The Science of Sex Differences in Science and Mathematics

Sense of belonging within the graduate community of a research-focused STEM department: Quantitative assessment using a visual narrative and item response theory

It is well-documented that the representation of women and racial/ethnic minorities diminishes at higher levels of academia, particularly in science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM). Sense of belonging-the extent to which an individual believes they are accepted, valued, and included in a community-is often emphasized as an important predictor of retention throughout academia. While literature addressing undergraduate sense of belonging is abundant, there has been little investigation of sense of belonging in graduate communities. Because graduate training is required to generate new scientific leaders, it is important to understand and address sense of belonging at the graduate level-paying explicit attention to devising strategies that can be used to increase representation at higher levels of academia. Here, a visual narrative survey and item response modeling are used to quantify sense of belonging among graduate students, postdoctoral researchers, and faculty within the Department of Chemistry at the University of California, Berkeley. Results suggest that graduate students, postdoctoral researchers, and faculty all experience impostor phenomenon. Respondents struggle most with maintaining positive self-perceptions of their productivity, capabilities as a scientist, and success-particularly in comparison to their peers. Communicating about science with peers, talking about teaching hurdles, and engaging in mentoring relationships also contribute significantly to sense of belonging. Faculty members have the highest sense of belonging, while senior graduate students and postdoctoral researchers are least likely to feel a sense of belonging. Additionally, graduate students and postdoctoral researchers who identify as underrepresented, as well as those who submit manuscripts for publication less than their peers, are less likely to feel a sense of belonging. This is the first study to generate a quantitative, nuanced understanding of sense of belonging within the entire graduate academic community of an R1 STEM department. We envision that these methods can be implemented within any research-focused academic unit to better understand the challenges facing community members and identify factors to address in promoting positive culture change. Furthermore, these methods and results should provide a foundation for devising interventions that academic stakeholders can use to directly improve graduate education.

Measurement Invariance and Differential Item Functioning Across Gender Within a Latent Class Analysis Framework: Evidence From a High-Stakes Test for University Admission in Saudi Arabia

The main aim of the present study was to investigate the presence of Differential Item Functioning (DIF) using a latent class (LC) analysis approach. Particularly, we examined potential sources of DIF in relation to gender. Data came from 6,265 Saudi Arabia students, who completed a high-stakes standardized admission test for university entrance. The results from a Latent Class Analysis (LCA) revealed a three-class solution (i.e., high, average, and low scorers). Then, to better understand the nature of the emerging classes and the characteristics of the people who comprise them, we applied a new stepwise approach, using the Multiple Indicator Multiple Causes (MIMIC) model. The model identified both uniform and non-uniform DIF effects for several items across all scales of the test, although, for the majority of them, the DIF effect sizes were negligible. Findings from this study have important implications for both measurement quality and interpretation of the results. Particularly, results showed that gender is a potential source of DIF for latent class indicators; thus, it is important to include those direct effects in the latent class regression model, to obtain unbiased estimates not only for the measurement parameters but also of the structural parameters. Ignoring these effects might lead to misspecification of the latent classes in terms of both the size and the characteristics of each class, which in turn, could lead to misinterpretations of the obtained latent class results. Implications of the results for practice are discussed.

Gender differences in the development of semantic and spatial processing of numbers

This study recruited kindergarteners and first graders to investigate gender and grade differences in semantic and spatial processing of number magnitude. Results based on the Bayesian statistics showed that (1) there was extreme evidence in favour of grade differences in both semantic processing and spatial processing; (2) there were no gender differences in semantic processing; and (3) boys developed earlier than girls in spatial processing of numbers, especially for the more difficult task. These results are discussed in terms of gender differences in cognitive mechanisms underlying semantic and spatial processing of number magnitude.

Talent Development in Achievement Domains: A Psychological Framework for Within- and Cross-Domain Research

Achievement in different domains, such as academics, music, or visual arts, plays a central role in all modern societies. Different psychological models aim to describe and explain achievement and its development in different domains. However, there remains a need for a framework that guides empirical research within and across different domains. With the talent-development-in-achievement-domains (TAD) framework, we provide a general talent-development framework applicable to a wide range of achievement domains. The overarching aim of this framework is to support empirical research by focusing on measurable psychological constructs and their meaning at different levels of talent development. Furthermore, the TAD framework can be used for constructing domain-specific talent-development models. With examples for the application of the TAD framework to the domains of mathematics, music, and visual arts, the review provided supports the suitability of the TAD framework for domain-specific model construction and indicates numerous research gaps and open questions that should be addressed in future research.

Gender Differences in Connectome-based Predictions of Individualized Intelligence Quotient and Sub-domain Scores

Scores on intelligence tests are strongly predictive of various important life outcomes. However, the gender discrepancy on intelligence quotient (IQ) prediction using brain imaging variables has not been studied. To this aim, we predicted individual IQ scores for males and females separately using whole-brain functional connectivity (FC). Robust predictions of intellectual capabilities were achieved across three independent data sets (680 subjects) and two intelligence measurements (IQ and fluid intelligence) using the same model within each gender. Interestingly, we found that intelligence of males and females were underpinned by different neurobiological correlates, which are consistent with their respective superiority in cognitive domains (visuospatial vs verbal ability). In addition, the identified FC patterns are uniquely predictive on IQ and its sub-domain scores only within the same gender but neither for the opposite gender nor on the IQ-irrelevant measures such as temperament traits. Moreover, females exhibit significantly higher IQ predictability than males in the discovery cohort. This findings facilitate our understanding of the biological basis of intelligence by demonstrating that intelligence is underpinned by a variety of complex neural mechanisms that engage an interacting network of regions-particularly prefrontal-parietal and basal ganglia-whereas the network pattern differs between genders.

Gender Differences in Visuospatial Abilities and Complex Mathematical Problem Solving

Mathematical problem-solving and spatial visualization are areas in which performance has been shown to vary with sex. This article describes the impact of gender on spatial relations measured in 331 secondary school students (202 males, 129 females), 145 (105 males, 40 females) of whom had been selected to participate in a mathematical talent stimulation project after passing a complex problem-solving test. In the two tests administered, the Differential Aptitude Tests-Space Relations (DAT-SR) and the Primary Mental Abilities-Space Relations (PMA-SR), performance was assessed on the grounds of both absolute scores and the ratio to the number of items answered. The students participating in the talent program earned higher scores on both tests, although no interaction was identified between mathematical abilities and gender in connection with the differences in spatial habilities observed. In PMA-SR, boys answered more items and scored higher, whereas in DAT-SR girls tended to omit more items. None of the indicators studied exhibited differences between the sexes in both tests and in some cases the differences in the absolute values of the indicators were absent when expressed as ratios.

No Evidence for Enhancement of Spatial Ability with Elevated Prenatal Androgen Exposure in Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia: A Meta-Analysis

Spatial abilities contribute to life and occupational competencies, and certain spatial skills differ, on average, between males and females, typically favoring males when differences occur. Factors contributing to spatial skills could include prenatal as well as experiential/cultural influences, with biological and social influences likely interacting and difficult to disentangle. This meta-analysis examined the potential influence of prenatal androgen exposure on spatial skill by examining studies of patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH). CAH involves elevated adrenal androgens prenatally, with overall androgen concentrations higher for females with CAH versus same-sex controls but with little overall difference between males with CAH versus controls. We hypothesized that, if androgens contribute prenatally to neurobehavioral development in humans as in many other species, females with CAH would show spatial enhancement versus control females, but with no definitive hypothesis for males. Meta-analysis of 12 studies examining overall spatial skill and three spatial subcategories failed to support enhanced spatial performance for females with CAH; males with CAH showed lower spatial ability compared to control males, at least for the category of overall spatial skill. Although statistical logic precludes accepting the null hypothesis for females, the meta-analysis failed to support the idea that prenatal exposure to androgens explains spatial gender/sex differences in humans. Alternative explanations for average gender/sex differences in some spatial tasks could include androgen exposure at other times, such as mini-puberty, or different social factors experienced by males and females. We also discuss possible explanations for the different outcomes seen in females versus males with CAH.

Sex Differences in Mathematics Anxiety and Attitudes: Concurrent and Longitudinal Relations to Mathematical Competence

Sex differences in the strength of the relations between mathematics anxiety, mathematics attitudes and mathematics achievement were assessed concurrently in sixth grade (n = 1,091, 545 boys) and longitudinally from sixth- to seventh-grade (n = 190, 97 boys). Mathematics anxiety was composed of two facets, one associated with evaluations and the other for learning more generally. Girls had higher mathematics anxiety for evaluations than did boys (ds = -.30 to -.52), but not for mathematics learning. In sixth grade, the negative correlation between mathematical competence and mathematics anxiety for evaluations was stronger in girls than in boys. Longitudinally, higher mathematical competence in sixth grade was associated with lower mathematics anxiety for evaluations and better mathematics attitudes in seventh grade for girls but not for boys. The key finding is that adolescent girls' mathematics anxiety and their attitudes toward mathematics are more reflective of their actual mathematical competence than they are for boys. One implication is that relative to boys with low mathematics achievement, girls with low achievement are at higher risk of developing mathematics anxiety and poor attitudes toward mathematics.

Opposite-sex and same-sex twin studies of physiological, cognitive and behavioral traits

A scientific interest in opposite-sex (OS) twins comes from animal studies showing hormone transfer between fetuses in utero. A parallel effect in humans may occur, especially for OS females who may be exposed to androgens, in particular testosterone, from the male co-twin. Conversely, OS males may be exposed to lower levels of prenatal testosterone than do same-sex (SS) males. In this special issue, we reviewed published studies investigating potential differences between OS and SS twins in physiological, cognitive and behavioral traits focusing on the Twin Testosterone Transfer (TTT) hypothesis. Sixty articles fulfilled the eligibility criteria including 23 studies published since the review by Tapp et al. (2011). In general, studies of cognition are conflicting, but it is the phenotype for which most support for the TTT hypothesis is found. Less consistent evidence has been found regarding physiological and behavioral traits. We hope that this special issue will stimulate a discussion about how an investigation of the TTT hypothesis should continue in future research.

Examining Gender Differences in Neurocognitive Functioning Across Adulthood

OBJECTIVE

Previous research has shown that women have an advantage on verbal episodic memory and processing speed tasks, while men show an advantage on spatial ability measures. Previous work has also found differences in cognition across age. The current study examines gender differences in neurocognitive functioning across adulthood, whether age moderates this effect, and whether these differences remain consistent with practice across multiple testing sessions.

METHOD

Data from the Virginia Cognitive Aging Project were used, which included participants between the ages of 18 and 99 years (N = 5125). Participants completed measures assessing five cognitive domains: episodic memory, processing speed, reasoning, spatial visualization, and vocabulary.

RESULTS

Results showed that gender was significantly related to memory, speed, and spatial visualization, but not to vocabulary or reasoning. Results of invariance analyses across men and women provided evidence of configural and metric invariance, along with partial scalar invariance. Additionally, there was little evidence that age or practice influenced the gender effect on neurocognition.

CONCLUSIONS

Consistent with the previous research, these results suggest that there is a female advantage in episodic memory and processing speed, and a male advantage in spatial visualization. Gender was shown to influence cognition similarly across adulthood. Furthermore, the influence of gender remained the same across three sessions, which is consistent with the previous work that has shown that training does not differentially impact performance on spatial ability measures for females compared to males.

Neural Efficiency of Human-Robotic Feedback Modalities Under Stress Differs With Gender

Sensory feedback, which can be presented in different modalities - single and combined, aids task performance in human-robotic interaction (HRI). However, combining feedback modalities does not always lead to optimal performance. Indeed, it is not known how feedback modalities affect operator performance under stress. Furthermore, there is limited information on how feedback affects neural processes differently for males and females and under stress. This is a critical gap in the literature, particularly in the domain of surgical robotics, where surgeons are under challenging socio-technical environments that burden them physiologically. In the present study, we posited operator performance as the summation of task performance and neurophysiological cost of maintaining that performance. In a within-subject design, we used functional near-infrared spectroscopy to assess cerebral activations of 12 participants who underwent a 3D manipulation task within a virtual environment with concurrent feedback (visual and visual + haptic) in the presence and absence of a cognitive stressor. Cognitive stress was induced with the serial-7 subtraction test. We found that while task performance was higher with visual than visual + haptic feedback, it degraded under stress. The two feedback modalities were found to be associated with varying neural activities and neural efficiencies, and these were stress- and gender-dependent. Our findings engender further investigation into effectiveness of feedback modalities on males and females under stressful conditions in HRI.

Gender differences in cognitive function and grip strength: a cross-national comparison of four European regions

BACKGROUND

Cross-national comparison studies on gender differences have mainly focussed on life expectancy, while less research has examined differences in health across countries. We aimed to investigate gender differences in cognitive function and grip strength over age and time across European regions.

METHODS

We performed a cross-sectional study including 51 292 men and 62 007 women aged 50 + participating in the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe between 2004-05 and 2015. Linear regression models were used to examine associations.

RESULTS

In general, women had better cognitive function than men, whereas men had higher grip strength measures. Sex differences were consistent over time, but decreased with age. Compared with men, women had higher cognitive scores at ages 50-59, corresponding to 0.17 SD (95% CI 0.14, 0.20) but slightly lower scores at ages 80-89 (0.08 SD, 95% CI 0.14, 0.00). For grip strength, the sex difference decreased from 18.8 kg (95% CI 18.5, 19.1) at ages 50-59 to 8.5 kg (95% CI 7.1, 9.9) at age 90 + . Northern Europeans had higher cognitive scores (19.6%) and grip strength measures (13.8%) than Southern Europeans. Gender differences in grip strength were similar across regions, whereas for cognitive function they varied considerably, with Southern Europe having a male advantage from ages 60-89.

CONCLUSION

Our results illustrate that gender differences in health depend on the selected health dimension and the age group studied, and emphasize the importance of considering regional differences in research on cognitive gender differences.

Gender in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics: Issues, Causes, Solutions

The landscape of gender in education and the workforce has shifted over the past decades: women have made gains in representation, equitable pay, and recognition through awards, grants, and publications. Despite overall change, differences persist in the fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). This Viewpoints article on gender disparities in STEM offers an overarching perspective by addressing what the issues are, why the issues may emerge, and how the issues may be solved. In Part 1, recent data on gaps in representation, compensation, and recognition (awards, grants, publications) are reviewed, highlighting differences across subfields (e.g., computer science vs biology) and across career trajectories (e.g., bachelor's degrees vs senior faculty). In Part 2, evidence on leading explanations for these gaps, including explanations centered on abilities, preferences, and explicit and implicit bias, is presented. Particular attention is paid to implicit bias: mental processes that exist largely outside of conscious awareness and control in both male and female perceivers and female targets themselves. Given its prevalence and persistence, implicit bias warrants a central focus for research and application. Finally, in Part 3, the current knowledge is presented on interventions to change individuals' beliefs and behaviors, as well as organizational culture and practices. The moral issues surrounding equal access aside, understanding and addressing the complex issues surrounding gender in STEM are important because of the possible benefits to STEM and society that will be realized only when full participation of all capable and qualified individuals is guaranteed.

Not All Factors Contribute Equally to European-American and Hispanic Students' SAT Scores

This exploratory study shows that the contributions of cognitive, metacognitive awareness, performance avoidance, test anxiety, and socioeconomic family background factors to SAT scores (i.e., overall SAT, SAT-V, SAT-M) may vary as a function of ethnicity (i.e., European-American, Hispanic). Four hundred and fifty-seven students, 282 European-American and 175 Hispanic, completed multiple measures of cognitive, metacognitive awareness, social/personality (i.e., test anxiety, performance avoidance, academic self-efficacy), and socioeconomic family background factors, which were used in regression analyses predicting overall SAT, SAT-V, and SAT-M scores. The results show that most factors contributed significantly to overall SAT, SAT-M, and SAT-V scores. In addition, the ethnicity X test anxiety interaction was significant for all three SAT measures, a finding that suggests ethnic differences in the contributions of test anxiety to overall SAT, SAT-M, and SAT-V scores. For European-American students, test anxiety had no influence on overall SAT and SAT-M scores, whereas for Hispanic students test anxiety had a negative influence on overall SAT and SAT-M scores. For SAT-V scores, interpreting the ethnicity X test anxiety interaction was more complicated because both the significant main effect of test anxiety and the ethnicity X test anxiety interaction must be interpreted together. Whereas test anxiety negatively influenced European-Americans' SAT-V scores, this negative influence was less than the influence it had on Hispanic students' SAT-V scores. Indeed, for Hispanic students with high test anxiety, this negative influence was profound. Taken as a whole, these results suggest that any theory explaining the SAT may need to take into account multiple predictors as well as the possibility that the contributions of these predictors may vary as a function of ethnicity.

What role do comprehension-oriented learning strategies have in solving math calculation and word problems at the end of middle school?

BACKGROUND

Math is a difficult subject with which many upper middle-school students struggle. In addition to knowledge, skills, and motivation, effective learning strategies play an important role in learning math.

AIMS

This study aimed to examine the effects of comprehension-oriented learning strategies (perceptual and abstract grouping of material) - together with math self-concept, task-persistent learning behaviour, earlier math skills, reasoning abilities, and reading comprehension - on solving mathematical calculation and word problems at the end of middle school.

SAMPLE

The sample consisted of 231 students (50% boys; mean age in Grade 9 = 15.55 years) from 16 schools and 31 classrooms in Estonia.

METHODS

Students were tested twice - once at the end of Grade 6 and once at the end of Grade 9. Calculation and problem-solving skills were assessed at both time points. Math self-concept, teacher-rated task persistence, reasoning abilities, and reading comprehension were assessed in Grade 6. Learning strategies were assessed using a word-memorization task in Grade 9. Multiple regression analysis was used.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

Applying abstract (but not perceptual) grouping was related to higher calculation and problem-solving skills. Math skills were persistent over time, and calculation and problem-solving skills mutually affected each other. Math self-concept, task persistence, and reading comprehension had a positive effect on problem-solving but not calculation skills. The study noted deficient use of comprehension-oriented strategies at the end of middle school, suggesting that more attention should be paid to teaching and discussing such learning strategies. These findings suggest that students' math skills may be enhanced by supporting metacognitive awareness and use of comprehension-oriented learning strategies.

Girls' comparative advantage in reading can largely explain the gender gap in math-related fields

Gender differences in math performance are now small in developed countries and they cannot explain on their own the strong underrepresentation of women in math-related fields. This latter result is however no longer true once gender differences in reading performance are also taken into account. Using individual-level data on 300,000 15-y-old students in 64 countries, we show that the difference between a student performance in reading and math is 80% of a standard deviation (SD) larger for girls than boys, a magnitude considered as very large. When this difference is controlled for, the gender gap in students' intentions to pursue math-intensive studies and careers is reduced by around 75%, while gender gaps in self-concept in math, declared interest for math or attitudes toward math entirely disappear. These latter variables are also much less able to explain the gender gap in intentions to study math than is students' difference in performance between math and reading. These results are in line with choice models in which educational decisions involve intraindividual comparisons of achievement and self-beliefs in different subjects as well as cultural norms regarding gender. To directly show that intraindividual comparisons of achievement impact students' intended careers, we use differences across schools in teaching resources dedicated to math and reading as exogenous variations of students' comparative advantage for math. Results confirm that the comparative advantage in math with respect to reading at the time of making educational choices plays a key role in the process leading to women's underrepresentation in math-intensive fields.

Associations Between Gender-Role Attitudes and Mental Health Outcomes in a Nationally Representative Sample of Australian Adolescents

PURPOSE

There is evidence that traditional gender-role attitudes are associated with poor mental health outcomes in adults; however, few studies have examined associations among adolescents. We sought to test associations between gender-role attitudes and mental health among Australian adolescents.

METHODS

Data were drawn from the Longitudinal Study of Australian Children, a nationally representative Australian study. Participants were 3,059 adolescents with complete data for Waves 5-6 (years 2012-2014, aged 12/13 and 14/15 years). Analyses were stratified by sex and controlled for parental education, household income, area socioeconomic position, ethnicity, religiousness, and household type. Multivariable linear regression analyses were conducted to test associations.

RESULTS

Egalitarian gender-role attitudes were associated with fewer conduct problems for adolescent males (ß -.04, 95% confidence interval [CI] -.08 to .00; p = .048) and females (ß -.06, 95% CI -.11 to -.01; p = .014), and for females, less hyperactivity (ß -.15, 95% CI -.20 to -.09; p < .001), better prosocial behavior (ß .08, 95% CI .03 to .13; p = .003), and better overall mental health (ß -.27, 95% CI -.43 to -.11, p = .001). There were no associations for peer problems or emotional problems. Associations were more apparent for females than for males, and analyses using adolescent- and teacher-reported mental health supported the main findings.

CONCLUSIONS

Egalitarian gender-role attitudes among adolescents are associated with better outcomes on some dimensions of adolescent mental health, suggesting that establishing egalitarian gender attitudes in adolescence could help impart mental health benefits among this population group.

Boys are Affected by Their Parents More Than Girls are: Parents' Utility Value Socialization in Science

Gender differences in parental value socialization of their children's motivation, achievement, and career aspirations in science were investigated. Direct and indirect modes of parental value socialization were examined by asking parents about their perception of the utility value of science for their children and for themselves. A total of 260 dyads of Korean parents (86.5% mothers) and their 5 or 6th grade children (45.8% girls) participated in the study. Boys aspired STEM-related careers more strongly than did girls despite comparable levels of motivation and achievement in science. Parents' value beliefs did not predict their daughters' science motivation and achievement but were highly predictive of those of their sons. Parents' perception of the utility value of science for their sons, which may have been directly communicated to and imposed on children, predicted their sons' STEM career aspirations and science achievement. In contrast, parents' perception of the utility value of science for themselves, which may have been indirectly endorsed and embedded in parental behavior, predicted only their sons' science achievement. In male-favored domains like STEM, parents alone may be able to socialize their sons on task values, whereas a more diverse range of socializers may be needed to shape and develop girls' values.

Interactive apps prevent gender discrepancies in early-grade mathematics in a low-income country in sub-Sahara Africa

Globally, gender differences are reported in the early acquisition of reading and mathematics as girls tend to outperform boys in reading, whereas boys tend to outperform girls in mathematics. This can have long‐term impact resulting in an under‐representation of girls in Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics subjects. Recent research suggests that sociocultural factors account for differences across genders in the acquisition of these foundational skills. In this study, we investigated whether a new technology‐based intervention, that included activities accessible to both boys and girls, can reduce gender differences from emerging during the early primary school years. The novel instructional method used in this study employed apps developed by onebillion© delivered individually through touch‐screen tablets. Over a series of experiments conducted in Malawi, a low‐income country in sub‐Sahara Africa, we found that when children were exposed to standard pedagogical practice typical gender differences emerged over the first grade (Experiment 1). In contrast, boys and girls learnt equally well with the new interactive apps designed to support the learning of mathematics (Experiment 2) and reading (Experiment 3). When implemented at the start of primary education, before significant gender discrepancies become established, this novel technology‐based intervention can prevent significant gender effects for mathematics. These results demonstrate that different instructional practices influence the emergence of gender disparities in early mathematics. Digital interventions can mitigate gender differences in countries where standard pedagogical instruction typically hinders girls from acquiring early mathematical skills at the same rate as boys.

A video abstract of this article can be viewed at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=55x-6hhAY9M&feature=youtu.be

Sex Similarities and Differences in Intelligence in Children Aged Two to Eight: Analysis of SON-R 2-8 Scores

The aim of this study was to investigate sex similarities and differences in visuospatial and fluid abilities and IQ scores based on those abilities in children aged two to eight. Standardization data from the Snijders-Oomen Nonverbal Intelligence Test for Children aged 2-8 (SON-R 2-8) were used. A representative sample composed of 965 children from the Netherlands and 762 children from Germany was examined. Small but significant mean sex differences favoring girls were observed until age four. At ages six and seven, boys achieved similar cognitive development levels to girls regarding all abilities assessed and outperformed girls on the Mosaics subtest measuring visuospatial cognition. Boys also displayed higher variability rates in performance. The distribution of IQ scores, with the overrepresentation of girls scoring above mean and the overrepresentation of boys scoring below mean in early childhood, altered with age towards parity between the sexes. The results suggest that girls tend to mature earlier with respect to cognitive abilities. During the course of development, however, the differences between girls and boys may become negligible.

Self-Concept Profiles in Lower Secondary Level - An Explanation for Gender Differences in Science Course Selection?

One of the most powerful determinants of course selection in upper secondary level is undoubtedly students' self-concept. Students with a high self-concept in a domain are more likely to select a course in that domain. However, according to the dimensional comparison theory, the formation of self-concept includes comparison processes with self-concepts in other domains. Regarding gender, females are less likely to choose physics and are more likely to have lower STEM self-concepts as well as lower aspirations toward STEM careers than males. In Germany, students in Grade 10 choose specific academic tracks to attend during upper secondary school. The academic track choice goes in hand with choosing advanced courses. This choice entails the decision about whether to pursue STEM subjects. We adopted the person-centered approach of latent profile analysis (LPA) to investigate the patterns of students' self-concepts across the five domains, math, biology, reading, English, and physics. Furthermore, we investigated how those patterns influence educational choices regarding science subjects in upper secondary school in Germany. Based on a sample of 1,658 students, we tested whether the distinct profiles of self-concept in different domains in Grade 8 predicted gendered science course selection in Grade 10 as well as career aspirations in science. LPAs yielded four distinct profiles of self-concept that differed in level and shape: high math, high verbal, low overall, and high overall. These profiles were equivalent across gender. Gender differences were manifested in the relative distribution across the four profiles: females were more present in the low overall and high verbal-related self-concept profiles and males in the overall high and high math-related self-concept profiles. The profiles differed regarding abilities, choice of science course in upper secondary level, and science career aspirations.

Sex Differences in 32,347 Jordanian 4th Graders on the National Exam of Mathematics

Abstract. Sex differences in mathematical ability were examined in a nation-wide sample of 32,346 Jordanian 4th graders (age 9–10 year) on a 40-item mathematics test. Overall, boys were found to perform slightly worse ( d = −0.12) but had slightly more variation in scores ( SD = 1.02 and SD = 0.98 for boys and girls, respectively). However, when results were disaggregated by school type, single-sex versus coed (i.e., coeducational), boys were found to perform better than girls in coed schools ( d = 0.27) but worse across single-sex schools ( d = −0.37). Two-parameter item response theory analysis showed that item difficulty was similar across sexes in the full sample. Item loadings exhibited substantial departure from measurement invariance with respect to boys and girls at single-sex schools, though. For boys and girls at coed schools, both the item difficulty and item loading correlations were highly similar, evincing that measurement invariance largely held in this case. Partially consistent with findings from other countries, a correlation between item difficulty and male advantage was observed, r = .57, such that the relative male advantage increased with increased item difficulty. Complicating interpretation, this association did not replicate within coed schools. Item content, Bloom’s cognitive taxonomy category, and item position showed no relation to sex differences.

Digit ratio (2D:4D) and academic success as measured by achievement in the academic degree "Habilitation"

Introduction

Prenatal androgen exposure has important organizing effects on brain development and therefore on future behavior. Previous research has shown, that the ratio between index finger (2D) and ring finger (4D) (2D:4D) could function as a marker of prenatal androgen effects, with a relatively shorter 2D indicating a higher prenatal androgen exposure. 2D:4D is associated with status-seeking and competitive behavior but also with altruism. Therefore, 2D:4D should be related to academic success.

Methods

We examined the 2D:4D of both hands, as well as the difference between both variables (Dr-l), of 209 university graduates (74 women) employed at the Medical Faculty of the Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nürnberg, Germany, and we assessed the relationship of these variables with academic career performance. Career performance was measured by the number of publications as first or last author, and by achievement of an academic degree used in many European countries, the so-called “Habilitation”.

Results

In a within-sex analysis we found a non-monotonic association between the right hand digit ratio and the probability of having a “Habilitation” in females. Academic success, measured by the number of publications as first or last author and the probability of a "Habilitation", increases with age. In agreement with the literature, we found higher academic success in men.

Conclusion

We found a non-monotonic relationship between right hand 2D:4D and academic success in females. However, the significance of this relationship was weak.

The changing career trajectories of new parents in STEM

Why are women still underrepresented in science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) jobs? Social processes beyond individual preferences may shape the STEM employment trajectories of new mothers and new fathers differently. Using representative US longitudinal survey data, we followed full-time STEM professionals after the birth or adoption of their first child. We found substantial attrition of new parents; nearly one-half of new mothers and nearly one-quarter of new fathers leave full-time STEM employment after having children. Thus, parenthood is an important driver of gender imbalance in STEM employment, and both mothers and fathers appear to encounter difficulties reconciling caregiving with STEM careers. These findings have implications for the vitality of the US science and engineering workforce.

The gender imbalance in science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) fields has remained constant for decades and increases the farther up the STEM career pipeline one looks. Why does the underrepresentation of women endure? This study investigated the role of parenthood as a mechanism of gender-differentiated attrition from STEM employment. Using a nationally representative 8-year longitudinal sample of US STEM professionals, we examined the career trajectories of new parents after the birth or adoption of their first child. We found substantial attrition of new mothers: 43% of women leave full-time STEM employment after their first child. New mothers are more likely than new fathers to leave STEM, to switch to part-time work, and to exit the labor force. These gender differences hold irrespective of variation by discipline, race, and other demographic factors. However, parenthood is not just a “mother’s problem”; 23% of new fathers also leave STEM after their first child. Suggesting the difficulty of combining STEM work with caregiving responsibilities generally, new parents are more likely to leave full-time STEM jobs than otherwise similar childless peers and even new parents who remain employed full time are more likely than their childless peers to exit STEM for work elsewhere. These results have implications for policymakers and STEM workforce scholars; whereas parenthood is an important mechanism of women’s attrition, both women and men leave at surprisingly high rates after having children. Given that most people become parents during their working lives, STEM fields must do more to retain professionals with children.

Working toward gender diversity and inclusion in medicine: myths and solutions

Women's representation in science and medicine has slowly increased over the past few decades. However, this rise in numbers of women, or gender diversity, has not been matched by a rise in gender inclusion. Despite increasing representation, women still encounter bias and discrimination when compared with men in these fields across a variety of outcomes, including treatment at school and work, hiring, compensation, evaluation, and promotion. Individual and systemic biases create unwelcome environments for women, particularly for those who additionally identify with other traditionally devalued groups (eg, women of colour). This Review draws on several decades of research in the field of management and its cognate disciplines to identify five myths that continue to perpetuate gender bias and five strategies for improving not only the number of women in medicine, but also their lived experiences, capacity to aspire, and opportunity to succeed. We argue for a move away from a singular focus on interventions aimed at targeting individual attitudes and behaviour to more comprehensive interventions that address structural and systemic changes.

Do Both Intrinsic and Identified Motivations Have Long-Term Effects?

This research examined the possible long-term effects of autonomous motivation on educational outcomes in the large scale High School Longitudinal Study 2009 (HSLS:09) data. We used a three-wave cross-lagged model to examine the longitudinal effects of intrinsic and identified motivation on 18,132 students in the mathematics domain and 16,684 students in the science domain. The results showed that intrinsic motivation was a long-term and effective enhancement agent on the subsequent academic performance, self-efficacy, identity, and course effort. In contrast, identified motivation might be sensitive to the contexts and was thus vulnerable to change in the long-term effects. Though identified motivation has positive effects on some immediate educational outcomes and is often regarded as "helpful" motivation, its positive effect is probably short-lived and might not last long in real life educational settings.

Gender similarities in the brain during mathematics development

Some scientists and public figures have hypothesized that women and men differ in their pursuit of careers in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) owing to biological differences in mathematics aptitude. However, little evidence supports such claims. Some studies of children and adults show gender differences in mathematics performance but in those studies it is impossible to disentangle intrinsic, biological differences from sociocultural influences. To investigate the early biology of mathematics and gender, we tested for gender differences in the neural processes of mathematics in young children. We measured 3-10-year-old children's neural development with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) during naturalistic viewing of mathematics education videos. We implemented both frequentist and Bayesian analyses that quantify gender similarities and differences in neural processes. Across all analyses girls and boys showed significant gender similarities in neural functioning, indicating that boys and girls engage the same neural system during mathematics development.

Reciprocal Effects Among Parental Homework Support, Effort, and Achievement? An Empirical Investigation

The present study investigates reciprocal influences of parental homework support, effort, and math achievement, using two waves of data from 336 9th-graders. Results revealed that higher prior autonomy-oriented support and homework effort resulted in higher subsequent achievement. Higher prior content-oriented support led to higher subsequent effort, but lower subsequent achievement. Additionally, higher prior effort led to higher subsequent autonomy-oriented support. Furthermore, our results supported the structural path invariance over gender. The current investigation advances extant research, by differentiating two forms of parental homework support (autonomy- and content-oriented support), and by showing their respective influences on subsequent homework effort and math achievement.

Decomposing international gender test score differences

In this paper, we decompose worldwide PISA mathematics and reading scores. While mathematics scores are still tilted towards boys, girls have a larger advantage in reading over boys. Girls' disadvantage in mathematics is increasing over the distribution of talents. Our decomposition shows that part of this increase can be explained by an increasing trend in productive endowments and learning productivity, although the largest part remains unexplained. Countries' general level of gender (in)equality also contributes to girls' disadvantage. For reading, at the upper end of the talent distribution, girls' advantage can be fully explained by differences in learning productivity, but this is not so at lower levels.

"It's Wrong to Exclude Girls From Something They Love." Adolescents' Attitudes About Sexism in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math

The current research examined adolescents' attitudes about sexism in fields related to science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM). The ethnically diverse sample (61% East Asian) was composed of 629 adolescents (M_age  = 16.09) who attended a public school in the United States. Participants responded to closed- and open-ended questions about the prevalence and severity of sexism in STEM. We used latent profile analysis to classify participants into latent classes according to their responses. Of note, one latent class included participants who perceived sexism in STEM as a fairly common and very serious problem. Relative to the other classes, participants in this class were more likely to be girls and showed higher STEM value. Qualitative analyses illustrated that the participants in each class reasoned in fundamentally different ways about sexism in STEM.

What explains sex differences in math anxiety? A closer look at the role of spatial processing

A large body of research has documented that females experience more math anxiety than males. Researchers have identified many factors that might explain the relation between sex and math anxiety. In the current study, we present a novel theoretical framework that highlights the importance of examining multiple aspects of processing across different cognitive domains. We use this framework to address the question of what best explains sex differences in math anxiety. One hundred and seventy-five undergraduate students completed a battery of cognitive tasks and affect questionnaires intended to measure actual math ability, perceived math ability, math anxiety, actual spatial ability, perceived spatial ability, and anxiety about situations requiring spatial mental manipulation (spatial anxiety). Results revealed that processes within the spatial domain but not in the mathematical domain mediated the relation between sex and math anxiety, controlling for general anxiety and cognitive ability. Moreover, within the spatial domain, spatial anxiety was the strongest mediator between sex and math anxiety, over actual and perceived spatial ability. Our findings point to spatial anxiety as a key contributor to the commonly reported sex differences in math anxiety. We conclude by raising the possibility that sex differences in math anxiety, may be rooted in sex-related differences in anxiety about or avoidance of spatial strategies in solving mathematical tasks.

Clock Walking and Gender: How Circular Movements Influence Arithmetic Calculations

Starting from a rich body of evidence on the strict bidirectional relationship between numerical cognition and action processes, the present study aims at deepening the existing knowledge of the influence of body movement on arithmetic calculation. Numerous studies have shown that moving the body along the vertical or the horizontal axis could facilitate calculations such as additions and subtractions. More specifically, results showed an effect of congruence between the type of operation (additions vs. subtractions) and the direction of the movement performed (up/right or down/left). While this congruence effect is present for both additions and subtractions when the axis of action is vertical, when the axis of action is horizontal, the effect appears only for additions. The purpose of this study is to investigate the influence of circular motion, which has so far not been explored, on counting. Participants were asked to count by adding or subtracting “three,” while performing a circular motion (i.e., a clockwise or counterclockwise movement), in an active (i.e., walking) or passive mode (i.e., being pushed on a wheelchair). Results showed a congruence effect for additions calculated in the active modality and only for male participants. Implications of the results for theories of embodied cognition and for the debate on gender differences in mathematical skills are discussed in this paper.

Gender differences in individual variation in academic grades fail to fit expected patterns for STEM

Fewer women than men pursue careers in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM), despite girls outperforming boys at school in the relevant subjects. According to the 'variability hypothesis', this over-representation of males is driven by gender differences in variance; greater male variability leads to greater numbers of men who exceed the performance threshold. Here, we use recent meta-analytic advances to compare gender differences in academic grades from over 1.6 million students. In line with previous studies we find strong evidence for lower variation among girls than boys, and of higher average grades for girls. However, the gender differences in both mean and variance of grades are smaller in STEM than non-STEM subjects, suggesting that greater variability is insufficient to explain male over-representation in STEM. Simulations of these differences suggest the top 10% of a class contains equal numbers of girls and boys in STEM, but more girls in non-STEM subjects.

Mathematically Gifted Accelerated Students Participating in an Ability Group: A Qualitative Interview Study

Schools in Norway often emphasize heterogeneous groups in education. The postulated negative effects of homogeneous ability groups on motivation and academic self-concept have long been debated. This study uses semi-structured interviews to investigate how a group of 11 accelerated and ability-grouped high-ability students (gifted) in math have experienced school. All students were interviewed individually. This study explores categories connected to the students' motivation for the subject, challenges in school, peer and teacher relationships, and academic self-concept. The aim of the study is to investigate whether the school system is able to provide an adequate learning environment for high-ability students, both in ordinary class and in ability groups. The findings show that although some of the needs of high-ability students in Norway are being met, there is much work to be done before an optimal learning environment is established for these students. For example, students do not receive sufficient challenges in math. Furthermore, teachers in the early years of school lack sufficient mathematical knowledge to challenge and support mathematically gifted students, students' motivation for the subject is lower than expected, and boys' self-concept seems to be higher than that of girls.

Object exploration facilitates 4-month-olds' mental rotation performance

How do infants learn to mentally rotate objects, to imagine them rotating through different viewpoints? One possibility is that development of infants' mental rotation (MR) is facilitated by visual and manual experience with complex objects. To evaluate this possibility, eighty 4-month-olds (40 females, 40 males) participated in an object exploration task with Velcro "sticky mittens" that allow infants too young to grasp objects themselves to nonetheless explore those objects manually as well as visually. These eighty infants also participated in a visual habituation task designed to test MR. Half the infants (Mittens First group) explored the object prior to the MR task, and the other half afterwards (Mittens Second group), to examine the role of immediate prior object experience on MR performance. We compared performance of male and female infants, but found little evidence for sex differences. However, we found an important effect of object exploration: The infants in the Mittens First group who exhibited the highest levels of spontaneous object engagement showed the strongest evidence of MR, but there were no consistent correlations between these measures for infants in the Mittens Second group. These findings suggest an important contribution from object experience to development of MR.

Do Gender-Related Stereotypes Affect Spatial Performance? Exploring When, How and to Whom Using a Chronometric Two-Choice Mental Rotation Task

It is a common belief that males have superior visuospatial abilities and that differences in this and other cognitive domains (e.g., math) contribute to the reduced interest and low representation of girls and women in STEM education and professions. However, previous studies show that gender-related implicit associations and explicit beliefs, as well as situational variables, might affect cognitive performance in those gender-stereotyped domains and produce between-gender spurious differences. Therefore, the present study aimed to provide information on when, how and who might be affected by the situational reactivation of stereotypic gender-science beliefs/associations while performing a 3D mental rotation chronometric task (3DMRT). More specifically, we assessed the explicit beliefs and implicit associations (by the Implicit Association Test) held by female and male students of humanities and STEM majors and compared their performance in a 3DMRT after receiving stereotype- congruent, incongruent and nullifying experimental instructions. Our results show that implicit stereotypic gender-science associations correlate with 3DMRT performance in both females and males, but that inter-gender differences emerge only under stereotype-reactivating conditions. We also found that changes in self-confidence mediate these instructions’ effects and that academic specialization moderates them, hence promoting 3DMRT performance differences between male and female humanities, but not STEM, students. Taken together, these observations suggest that the common statement “males have superior mental rotation abilities” simplifies a much more complex reality and might promote stereotypes which, in turn, might induce artefactual performance differences between females and males in such tasks.

Integrative Bayesian analysis of brain functional networks incorporating anatomical knowledge

Recently, there has been increased interest in fusing multimodal imaging to better understand brain organization by integrating information on both brain structure and function. In particular, incorporating anatomical knowledge leads to desirable outcomes such as increased accuracy in brain network estimates and greater reproducibility of topological features across scanning sessions. Despite the clear advantages, major challenges persist in integrative analyses including an incomplete understanding of the structure-function relationship and inaccuracies in mapping anatomical structures due to inherent deficiencies in existing imaging technology. This calls for the development of advanced network modeling tools that appropriately incorporate anatomical structure in constructing brain functional networks. We propose a hierarchical Bayesian Gaussian graphical modeling approach which models the brain functional networks via sparse precision matrices whose degree of edge specific shrinkage is a random variable that is modeled using both anatomical structure and an independent baseline component. The proposed approach adaptively shrinks functional connections and flexibly identifies functional connections supported by structural connectivity knowledge. This enables robust brain network estimation even in the presence of misspecified anatomical knowledge, while accommodating heterogeneity in the structure-function relationship. We implement the approach via an efficient optimization algorithm which yields maximum a posteriori estimates. Extensive numerical studies involving multiple functional network structures reveal the clear advantages of the proposed approach over competing methods in accurately estimating brain functional connectivity, even when the anatomical knowledge is misspecified up to a certain degree. An application of the approach to data from the Philadelphia Neurodevelopmental Cohort (PNC) study reveals gender based connectivity differences across multiple age groups, and higher reproducibility in the estimation of network metrics compared to alternative methods.