results indicated the in situ formation of a polyelectrolyte complex in-between two oppositely charged polymers (i.e., in-between -NH2 group of the cationic natured LMMCH and -COOH groups of the anionic natured CMTG) and the nonexistence of any drug-polymer interaction(s) within these formulated ofloxacin HBS capsules. All these LMMCH-CMTG ofloxacin HBS capsules exhibited drug content uniformity, a sustained in vitro drug-releasing profile over 10 h. The ofloxacin HBS capsules (formulated with 75 mg LMMCH and 25 mg CMTG), which was selected as best formulation (for further studies), exhibited excellent in vitro floatation behaviour in SGF (pH 1.2) over 6 h without any floating lag-time, whereas the same formulation containing barium sulfate (100 mg) instead of drug demonstrated prolonged stomach-specific gastroretention in an in vivo X-ray imaging study using rabbits. Therefore, these types of HBS floating capsules can be useful for stomach-specific gastroretentive floating delivery of other drugs.

Orally-administered nanomedicine systems targeting colon inflammation for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease: latest advances

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a chronic and idiopathic condition that results in inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract, leading to conditions such as ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease. Commonly used treatments for IBD include anti-inflammatory drugs, immunosuppressants, and antibiotics. Fecal microbiota transplantation is also being explored as a potential treatment method; however, these drugs may lead to systemic side effects. Oral administration is preferred for IBD treatment, but accurately locating the inflamed area in the colon is challenging due to multiple physiological barriers. Nanoparticle drug delivery systems possess unique physicochemical properties that enable precise delivery to the target site for IBD treatment, exploiting the increased permeability and retention effect of inflamed intestines. The first part of this review comprehensively introduces the pathophysiological environment of IBD, covering the gastrointestinal pH, various enzymes in the pathway, transport time, intestinal mucus, intestinal epithelium, intestinal immune cells, and intestinal microbiota. The second part focuses on the latest advances in the mechanism and strategies of targeted delivery using oral nanoparticle drug delivery systems for colitis-related fields. Finally, we present challenges and potential directions for future IBD treatment with the assistance of nanotechnology.

Advancing algorithmic drug product development: Recommendations for machine learning approaches in drug formulation

Artificial intelligence is a rapidly expanding area of research, with the disruptive potential to transform traditional approaches in the pharmaceutical industry, from drug discovery and development to clinical practice. Machine learning, a subfield of artificial intelligence, has fundamentally transformed in silico modelling and has the capacity to streamline clinical translation. This paper reviews data-driven modelling methodologies with a focus on drug formulation development. Despite recent advances, there is limited modelling guidance specific to drug product development and a trend towards suboptimal modelling practices, resulting in models that may not give reliable predictions in practice. There is an overwhelming focus on benchtop experimental outcomes obtained for a specific modelling aim, leaving the capabilities of data scraping or the use of combined modelling approaches yet to be fully explored. Moreover, the preference for high accuracy can lead to a reliance on black box methods over interpretable models. This further limits the widespread adoption of machine learning as black boxes yield models that cannot be easily understood for the purposes of enhancing product performance. In this review, recommendations for conducting machine learning research for drug product development to ensure trustworthiness, transparency, and reliability of the models produced are presented. Finally, possible future directions on how research in this area might develop are discussed to aim for models that provide useful and robust guidance to formulators.

Polymers Enhancing Bioavailability in Drug Delivery, 2nd Edition

This Special Issue continues the previously published work [...].

Caco-2 Cell Line Standardization with Pharmaceutical Requirements and In Vitro Model Suitability for Permeability Assays

The Caco-2 cell line derived from human colon carcinoma is commonly used to assess the permeability of compounds in in vitro conditions. Due to the significant increase in permeability studies using the Caco-2 cell line in recent years, the need to standardize this biological model seems necessary. The pharmaceutical requirements define only the acceptance criteria for the validation of the Caco-2 cell line and do not specify the protocol for its implementation. Therefore, the aim of this study is to review the conditions for permeability studies across the Caco-2 monolayer reported in the available literature concerning validation guidelines. We summarized the main aspects affecting the validation process of the Caco-2 cell line, including the culture conditions, cytotoxicity, cell differentiation process, and monolayer transport conditions, and the main conclusions may be useful in developing individual methods for preparing the cell line for validation purposes and further permeability research.

Polysaccharide-based tumor microenvironment-responsive drug delivery systems for cancer therapy

The biochemical indicators of tumor microenvironment (TME) that are different from normal tissues provide the possibility for constructing intelligent drug delivery systems (DDSs). Polysaccharides with good biocompatibility, biodegradability, and unique biological properties are ideal materials for constructing DDSs. Nanogels, micelles, organic-inorganic nanocomposites, hydrogels, and microneedles (MNs) are common polysaccharide-based DDSs. Polysaccharide-based DDSs enable precise control of drug delivery and release processes by incorporating TME-specific biochemical indicators. The classification and design strategies of polysaccharide-based TME-responsive DDSs are comprehensively reviewed. The advantages and challenges of current polysaccharide-based DDSs are summarized and the future directions of development are foreseen. The polysaccharide-based TME-responsive DDSs are expected to provide new strategies and solutions for cancer therapy and make important contributions to the realization of precision medicine.

Chitosan in Oral Drug Delivery Formulations: A Review

Nanoformulations have become increasingly useful as drug delivery technologies in recent decades. As therapeutics, oral administration is the most common delivery method, although it is not always the most effective route because of challenges with swallowing, gastrointestinal discomfort, low solubility, and poor absorption. One of the most significant barriers that medications must overcome to exert a therapeutic effect is the impact of the first hepatic transit. Studies have shown that controlled-release systems using nanoparticles composed of biodegradable natural polymers significantly improve oral administration, which is why these materials have attracted significant attention. Chitosan possesses a wide variety of properties and functions in the pharmaceutical as well as healthcare industries. Drug encapsulation and transport within the body are two of its most important features. Moreover, chitosan can enhance drug efficacy by facilitating drug interaction with target cells. Based on its physicochemical properties, chitosan can potentially be synthesized into nanoparticles, and this review summarizes recent advances and applications of orally delivered chitosan nanoparticle interventions.

Chitosan Nanoparticles for Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease Treatment

Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD) is a chronic ailment that results from the backward flow of stomach acid into the esophagus, causing heartburn and acid regurgitation. This review explores nanotechnology as a novel treatment approach for GERD. Chitosan nanoparticles (CSNPs) offer several advantages, including biocompatibility, biodegradability, and targeted drug delivery capabilities. CSNPs have been extensively studied due to their ability to encapsulate and release medications in a controlled manner. Different nanoparticle (NP) delivery systems, including gels, microspheres, and coatings, have been developed to enhance drug retention, drug targeting, and controlled release in the esophagus. These nanoparticles can target specific molecular pathways associated with acid regulation, esophageal tissue protection, and inflammation modulation. However, the optimization of nanoparticle formulations faces challenges, including ensuring stability, scalability, and regulatory compliance. The future may see CSNPs combined with other treatments like proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) or mucosal protectants for a synergistic therapeutic approach. Thus, CSNPs provide exciting opportunities for novel GERD treatment strategies.

Toward the bioactive potential of myricitrin in food production: state-of-the-art green extraction and trends in biosynthesis

Myricitrin is a member of flavonols, natural phenolic compounds extracted from plant resources. It has gained great attention for various biological activities, such as anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, anti-diabetic, as well as cardio-/neuro-/hepatoprotective activities. These effects have been demonstrated in both in vitro and in vivo models, making myricitrin a favorable candidate for the exploitation of novel functional foods with potential protective or preventive effects against diseases. This review summarized the health benefits of myricitrin and attempted to uncover its action mechanism, expecting to provide a theoretical basis for their application. Despite enormous bioactive potential of myricitrin, low production, high cost, and environmental damage caused by extracting it from plant resources greatly constrain its practical application. Fortunately, innovative, green, and sustainable extraction techniques are emerging to extract myricitrin, which function as alternatives to conventional techniques. Additionally, biosynthesis based on synthetic biology plays an essential role in industrial-scale manufacturing, which has not been reported for myricitrin exclusively. The construction of microbial cell factories is absolutely an appealing and competitive option to produce myricitrin in large-scale manufacturing. Consequently, state-of-the-art green extraction techniques and trends in biosynthesis were reviewed and discussed to endow an innovative perspective for the large-scale production of myricitrin.

Untethered shape-changing devices in the gastrointestinal tract

INTRODUCTION

Advances in microfabrication, automation, and computer engineering seek to revolutionize small-scale devices and machines. Emerging trends in medicine point to smart devices that emulate the motility, biosensing abilities, and intelligence of cells and pathogens that inhabit the human body. Two important characteristics of smart medical devices are the capability to be deployed in small conduits, which necessitates being untethered, and the capacity to perform mechanized functions, which requires autonomous shape-changing.

AREAS COVERED

We motivate the need for untethered shape-changing devices in the gastrointestinal tract for drug delivery, diagnosis, and targeted treatment. We survey existing structures and devices designed and utilized across length scales from the macro to the sub-millimeter. These devices range from triggerable pre-stressed thin film microgrippers and spring-loaded devices to shape-memory and differentially swelling structures.

EXPERT OPINION

Recent studies demonstrate that when fully enabled, tether-free and shape-changing devices, especially at sub-mm scales, could significantly advance the diagnosis and treatment of GI diseases ranging from cancer and inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) to irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) by improving treatment efficacy, reducing costs, and increasing medication compliance. We discuss the challenges and possibilities associated with ensuring safe, reliable, and autonomous operation of these smart devices.

β-Glucan and Fatty Acid Based Mucoadhesive Carrier for Gastrointestinal Tract Specific Local and Sustained Drug Delivery

The oral route is considered the most convenient route of drug administration for both systemic and local delivery. Besides stability and transportation, another unmet but important issue regarding oral medication is retention duration within the specific region of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. We hypothesize that an oral vehicle that can adhere and maintain retention within the stomach for a longer duration can be more effective to treat stomach-related diseases. Therefore, in this project, we developed a carrier that is highly specific to the stomach and maintains its retention for a longer duration. We developed a vehicle composed of β-Glucan And Docosahexaenoic Acid (GADA) to observe its affinity and specificity to the stomach. GADA forms a spherical-shaped particle with negative zeta potential values that vary based on the feed ratio of docosahexaenoic acid. Docosahexaenoic acid is an omega-3 fatty acid that has transporters and receptors throughout the GI tract, such as CD36, plasma membrane-associated fatty acid-binding protein (FABP (pm)), and a family of fatty acid transport proteins (FATP1-6). The in vitro studies and characterization data showed that GADA has the capability to carry a payload of hydrophobic molecules and specifically deliver the payload to the GI tract, exert its therapeutic effects, and help to maintain stability for more than 12 h in the gastric and intestinal fluid. The particle size and surface plasmon resonance (SPR) data showed that GADA has a strong binding affinity with mucin in the presence of simulated gastric fluids. We observed a comparatively higher drug release of lidocaine in gastric juice than that in intestinal fluids, demonstrating the influence of the pH values of the media on drug-release kinetics. In vivo and ex vivo imaging of mice demonstrated that GADA maintains its retention within the stomach for at least 4 hr. This stomach-specific oral vehicle holds strong promise to translate various injectable therapeutic drugs to oral form upon further optimizations.

Lung Inflammation Induced by Inactivated SARS-CoV-2 in C57BL/6 Female Mice Is Controlled by Intranasal Instillation of Vitamin D

The COVID-19 pandemic was triggered by the coronavirus SARS-CoV-2, whose peak occurred in the years 2020 and 2021. The main target of this virus is the lung, and the infection is associated with an accentuated inflammatory process involving mainly the innate arm of the immune system. Here, we described the induction of a pulmonary inflammatory process triggered by the intranasal (IN) instillation of UV-inactivated SARS-CoV-2 in C57BL/6 female mice, and then the evaluation of the ability of vitamin D (VitD) to control this process. The assays used to estimate the severity of lung involvement included the total and differential number of cells in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF), histopathological analysis, quantification of T cell subsets, and inflammatory mediators by RT-PCR, cytokine quantification in lung homogenates, and flow cytometric analysis of cells recovered from lung parenchyma. The IN instillation of inactivated SARS-CoV-2 triggered a pulmonary inflammatory process, consisting of various cell types and mediators, resembling the typical inflammation found in transgenic mice infected with SARS-CoV-2. This inflammatory process was significantly decreased by the IN delivery of VitD, but not by its IP administration, suggesting that this hormone could have a therapeutic potential in COVID-19 if locally applied. To our knowledge, the local delivery of VitD to downmodulate lung inflammation in COVID-19 is an original proposition.